Misplaced Pages

#991008

90-576: An authentic copy of Kalâm-e Saranjâm exists, written by Shâh Hayâsi Ahl-e Haqq in calligraphy . This text has 180 pages and contains chapters on Saâh Khoshin, Bâbâ Nâ’us, Sultan Shakar, the story of Pire wa Pirali, of Yâdegâr and Shâh Ebrâhimi, of the Haftawâna, The Twelve Imams , the Cheltan, the Qawaltâs, the recommendations of Soltân for the performance of the jem . The rest of the book contains poems. The text

180-435: A magnetic field , possibly to the point of behaving like a solid. The viscous forces that arise during fluid flow are distinct from the elastic forces that occur in a solid in response to shear, compression, or extension stresses. While in the latter the stress is proportional to the amount of shear deformation, in a fluid it is proportional to the rate of deformation over time. For this reason, James Clerk Maxwell used

270-401: A change in shape or to movement of its neighboring portions relative to one another. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of thickness ; for example, syrup has a higher viscosity than water . Viscosity is defined scientifically as a force multiplied by a time divided by an area. Thus its SI units are newton-seconds per square meter, or pascal-seconds. Viscosity quantifies

360-436: A constant viscosity ( non-Newtonian fluids ) cannot be described by a single number. Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit a variety of different correlations between shear stress and shear rate. One of the most common instruments for measuring kinematic viscosity is the glass capillary viscometer. In coating industries, viscosity may be measured with a cup in which the efflux time is measured. There are several sorts of cup—such as

450-576: A few inscriptions into the 8th century, though not in any South Arabian language since Dʿmt . Early inscriptions in Ge'ez and Ge'ez script are dated to as early as the 5th century BCE, with a sort of proto-Ge'ez written in ESA since the 9th century BCE. Ge'ez literature begins with the Christianization of Ethiopia (and the civilization of Axum) in the 4th century, during the reign of Ezana of Axum . The Ge'ez script

540-502: A fluid, just as thermal conductivity characterizes heat transport, and (mass) diffusivity characterizes mass transport. This perspective is implicit in Newton's law of viscosity, τ = μ ( ∂ u / ∂ y ) {\displaystyle \tau =\mu (\partial u/\partial y)} , because the shear stress τ {\displaystyle \tau } has units equivalent to

630-415: A momentum flux , i.e., momentum per unit time per unit area. Thus, τ {\displaystyle \tau } can be interpreted as specifying the flow of momentum in the y {\displaystyle y} direction from one fluid layer to the next. Per Newton's law of viscosity, this momentum flow occurs across a velocity gradient, and the magnitude of the corresponding momentum flux

720-489: A significant art form, and the form it takes may be affected by the meaning of the text or the individual words. In the Western world , the aim of calligraphy is normally regarded as only to achieve attractive writing that is usually consistent within each piece of writing, with little or no interpretation of the text attempted. Modern Western calligraphy ranges from functional inscriptions and designs to fine-art pieces where

810-416: A specific fluid state. To standardize comparisons among experiments and theoretical models, viscosity data is sometimes extrapolated to ideal limiting cases, such as the zero shear limit, or (for gases) the zero density limit. Transport theory provides an alternative interpretation of viscosity in terms of momentum transport: viscosity is the material property which characterizes momentum transport within

900-552: A stub nib pen. Common calligraphy pens and brushes include: The ink used for writing is usually water-based and is much less viscous than the oil-based ink used in printing. Certain specialty paper with high ink absorption and constant texture enables cleaner lines, although parchment or vellum is often used, as a knife can be used to erase imperfections and a light-box is not needed to allow lines to be visible through it. Normally, light boxes and templates are used to achieve straight lines without pencil markings detracting from

990-526: A total of some 1,000 distinct characters. Ethiopian (Abyssinian) calligraphy began with the Ge'ez script , which replaced Epigraphic South Arabian in the Kingdom of Aksum , which was developed specifically for Ethiopian Semitic languages . In those languages that use it, such as Amharic and Tigrinya , the script is called Fidäl , which means script or alphabet. The Epigraphic South Arabian letters were used for

SECTION 10

#1732852277992

1080-506: Is shodō ( 書道 , literally "the way or principle of writing"); and Korean calligraphy is called seoye ( Korean :  서예 ; Hanja :  書藝 ; literally "the art of writing"); The calligraphy of East Asian characters continues to form an important and appreciated constituent of contemporary traditional East Asian culture. In ancient China , the oldest known Chinese characters are oracle bone script ( 甲骨文 ), carved on ox scapulae and tortoise plastrons , as

1170-649: Is 1 cP divided by 1000 kg/m^3, close to the density of water. The kinematic viscosity of water at 20 °C is about 1 cSt. The most frequently used systems of US customary, or Imperial , units are the British Gravitational (BG) and English Engineering (EE). In the BG system, dynamic viscosity has units of pound -seconds per square foot (lb·s/ft ), and in the EE system it has units of pound-force -seconds per square foot (lbf·s/ft ). The pound and pound-force are equivalent;

1260-457: Is a linear combination of the shear and bulk viscosities that describes the reaction of a solid elastic material to elongation. It is widely used for characterizing polymers. In geology , earth materials that exhibit viscous deformation at least three orders of magnitude greater than their elastic deformation are sometimes called rheids . Viscosity is measured with various types of viscometers and rheometers . Close temperature control of

1350-455: Is a visual art related to writing . It is the design and execution of lettering with a pen , ink brush , or other writing instrument. Contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined as "the art of giving form to signs in an expressive, harmonious, and skillful manner". In East Asia and the Islamic world , where more flexibility is allowed in written forms, calligraphy is regarded as

1440-462: Is a calculation derived from tests performed on drilling fluid used in oil or gas well development. These calculations and tests help engineers develop and maintain the properties of the drilling fluid to the specifications required. Nanoviscosity (viscosity sensed by nanoprobes) can be measured by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy . The SI unit of dynamic viscosity is the newton -second per square meter (N·s/m ), also frequently expressed in

1530-550: Is a viscosity tensor that maps the velocity gradient tensor ∂ v k / ∂ r ℓ {\displaystyle \partial v_{k}/\partial r_{\ell }} onto the viscous stress tensor τ i j {\displaystyle \tau _{ij}} . Since the indices in this expression can vary from 1 to 3, there are 81 "viscosity coefficients" μ i j k l {\displaystyle \mu _{ijkl}} in total. However, assuming that

1620-580: Is also used for props , moving images for film and television, testimonials , birth and death certificates , maps, and other written works. The principal tools for a calligrapher are the pen and the brush . The pens used in calligraphy can have nibs that may be flat, round, or pointed. For decorative purposes, multi-nibbed pens (steel brushes) can be used. However, works have also been created with felt-tip and ballpoint pens , although these works do not employ angled lines. There are certain styles of calligraphy, such as Gothic script , that require

1710-532: Is called the rate of shear deformation or shear velocity , and is the derivative of the fluid speed in the direction parallel to the normal vector of the plates (see illustrations to the right). If the velocity does not vary linearly with y {\displaystyle y} , then the appropriate generalization is: where τ = F / A {\displaystyle \tau =F/A} , and ∂ u / ∂ y {\displaystyle \partial u/\partial y}

1800-659: Is central to Tibetan culture. The script is derived from Indic scripts . The nobles of Tibet, such as the High Lamas and inhabitants of the Potala Palace , were often capable calligraphers. Tibet has been a center of Buddhism for several centuries, with said religion placing a high significance on the written word. This does not provide for a large body of secular pieces, although they do exist (but are usually related in some way to Tibetan Buddhism). Almost all high religious writing involved calligraphy, including letters sent by

1890-453: Is derived from the Latin viscum (" mistletoe "). Viscum also referred to a viscous glue derived from mistletoe berries. In materials science and engineering , there is often interest in understanding the forces or stresses involved in the deformation of a material. For instance, if the material were a simple spring, the answer would be given by Hooke's law , which says that

SECTION 20

#1732852277992

1980-448: Is determined by the viscosity. The analogy with heat and mass transfer can be made explicit. Just as heat flows from high temperature to low temperature and mass flows from high density to low density, momentum flows from high velocity to low velocity. These behaviors are all described by compact expressions, called constitutive relations , whose one-dimensional forms are given here: where ρ {\displaystyle \rho }

2070-534: Is equal to the SI millipascal second (mPa·s). The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is square meter per second (m /s), whereas the CGS unit for kinematic viscosity is the stokes (St, or cm ·s = 0.0001 m ·s ), named after Sir George Gabriel Stokes . In U.S. usage, stoke is sometimes used as the singular form. The submultiple centistokes (cSt) is often used instead, 1 cSt = 1 mm ·s  = 10  m ·s . 1 cSt

2160-408: Is even more regularized. Its spread was encouraged by Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang (926–933), who ordered the printing of the classics using new wooden blocks in kaishu . Printing technologies here allowed a shape stabilization. The kaishu shape of characters 1000 years ago was mostly similar to that at the end of Imperial China; However, small changes to the characters have been made. For example

2250-576: Is in terms of the standard (scalar) viscosity μ {\displaystyle \mu } and the bulk viscosity κ {\displaystyle \kappa } such that α = κ − 2 3 μ {\displaystyle \alpha =\kappa -{\tfrac {2}{3}}\mu } and β = γ = μ {\displaystyle \beta =\gamma =\mu } . In vector notation this appears as: where δ {\displaystyle \mathbf {\delta } }

2340-658: Is not a fundamental law of nature, but rather a constitutive equation (like Hooke's law , Fick's law , and Ohm's law ) which serves to define the viscosity μ {\displaystyle \mu } . Its form is motivated by experiments which show that for a wide range of fluids, μ {\displaystyle \mu } is independent of strain rate. Such fluids are called Newtonian . Gases , water , and many common liquids can be considered Newtonian in ordinary conditions and contexts. However, there are many non-Newtonian fluids that significantly deviate from this behavior. For example: Trouton 's ratio

2430-564: Is one of the most famous and typical bronzeware scripts in Chinese calligraphic history. It has 500 characters inscribed onto the bronze which is the largest number of bronze inscription we have discovered so far. Moreover, each archaic kingdom of current China had its own set of characters. In Imperial China , the graphs on old steles — some dating from 200 BCE, and in the small seal script ( 小篆 xiǎo zhuàn ) style — have been preserved and can be viewed in museums even today. About 220 BCE,

2520-643: Is primarily created using the Ranjana script . The script itself, along with its derivatives (like Lantsa , Phagpa , Kutila ) are used in Nepal , Tibet , Bhutan , Leh , Mongolia , coastal Japan, and Korea to write " Om mani padme hum " and other sacred Buddhist texts , mainly those derived from Sanskrit and Pali . Egyptian hieroglyphs were the formal writing system used in Ancient Egypt . Hieroglyphs combined logographic , syllabic and alphabetic elements, with

2610-802: Is read from left to right and has been adapted to write other languages, usually ones that are also Semitic. The most widespread use is for Amharic in Ethiopia and Tigrinya in Eritrea and Ethiopia. Maya calligraphy was expressed via Maya glyphs ; modern Maya calligraphy is mainly used on seals and monuments in the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico. Maya glyphs are rarely used in government offices; however, in Campeche , Yucatán and Quintana Roo , calligraphy in Maya languages

2700-564: Is recognizable in the use of the Latin script in Western Europe , and in the use of the Greek , Armenian , and Georgian , and Cyrillic scripts in Eastern Europe . The Latin alphabet appeared about 600 BCE in ancient Rome , and by the first century CE it had developed into Roman imperial capitals carved on stones, rustic capitals painted on walls, and Roman cursive for daily use. In

2790-534: Is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, often simply referred to as the viscosity . It is denoted by the Greek letter mu ( μ ). The dynamic viscosity has the dimensions ( m a s s / l e n g t h ) / t i m e {\displaystyle \mathrm {(mass/length)/time} } , therefore resulting in the SI units and the derived units : The aforementioned ratio u / y {\displaystyle u/y}

Kalâm-e Saranjâm - Misplaced Pages Continue

2880-408: Is the density, J {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} } and q {\displaystyle \mathbf {q} } are the mass and heat fluxes, and D {\displaystyle D} and k t {\displaystyle k_{t}} are the mass diffusivity and thermal conductivity. The fact that mass, momentum, and energy (heat) transport are among

2970-425: Is the local shear velocity. This expression is referred to as Newton's law of viscosity . In shearing flows with planar symmetry, it is what defines μ {\displaystyle \mu } . It is a special case of the general definition of viscosity (see below), which can be expressed in coordinate-free form. Use of the Greek letter mu ( μ {\displaystyle \mu } ) for

3060-606: Is the ratio of extensional viscosity to shear viscosity . For a Newtonian fluid, the Trouton ratio is 3. Shear-thinning liquids are very commonly, but misleadingly, described as thixotropic. Viscosity may also depend on the fluid's physical state (temperature and pressure) and other, external , factors. For gases and other compressible fluids , it depends on temperature and varies very slowly with pressure. The viscosity of some fluids may depend on other factors. A magnetorheological fluid , for example, becomes thicker when subjected to

3150-554: Is the unit tensor. This equation can be thought of as a generalized form of Newton's law of viscosity. The bulk viscosity (also called volume viscosity) expresses a type of internal friction that resists the shearless compression or expansion of a fluid. Knowledge of κ {\displaystyle \kappa } is frequently not necessary in fluid dynamics problems. For example, an incompressible fluid satisfies ∇ ⋅ v = 0 {\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {v} =0} and so

3240-598: Is written in Latin script rather than Maya glyphs. Some commercial companies in southern Mexico use Maya glyphs as symbols of their business. Some community associations and modern Maya brotherhoods use Maya glyphs as symbols of their groups. Most of the archaeological sites in Mexico such as Chichen Itza , Labna, Uxmal , Edzna , Calakmul , etc. have glyphs in their structures. Carved stone monuments known as stele are common sources of ancient Maya calligraphy. Calligraphy in Europe

3330-545: The Dalai Lama and other religious and secular authorities. Calligraphy is particularly evident on their prayer wheels , although this calligraphy was forged rather than scribed, much like Arab and Roman calligraphy is often found on buildings. Although originally done with a reed, Tibetan calligraphers now use chisel tipped pens and markers as well. The Philippines has numerous ancient and indigenous scripts collectively called as Suyat scripts . Various ethno-linguistic groups in

3420-872: The Kulitan script of the Kapampangan people , the badlit script of various Visayan ethnic groups , the Iniskaya script of the Eskaya people , the Baybayin script of the Tagalog people , and the Kur-itan script of the Ilocano people , among many others. Due to the diversity of suyat scripts, all calligraphy written in suyat scripts are collectively called as Filipino suyat calligraphy, although each are distinct from each other. Calligraphy using

3510-726: The Song dynasty 's printing press , and sans-serif . These are not considered traditional styles, and are normally not written. Japanese and Korean calligraphy were each greatly influenced by Chinese calligraphy. Calligraphy has influenced most major art styles in East Asia, including ink and wash painting , a style of Chinese , Japanese , and Korean painting based entirely on calligraphy and which uses similar tools and techniques. The Japanese and Koreans have also developed their own specific sensibilities and styles of calligraphy while incorporating Chinese influences. Japanese calligraphy goes out of

3600-750: The Tagbanwa people , and Palaw'an/Pala'wan of the Palaw'an people . All four scripts were inscribed in the UNESCO Memory of the World Programme , under the name Philippine Paleographs (Hanunoo, Build, Tagbanua and Pala’wan) , in 1999. Due to dissent from colonialism, many artists and cultural experts have revived the usage of suyat scripts that went extinct due their replacement by the Spanish-introduced Latin alphabet. These scripts being revived include

3690-577: The Zahn cup and the Ford viscosity cup —with the usage of each type varying mainly according to the industry. Also used in coatings, a Stormer viscometer employs load-based rotation to determine viscosity. The viscosity is reported in Krebs units (KU), which are unique to Stormer viscometers. Vibrating viscometers can also be used to measure viscosity. Resonant, or vibrational viscometers work by creating shear waves within

Kalâm-e Saranjâm - Misplaced Pages Continue

3780-425: The density of the fluid ( ρ ). It is usually denoted by the Greek letter nu ( ν ): and has the dimensions ( l e n g t h ) 2 / t i m e {\displaystyle \mathrm {(length)^{2}/time} } , therefore resulting in the SI units and the derived units : In very general terms, the viscous stresses in a fluid are defined as those resulting from

3870-431: The shear viscosity . However, at least one author discourages the use of this terminology, noting that μ {\displaystyle \mu } can appear in non-shearing flows in addition to shearing flows. In fluid dynamics, it is sometimes more appropriate to work in terms of kinematic viscosity (sometimes also called the momentum diffusivity ), defined as the ratio of the dynamic viscosity ( μ ) over

3960-713: The simplified Chinese character set. Traditional East Asian writing uses the Four Treasures of the Study — ink brushes known as máobǐ ( 毛筆 / 毛笔 ), Chinese ink , paper, and inkstones — to write Chinese characters . These instruments of writing are also known as the Four Friends of the Study ( Korean : 문방사우/文房四友 , romanized :  Munbang sau ) in Korea. Besides the traditional four tools, desk pads and paperweights are also used. Many different parameters influence

4050-491: The BG and EE systems. Nonstandard units include the reyn (lbf·s/in ), a British unit of dynamic viscosity. In the automotive industry the viscosity index is used to describe the change of viscosity with temperature. The reciprocal of viscosity is fluidity , usually symbolized by ϕ = 1 / μ {\displaystyle \phi =1/\mu } or F = 1 / μ {\displaystyle F=1/\mu } , depending on

4140-594: The Caroline evolved into the blackletter ("Gothic") script, which was more compact and made it possible to fit more text on a page. The Gothic calligraphy styles became dominant throughout Europe and, in 1454, when Johannes Gutenberg developed the first printing press in Mainz, Germany, the Gothic style was adopted for its use, making it the first typeface . In the 15th century, the rediscovery of old Carolingian texts encouraged

4230-463: The Couette flow, a fluid is trapped between two infinitely large plates, one fixed and one in parallel motion at constant speed u {\displaystyle u} (see illustration to the right). If the speed of the top plate is low enough (to avoid turbulence), then in steady state the fluid particles move parallel to it, and their speed varies from 0 {\displaystyle 0} at

4320-671: The Financier thereupon restricted all legal documents to three hands, namely the Coulee, the Rhonde, (known as Round hand in English) and a Speed Hand sometimes called the Bastarda . While there were many great French masters at the time, the most influential in proposing these hands was Louis Barbedor, who published Les Ecritures Financière Et Italienne Bastarde Dans Leur Naturel c.  1650 . With

4410-594: The Philippines prior to Spanish colonization in the 16th century up to the independence era in the 21st century have used the scripts with various mediums. By the end of colonialism, only four of the suyat scripts had survived and continued to be used by certain communities in everyday life. These four scripts are Hanunó'o/Hanunoo of the Hanuno'o Mangyan people, Buhid/Build of the Buhid Mangyan people, Tagbanwa script of

4500-523: The Western alphabet and the Arabic alphabet are also prevalent in the Philippines due to its colonial past, but the Western alphabet and the Arabic alphabet are not considered as suyat, and therefore Western-alphabet and Arabic calligraphy are not considered as suyat calligraphy. Vietnamese calligraphy is called thư pháp ( 書法 , literally "the way of letters or words") and is based on Chữ Nôm and Chữ Hán ,

4590-475: The aforementioned. Other European styles use the same tools and practices, but differ by character set and stylistic preferences. For Slavonic lettering, the history of the Slavonic and consequently Russian writing systems differs fundamentally from the one of the Latin language , having evolved from the 10th century to today. Viscosity Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's dynamic resistance to

SECTION 50

#1732852277992

4680-425: The bottom to u {\displaystyle u} at the top. Each layer of fluid moves faster than the one just below it, and friction between them gives rise to a force resisting their relative motion. In particular, the fluid applies on the top plate a force in the direction opposite to its motion, and an equal but opposite force on the bottom plate. An external force is therefore required in order to keep

4770-562: The brush absorb and by the pressure, inclination, and direction of the brush. Changing these variables produces thinner or bolder strokes, and smooth or toothed borders. Eventually, the speed, accelerations and decelerations of a skilled calligrapher's movements aim to give "spirit" to the characters, greatly influencing their final shapes. Cursive styles such as xíngshū ( 行書 / 行书 )(semi-cursive or running script) and cǎoshū ( 草書 / 草书 )(cursive, rough script, or grass script) are less constrained and faster, where movements made by

4860-597: The convention used, measured in reciprocal poise (P , or cm · s · g ), sometimes called the rhe . Fluidity is seldom used in engineering practice. At one time the petroleum industry relied on measuring kinematic viscosity by means of the Saybolt viscometer , and expressing kinematic viscosity in units of Saybolt universal seconds (SUS). Other abbreviations such as SSU ( Saybolt seconds universal ) or SUV ( Saybolt universal viscosity ) are sometimes used. Kinematic viscosity in centistokes can be converted from SUS according to

4950-519: The creation of the humanist minuscule or littera antiqua . The 17th century saw the Batarde script from France, and the 18th century saw the English script spread across Europe and world through their books. In the mid-1600s French officials, flooded with documents written in various hands and varied levels of skill, complained that many such documents were beyond their ability to decipher. The Office of

5040-778: The destruction of the Camera Apostolica during the sack of Rome (1527) , the capitol for writing masters moved to Southern France. By 1600, the Italic Cursiva began to be replaced by a technological refinement, the Italic Chancery Circumflessa, which in turn fathered the Rhonde and later English Roundhand . In England, Ayres and Banson popularized the Round Hand while Snell is noted for his reaction to them, and warnings of restraint and proportionality. Still Edward Crocker began publishing his copybooks 40 years before

5130-461: The dynamic viscosity (sometimes also called the absolute viscosity ) is common among mechanical and chemical engineers , as well as mathematicians and physicists. However, the Greek letter eta ( η {\displaystyle \eta } ) is also used by chemists, physicists, and the IUPAC . The viscosity μ {\displaystyle \mu } is sometimes also called

5220-491: The emperor Qin Shi Huang , the first to conquer the entire Chinese basin, imposed several reforms, among them Li Si 's character unification, which created a set of 3300 standardized small seal characters. Despite the fact that the main writing implement of the time was already the brush, few papers survive from this period, and the main examples of this style are on steles. The clerical script ( 隸書 / 隸书 ) ( lì shū ) which

5310-484: The empire fell, its literary influence remained. The Semi-uncial generated the Irish Semi-uncial, the small Anglo-Saxon. Each region developed its own standards following the main monastery of the region (i.e. Merovingian script , Laon script , Luxeuil script , Visigothic script , Beneventan script ), which are mostly cursive and hardly readable . Christian churches promoted the development of writing through

5400-453: The equivalent forms pascal - second (Pa·s), kilogram per meter per second (kg·m ·s ) and poiseuille (Pl). The CGS unit is the poise (P, or g·cm ·s = 0.1 Pa·s), named after Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille . It is commonly expressed, particularly in ASTM standards, as centipoise (cP). The centipoise is convenient because the viscosity of water at 20 °C is about 1 cP, and one centipoise

5490-414: The final result of a calligrapher's work. Physical parameters include the shape, size, stretch, and hair type of the ink brush; the color, color density and water density of the ink; as well as the paper's water absorption speed and surface texture. The calligrapher's technique also influences the result, as the look of finished characters are influenced by the quantity of ink and water the calligrapher lets

SECTION 60

#1732852277992

5580-409: The fluid do not depend on the distance the fluid has been sheared; rather, they depend on how quickly the shearing occurs. Viscosity is the material property which relates the viscous stresses in a material to the rate of change of a deformation (the strain rate). Although it applies to general flows, it is easy to visualize and define in a simple shearing flow, such as a planar Couette flow . In

5670-459: The fluid is essential to obtain accurate measurements, particularly in materials like lubricants, whose viscosity can double with a change of only 5 °C. A rheometer is used for fluids that cannot be defined by a single value of viscosity and therefore require more parameters to be set and measured than is the case for a viscometer. For some fluids, the viscosity is constant over a wide range of shear rates ( Newtonian fluids ). The fluids without

5760-426: The force experienced by a spring is proportional to the distance displaced from equilibrium. Stresses which can be attributed to the deformation of a material from some rest state are called elastic stresses. In other materials, stresses are present which can be attributed to the deformation rate over time . These are called viscous stresses. For instance, in a fluid such as water the stresses which arise from shearing

5850-405: The friction between the layers of the fluid which are in relative motion. For a tube with a constant rate of flow, the strength of the compensating force is proportional to the fluid's viscosity. In general, viscosity depends on a fluid's state, such as its temperature, pressure, and rate of deformation. However, the dependence on some of these properties is negligible in certain cases. For example,

5940-743: The historical Vietnamese writing system rooted in the impact of Chinese characters and replaced with the Latin alphabet as a result of French colonial influence . However, the calligraphic traditions maintaining the historical employment of Han characters continue to be preserved in modern Vietnamese calligraphy. Religious texts preservation is the most common purpose for Indian calligraphy. Monastic Buddhist communities had members trained in calligraphy and shared responsibility for duplicating sacred scriptures. Jaina traders incorporated illustrated manuscripts celebrating Jaina saints. These manuscripts were produced using inexpensive material, like palm leave and birch, with fine calligraphy. Nepalese calligraphy

6030-409: The internal frictional force between adjacent layers of fluid that are in relative motion. For instance, when a viscous fluid is forced through a tube, it flows more quickly near the tube's center line than near its walls. Experiments show that some stress (such as a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube) is needed to sustain the flow. This is because a force is required to overcome

6120-481: The letters may or may not be readable. Classical calligraphy differs from type design and non-classical hand-lettering, though a calligrapher may practice both. Western calligraphy continues to flourish in the forms of wedding invitations and event invitations, font design and typography , original hand-lettered logo design, religious art , announcements, graphic design and commissioned calligraphic art, cut stone inscriptions , and memorial documents. It

6210-529: The liquid. In this method, the sensor is submerged in the fluid and is made to resonate at a specific frequency. As the surface of the sensor shears through the liquid, energy is lost due to its viscosity. This dissipated energy is then measured and converted into a viscosity reading. A higher viscosity causes a greater loss of energy. Extensional viscosity can be measured with various rheometers that apply extensional stress . Volume viscosity can be measured with an acoustic rheometer . Apparent viscosity

6300-435: The most relevant processes in continuum mechanics is not a coincidence: these are among the few physical quantities that are conserved at the microscopic level in interparticle collisions. Thus, rather than being dictated by the fast and complex microscopic interaction timescale, their dynamics occurs on macroscopic timescales, as described by the various equations of transport theory and hydrodynamics. Newton's law of viscosity

6390-647: The prolific copying of the Bible, the Breviary , and other sacred texts. Two distinct styles of writing known as uncial and half-uncial (from the Latin uncia , or "inch") developed from a variety of Roman bookhands . The 7th–9th centuries in northern Europe were the heyday of Celtic illuminated manuscripts, such as the Book of Durrow, Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book of Kells . Charlemagne 's devotion to improved scholarship resulted in

6480-517: The recruiting of "a crowd of scribes", according to Alcuin , the Abbot of York . Alcuin developed the style known as the Caroline or Carolingian minuscule . The first manuscript in this hand was the Godescalc Evangelistary (finished 783) — a Gospel book written by the scribe Godescalc. Carolingian remains the one progenitor hand from which modern booktype descends. In the eleventh century,

6570-515: The relative velocity of different fluid particles. As such, the viscous stresses must depend on spatial gradients of the flow velocity. If the velocity gradients are small, then to a first approximation the viscous stresses depend only on the first derivatives of the velocity. (For Newtonian fluids, this is also a linear dependence.) In Cartesian coordinates, the general relationship can then be written as where μ i j k ℓ {\displaystyle \mu _{ijk\ell }}

6660-521: The rulers in the Shang dynasty carved pits on such animals' bones and then baked them to gain auspice of military affairs, agricultural harvest, or even procreation and weather. During the divination ceremony, after the cracks were made , the characters were written with a brush on the shell or bone to be later carved. With the development of the bronzeware script ( jīn wén ) and large seal script ( dà zhuàn ) "cursive" signs continued . Mao Gong Ding

6750-612: The second and third centuries the uncial lettering style developed. As writing withdrew to monasteries, uncial script was found more suitable for copying the Bible and other religious texts. It was the monasteries which preserved calligraphic traditions during the fourth and fifth centuries, when the Roman Empire fell and Europe entered the early Middle Ages . At the height of the Roman Empire , its power reached as far as Great Britain; when

6840-483: The set of CJK strokes to also include local alphabets such as hiragana and katakana , with specific problematics such as new curves and moves, and specific materials ( Japanese paper , washi 和紙 , and Japanese ink). The modern Korean alphabet and its use of the circle required the creation of a new technique not used in traditional Chinese calligraphy. Mongolian calligraphy is also influenced by Chinese calligraphy, from tools to style. Tibetan calligraphy

6930-654: The shape of 广 has changed from the version in the Kangxi Dictionary of 1716 to the version found in modern books. The Kangxi and current shapes have tiny differences, while stroke order remains the same, according to the old style. Styles which did not survive include bāfēnshū , a mix of 80% small seal script and 20% clerical script . Some variant Chinese characters were unorthodox or locally used for centuries. They were generally understood but always rejected in official texts. Some of these unorthodox variants, in addition to some newly created characters, compose

7020-555: The term fugitive elasticity for fluid viscosity. However, many liquids (including water) will briefly react like elastic solids when subjected to sudden stress. Conversely, many "solids" (even granite ) will flow like liquids, albeit very slowly, even under arbitrarily small stress. Such materials are best described as viscoelastic —that is, possessing both elasticity (reaction to deformation) and viscosity (reaction to rate of deformation). Viscoelastic solids may exhibit both shear viscosity and bulk viscosity. The extensional viscosity

7110-715: The term containing κ {\displaystyle \kappa } drops out. Moreover, κ {\displaystyle \kappa } is often assumed to be negligible for gases since it is 0 {\displaystyle 0} in a monatomic ideal gas . One situation in which κ {\displaystyle \kappa } can be important is the calculation of energy loss in sound and shock waves , described by Stokes' law of sound attenuation , since these phenomena involve rapid expansions and compressions. The defining equations for viscosity are not fundamental laws of nature, so their usefulness, as well as methods for measuring or calculating

7200-674: The time of straitened circumstances (tangi) and the removal of calamity, It is advisable to offer sacrifice, The first time Jebra'il brought a ram from the invisible world, And instead of Ismail sacrificed it, The tenth of the month of Zolhejah is the Feast of Sacrifice, It is known to the whole world and the King... This article related to a book about religion is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Calligraphy Calligraphy (from Ancient Greek καλλιγραφία ( kalligraphía )  'beautiful writing')

7290-583: The top plate moving at constant speed. In many fluids, the flow velocity is observed to vary linearly from zero at the bottom to u {\displaystyle u} at the top. Moreover, the magnitude of the force, F {\displaystyle F} , acting on the top plate is found to be proportional to the speed u {\displaystyle u} and the area A {\displaystyle A} of each plate, and inversely proportional to their separation y {\displaystyle y} : The proportionality factor

7380-507: The two systems differ only in how force and mass are defined. In the BG system the pound is a basic unit from which the unit of mass (the slug ) is defined by Newton's Second Law , whereas in the EE system the units of force and mass (the pound-force and pound-mass respectively) are defined independently through the Second Law using the proportionality constant g c . Kinematic viscosity has units of square feet per second (ft /s) in both

7470-403: The viscosity depends only space- and time-dependent macroscopic fields (such as temperature and density) defining local equilibrium. Nevertheless, viscosity may still carry a non-negligible dependence on several system properties, such as temperature, pressure, and the amplitude and frequency of any external forcing. Therefore, precision measurements of viscosity are only defined with respect to

7560-609: The viscosity of a Newtonian fluid does not vary significantly with the rate of deformation. Zero viscosity (no resistance to shear stress ) is observed only at very low temperatures in superfluids ; otherwise, the second law of thermodynamics requires all fluids to have positive viscosity. A fluid that has zero viscosity (non-viscous) is called ideal or inviscid . For non-Newtonian fluid 's viscosity, there are pseudoplastic , plastic , and dilatant flows that are time-independent, and there are thixotropic and rheopectic flows that are time-dependent. The word "viscosity"

7650-571: The viscosity rank-2 tensor is isotropic reduces these 81 coefficients to three independent parameters α {\displaystyle \alpha } , β {\displaystyle \beta } , γ {\displaystyle \gamma } : and furthermore, it is assumed that no viscous forces may arise when the fluid is undergoing simple rigid-body rotation, thus β = γ {\displaystyle \beta =\gamma } , leaving only two independent parameters. The most usual decomposition

7740-500: The viscosity, must be established using separate means. A potential issue is that viscosity depends, in principle, on the full microscopic state of the fluid, which encompasses the positions and momenta of every particle in the system. Such highly detailed information is typically not available in realistic systems. However, under certain conditions most of this information can be shown to be negligible. In particular, for Newtonian fluids near equilibrium and far from boundaries (bulk state),

7830-455: The work. Ruled paper, either for a light box or direct use, is most often ruled every quarter or half an inch, although inch spaces are occasionally used. This is the case with litterea unciales (hence the name) , and college- ruled paper often acts as a guideline well. Chinese calligraphy is locally called shūfǎ or fǎshū ( 書法 or 法書 in traditional Chinese, literally "the method or law of writing"); Japanese calligraphy

7920-477: The writing implement are more visible. These styles' stroke orders vary more, sometimes creating radically different forms. They are descended from the clerical script, in the same time as the regular script ( Han dynasty ), but xíngshū and cǎoshū were used for personal notes only, and never used as a standard. The cǎoshū style was highly appreciated during Emperor Wu of Han 's reign (140–187 CE). Examples of modern printed styles are Song from

8010-587: Was more regularized, and in some ways similar to modern text, was also authorised under Qin Shi Huang. Between clerical script and traditional regular script, there is another transitional type of calligraphic work called Wei Bei . It started during the North and South dynasties (420 to 589 CE) and ended before the Tang dynasty (618–907). The traditional regular script ( kǎi shū ), still in use today, and largely finalized by Zhong You ( 鐘繇 , 151–230) and his followers,

8100-551: Was translated to Russian by Vladimir Minorsky but is not available. The following is an extract from a hymn from Saranjâm: Oh Friends offer sacrifice, I shall tell you the rules and recitations of sacrifice, We prepare and conclude the Soltani Fest, Because it is the recommendation of the King of the great men in the Eternal Day, The troops of Shah Khoshin will rejoice, For the love of Davud as well as Benyamin, At

#991008