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92-496: The manuscript, a product of the Carolingian Renaissance , is the earliest example of a Carolingian illumination style . This style was characterized by naturalist motifs in the decoration, and a fusion of Insular Anglo-Saxon / Irish , early Christian (late Classical) and Byzantine styles. The ornamental motifs on the opening page of each Gospel rely heavily on the interlaces of Hiberno-Saxon origin. The portraits of

184-627: A "May Crowning". This rite may be done on solemnities and feasts of the Blessed Virgin Mary, or other festive days, and offers the Church a chance to reflect on Mary’s role in the history of salvation. The Virgin has been called "Queen of France" since 1638 when, partly in thanksgiving for a victory over the Huguenots and also in hope of the birth of an heir after years of childless marriage, Louis XIII officially gave her that title. Siena, Tuscany, hails

276-628: A famous one of which was composed in 1773 by Joseph Haydn. The Regina Caeli ("Queen of Heaven") is an anthem of the Catholic Church which replaces the Angelus during Eastertide , the fifty days from Easter Sunday to Pentecost Sunday. It is named for its opening words in Latin . Of unknown authorship, the anthem has been traced back to the twelfth century. It was in Franciscan use, after Compline , in

368-454: A few years later, at the Council of Tours , to instruct priests to read sermons aloud in the old way, in rusticam romanam linguam or 'plain roman[ce] speech' (while the liturgy retained the new pronunciation to this day). As there was now no unambiguous way to indicate whether a given text was to be read aloud as Latin or Romance, and native Germanic speakers (such as church singers) numerous in

460-453: A formal definition status. The Catholic teaching on this subject is expressed in the papal encyclical Ad Caeli Reginam , issued by Pope Pius XII in 1954. It states that Mary is called Queen of Heaven because her son, Jesus Christ , is the king of Israel and the heavenly king of the universe. The Davidic tradition of Israel recognized the mother of the king as the queen mother of Israel . Queen of Heaven ( Latin : Regina Caeli )

552-679: A major demand for slaves in the Muslim world , with European slaves particularly prized. As a result of Charlemagne's wars of conquest in Eastern Europe , a steady supply of captured Slavs , Avars , Saxons , and Danes reached merchants in Western Europe, who then exported the slaves via Ampurias , Girona , and the Pyrenees passes to Muslim Spain and other parts of the Arab world. The market for slaves

644-531: A more legible, classicizing script, with clearly distinct capital and minuscule letters. It was the Carolingian minuscule that Renaissance humanists took to be Roman and employed as humanist minuscule , from which has developed early modern Italic script . They also applied rational ideas to social issues for the first time in centuries, providing a common language and writing style that enabled communication throughout most of Europe. As Pierre Riché points out,

736-728: A period of cultural activity in the Carolingian Empire . Charlemagne 's reign led to an intellectual revival beginning in the 8th century and continuing throughout the 9th century, taking inspiration from ancient Roman and Greek culture and the Christian Roman Empire of the fourth century. During this period, there was an increase of literature , writing , visual arts , architecture , music , jurisprudence , liturgical reforms, and scriptural studies. Carolingian schools were effective centers of education, and they served generations of scholars by producing editions and copies of

828-549: A procession in Rome. In 1969, Pope Paul VI moved the feast day to August 22, the former Octave day of the Assumption in order to emphasize the close bond between Mary's queenship and her glorification in body and soul next to her Son. The Second Vatican Council's Constitution on the Church states that "Mary was taken up body and soul into heavenly glory, and exalted by the Lord as Queen of

920-581: A queen dates to the 6th century and is found in the modest church of Santa Maria Antiqua built in the 5th century in the Forum Romanum . Here Mary is unequivocally depicted as an empress. As one of the earliest Roman Catholic Marian churches , this church was used by Pope John VII in the early 8th century as the see of the bishop of Rome . Also in the 8th century, the Second Council of Nicaea decreed that such pictures of Mary should be venerated. In

1012-630: A small group of court literati . According to John Contreni , "it had a spectacular effect on education and culture in Francia , a debatable effect on artistic endeavors, and an unmeasurable effect on what mattered most to the Carolingians, the moral regeneration of society". The secular and ecclesiastical leaders of the Carolingian Renaissance made efforts to write better Latin, to copy and preserve patristic and classical texts, and to develop

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1104-444: A surplus of primarily grain, wine and salt. In turn, inter-regional trade in these commodities facilitated the expansion of towns. Archaeological data shows the continuation of this upward trend in the early eighth century. The zenith of the early Carolingian economy was reached from 775 to 830, coinciding with the largest surpluses of the period, large-scale building of churches as well as overpopulation and three famines that showed

1196-821: A symbol of resistance. She is invoked in the Litany of Loreto as: The Second Vatican Council in 1964 referred to Mary as Queen of the Universe . Three of the four ancient Marian antiphons of the Liturgy of the Hours (the Salve Regina , the Ave Regina caelorum , the Alma Redemptoris Mater , and the Regina Caeli ), address Mary as queen. These are prayed at different times of

1288-418: A system based on a new .940-fine silver penny ( Latin : denarius ; French : denier ) weighing 1/240 of a pound ( librum , libra , or lira ; livre ). (The Carolingian pound seems to have been about 489.5  grams , making each penny about 2  grams .) As the debased solidus was then roughly equivalent to 11 of these pennies, the shilling ( solidus ; sol )

1380-675: A throne at his right, "Make your request, Mother, for I will not refuse you." William G. Most sees here a sort of type of Mary. In the New Testament, the title has several biblical sources. At the Annunciation , the archangel Gabriel announces that [Jesus] "... will be great, and will be called the Son of the Most High; and the Lord God will give to him the throne of his father David. He will rule over

1472-506: A throne facing the image of Jesus Christ is a display of imperial authority presiding over Church. St. John is presented with a stylus that he is dipping in ink and pages which he will write on. Christ merely holds a closed book to his breast. The suggestion is that in Christ's life, he adds little creative content and does his job of conveying the message written by the Evangelists. The origin of

1564-656: Is Queen by grace, by divine relationship, by right of conquest, and by singular choice [of the Father]. In his 1954 encyclical Ad Caeli Reginam "To the Queen of Heaven", Pius XII asserts that Mary deserves the title because she is the Theotokos "mother of God", because she is closely associated as the New Eve with Jesus' redemptive work, because of her preeminent perfection and because of her intercessory power. Ad caeli reginam states that

1656-667: Is a title given by Christians to Mary , mother of Jesus , mainly in the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodoxy , and, to a lesser extent, in Anglicanism and Lutheranism . The title has long been a tradition, included in prayers and devotional literature and seen in Western art in the subject of the Coronation of the Virgin from the High Middle Ages , long before the Church gave it

1748-492: Is a reflection of the idea of an “image of the incarnate God”. The idea of words being as important as their physical depiction is rooted in John 1:1 where Saint John describes Christ as the Word. Hence, the iconography of Gospel books elaborated on the relationship between their physical grandeur and spiritual content. The manuscript is a key component in the reform of handwriting as it

1840-562: Is an early Marian antiphon, praising Mary, the Queen of Heaven. It is traditionally said or sung after each of the canonical hours of the Liturgy of the Hours. The prayer was once used after Compline , the final canonical hour of prayer before going to sleep, from the Feast of the Presentation (February 2) through the Wednesday of Holy Week. It is now used in the Liturgy of the Hours on the feast of

1932-660: Is an “iconographic motif” indicating inspiration. This motif links the Godescalc figures to those of the Egino Codex, an example of the last remains of Lombard luxury art obtained in 774 with the conquering of the kingdom of the Lombards . The miniature of Christ in Majesty depicts a young Jesus Christ holding a book in his left arm and making the sign of a blessing with his right. The golden words etched behind Christ are strongly linked to

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2024-565: Is celebrated on 3 May . Queenship of Mary is a Marian feast day in the liturgical calendar of the Catholic Church , created by Pope Pius XII . On 11 October 1954, the pontiff pronounced the new feast in his encyclical Ad caeli reginam . The feast was celebrated on May 31, the last day of the Marian month. The initial ceremony for this feast involved the crowning of the Salus Populi Romani icon of Mary in Rome by Pius XII as part of

2116-598: Is illuminated in the same style as the Dagulf Psalter . Both manuscripts seem to belong in a group of works known as the “ Ada School ” or Court School of Charlemagne. The Godescalc Evangelistary outlines prayer services and contains selections from the Gospels designed to be read at Mass through the liturgical year. The content of the Godescalc Evangelistary is a reminder of Charlemagne's intention to renew culture of

2208-461: Is less and less sought after and is now becoming rare again in most men's minds. A lack of Latin literacy in eighth-century western Europe caused problems for the Carolingian rulers by severely limiting the number of people capable of serving as court scribes in societies where Latin was valued. Of even greater concern to some rulers was the fact that not all parish priests possessed the skill to read

2300-440: Is one of many queen titles used by Mary, mother of Jesus . The title derived in part from the ancient Catholic teaching that Mary, at the end of her earthly life, was bodily and spiritually assumed into heaven and that she is there honored as queen . Pius XII explained the theological reasons for her title of Queen in a radio message to Fatima of May 13, 1946, Bendito seja : He, the Son of God, reflects on His heavenly Mother

2392-459: Is the first to contain the new Carolingian minuscule script which became a fundamental theme in Carolingian book production thereafter. The Godescalc Evangelistary was an important part of Charlemagne's educational and ecclesiastical reforms . The manuscript was a preliminary attempt to standardize language in the Carolingian kingdom and this cultural achievement of replacing the Merovingian script

2484-655: Is totally relative to Christ’s kingship. He is the Lord whom after the humiliation of death on the Cross the Father exalted above any other creature in Heaven and on earth and under the earth (cf. Phil 2: 9-11). Through a design of grace, the Immaculate Mother was fully associated with the mystery of the Son: in his Incarnation; in his earthly life, at first hidden at Nazareth and then manifested in

2576-528: The Assumption of Mary . The Ave Regina caelorum dates back in a different musical intonation to the 12th century. Today's version is slightly different from a 12th-century intonation. The Ave Regina caelorum has four parts: Ave , Salve , Gaude and Vale (in English: hail, rejoice, farewell). It was used for processions in honour of the Queen of Heaven. The Ave Regina caelorum received numerous musical versions,

2668-686: The Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels where a public Rosary and Mass in honour of the Blessed Virgin Mary are offered. Subsequent years have seen the involvement and participation of numerous chivalric, fraternal, and religious orders, parishes, lay groups, political figures, as well as other religious and civic organizations. Early Christian art shows Mary in an elevated position. She carries her divine son in her hands, or holds him. The earliest known Roman depiction of Santa Maria Regina depicting Mary as

2760-588: The Early Middle Ages , thanks to which the disciplines of liberal arts were preserved. The 7th century saw the " Isidorian Renaissance " in the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania in which sciences flourished and the integration of Christian and pre-Christian thought occurred , while the spread of Irish monastic schools ( scriptoria ) over Europe laid the groundwork for the Carolingian Renaissance. There were numerous factors in this cultural expansion,

2852-527: The Evangelists and Christ are based on Byzantine models, such as the mosaics of San Vitale at Ravenna . The artist used natural illusionistic techniques to create the appearance of volume in the characters, and used elaborate shadings in light and dark to give characters depth. The Carolingian illumination style was the earliest style to regularly utilize Caroline minuscule script, the precursor to our modern lower case letters. The Godescalc Evangelistary

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2944-467: The Vulgate Bible . An additional problem was that the vulgar Latin of the later Western Roman Empire had begun to diverge into the regional dialects, the precursors to today's Romance languages , that were becoming mutually unintelligible and preventing scholars from one part of Europe being able to communicate with persons from another part of Europe. To address these problems, Charlemagne ordered

3036-643: The 13th century, the custom developed to greet the Queen of Heaven with the Salve Regina , which is considered the oldest of the four Marian antiphons. As a part of the Catholic Reformation , the Salve Regina was prayed every Saturday by members of the Sodality of Our Lady , a Jesuit Marian association. The Hail Holy Queen is also the final prayer of the Rosary. The Ave Regina caelorum ("Hail, Queen of Heaven")

3128-476: The Bold in 1463. A recent coronation was that of the picture of the Salus Populi Romani in 1954 by Pius XII . The veneration of Mary as queen continues into the 21st century, but artistic expressions do not have the leading role as in previous times. Artworks, including paintings, mosaics and carvings of the coronation of Mary as Queen of Heaven, became increasingly popular from the 13th century onward. Works follow

3220-562: The Carolingian renaissance was Theodulf of Orléans , a refugee from the Umayyad invasion of Spain who became involved in the cultural circle at the imperial court before Charlemagne appointed him bishop of Orléans. Theodulf’s greatest contribution to learning was his scholarly edition of the Vulgate Bible, drawing on manuscripts from Spain, Italy, and Gaul, and even the original Hebrew. The effects of this cultural revival were mostly limited to

3312-425: The Carolingian world. His Evangelistary was a richly decorated work worthy of matching the desires of the commissioning monarch. The Evangelistary offered not only a new alternative for illuminators and scribes of the Carolingian era, but a form of writing that would be adopted and stay in effect until today. Carolingian Renaissance The Carolingian Renaissance was the first of three medieval renaissances ,

3404-609: The Deacon was brought to court in 782 and remained until 787, when Charles nominated him abbot of Montecassino . Theodulf of Orléans was a Spanish Goth who served at court from 782 to 797 when nominated as bishop of Orléans . Theodulf had been in friendly competition over the standardization of the Vulgate with the chief among the Charlemagne's scholars, Alcuin of York . Alcuin was a Northumbrian monk and deacon who served as head of

3496-459: The Evangelist on the left and Christ in Majesty on the right). The two images present notable contrasts. Jesus sits on a cushioned bench whereas St. John is seated on a throne-like chair. The throne is traditionally regarded as a representation of the four Evangelists but it represents another layer of meaning in these images. The throne is also a representation of Charlemagne. Thus, St. John seated on

3588-681: The Evangelistary and is significantly located on the verso with Christ in a garden. The miniature contains a depiction of a shrine that is topped by a cross. The shrine's circular form with a conical roof is a reference to the Holy Sepulcher from the Crucifixion miniature in the Rabula Gospels . The shrine is a lively representation of the baptistery of the Lateran church in Rome. The heavenly image of

3680-592: The Fountain of Life and the gold script on the facing page show the perceptions of eternal life in the Carolingian kingdom. The manuscript was written in gold and silver ink on 127 pages of purple parchment . Godescalc described his book in a dedication poem at the end of the Evangelistary: The gold and silver letters Godescalc uses show that the image of the letters is as important as the message they display. Silver and gold are long-lasting metals and their longevity

3772-494: The Latin West in the 7th and 8th centuries. According to Roger Wright , the Carolingian Renaissance is responsible for the modern-day pronunciation of Ecclesiastical Latin . Up until that point there had been no conceptual distinction between Latin and Romance ; the former was simply regarded as the written form of the latter. For instance in early medieval Spain the word for 'century'—which would have been pronounced */sjeglo/—

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3864-721: The Palace School from 782 to 796, except for the years 790 to 793 when he returned to England . After 796, he continued his scholarly work as abbot of St. Martin's Monastery in Tours . Among those to follow Alcuin across the Channel to the Frankish court was Joseph Scottus , an Irishman who left some original biblical commentary and acrostic experiments. After this first generation of non-Frankish scholars, their Frankish pupils, such as Angilbert , would make their own mark. The later courts of Louis

3956-415: The Pious and Charles the Bald had similar groups of scholars many of whom were of Irish origin . The Irish monk Dicuil attended the former court, and the more famous Irishman John Scotus Eriugena attended the latter becoming head of the Palace School at Aachen . One of the primary efforts was the creation of a standardized curriculum for use at the recently created schools. Alcuin led this effort and

4048-404: The Queen of Heaven and never has that hope wavered which they placed in the Mother of the Divine King, Jesus Christ; nor has that faith ever failed by which we are taught that Mary, the Virgin Mother of God, reigns with a mother's solicitude over the entire world, just as she is crowned in heavenly blessedness with the glory of a Queen. In the first three centuries of Christianity, Mary's queenship

4140-433: The Virgin as Queen of Siena, and annually observes the race and pageant called the "palio" in her honor. Mary was declared "Queen of Poland" by king John II Casimir during the Lwów Oath in the 17th century. Since then she is believed to save the country miraculously during Deluge , Partitions of Poland , Polish-Soviet War , World War II and the Polish People's Republic . The solemnity of Our Lady Queen of Poland

4232-467: The authors of the Gospels . The fifth is a Christ in Majesty . The sixth image is of the Fountain of Life , or fons vitae . Like other gospel books, the Godescalc Evangelistary includes portraits of the four Evangelists. The number of Evangelists was settled c. 200 when Irenaeus , Bishop of Lyons in Gaul decreed that the four Gospels, Matthew , Mark , Luke , and John , were the Canonical Gospels . The four Evangelists’ accounts were said to “tell

4324-402: The birds and plants employs the fountain “as the source of the four rivers of paradise ”, which evokes the four Gospels. The peacocks are a symbol of immortality and the birds around them are waterfowls. The waterfowls are identified in Eastern theological commentaries as “symbols of the apostles—“fishers of men”— who look back at the cocks symbolizing the Old Testament prophets in whose sayings

4416-482: The classics, both Christian and pagan. The movement occurred mostly during the reigns of Carolingian rulers Charlemagne and Louis the Pious . It was supported by the scholars of the Carolingian court , notably Alcuin of York . Charlemagne's Admonitio generalis (789) and Epistola de litteris colendis served as manifestos. Alcuin wrote on subjects ranging from grammar and biblical exegesis to arithmetic and astronomy. He also collected rare books, which formed

4508-427: The coining of new words while retaining the grammatical rules of Classical Latin . This Medieval Latin became a common language of scholarship and allowed administrators and travellers to make themselves understood in various regions of Europe. The earliest concept of Europe as a distinct cultural region (instead of simply a geographic area) appeared during the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century, and included

4600-423: The coming of Christ was foretold.” The deer is a hart, an animal traditionally linked to the baptismal ritual from the passage in Psalm 42 :1 (quoted below from the King James Version ). It is symbolic of humanity thirsting for salvation. On the facing page to the Fountain of Life lies the Initial Page to the Vigil for Christmas. Presented in contrast to each other, the Fountain of Life offers colorful images while

4692-438: The construction of 27 new cathedrals, 417 monasteries, and 100 royal residences". Around AD 755, Charlemagne's father Pepin the Short reformed the currency of the Frankish Kingdom . A variety of local systems was standardized. Minor mints were closed and royal control over the remaining bigger mints strengthened, increasing purity. In place of the gold Roman and Byzantine solidus then common, he established

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4784-479: The creation of schools in a capitulary known as the Charter of Modern Thought , issued in 787. A major part of his program of reform was to attract many of the leading scholars of the Christendom of his day to his court. Among the first called to court were Italians : Peter of Pisa , who from 776 to about 790 instructed Charlemagne in Latin, and from 776 to 787 Paulinus of Aquileia , whom Charlemagne nominated as patriarch of Aquileia in 787. The Lombard Paul

4876-403: The early 16th century, Protestant reformers began to discourage Marian art , and some like John Calvin or Zwingli even encouraged its destruction. But after the Council of Trent in the mid-16th century confirmed the veneration of Marian paintings for Catholics, Mary was often painted as a Madonna with crown, surrounded by stars, standing on top of the world or the partly visible moon. After

4968-422: The elite. By the late 7th century, developed urban settlements had emerged, populated mostly by craftsmen, merchants and boaters and boasting street grids, artisanal production as well as regional and long-distance trade. A prime example of this type of emporium was Dorestad . The development of the Carolingian economy was fueled by the efficient organization and exploitation of labor on large estates, producing

5060-425: The empire might have struggled to read words in Latin orthography according to Romance orthoepy, various attempts were made in France to devise a new orthography for the latter; among the earliest examples are parts of the Oaths of Strasbourg and the Sequence of Saint Eulalia . As the Carolingian Reforms spread the 'proper' Latin pronunciation from France to other Romance-speaking areas, local scholars eventually felt

5152-400: The expression "Carolingian Renaissance" does not imply that Western Europe was barbaric or obscurantist before the Carolingian era. The centuries following the dissolution of the Roman Empire in the West did not see an abrupt disappearance of the ancient schools. Indeed, from them emerged Martianus Capella , Cassiodorus , and Boethius , essential icons of the Roman cultural heritage in

5244-411: The first half of the thirteenth century. Different musical settings of the words were composed throughout the centuries by known and unknown composers. Not all attributions are correct, as an often quoted Regina Caeli by Joseph Haydn was not by him. The small and simple young girl of Nazareth became Queen of the world! This is one of the marvels that reveal God’s Heart. Of course, Mary’s queenship

5336-416: The first time to native speakers as well. No longer would, for instance, the word ⟨viridiarium⟩ 'orchard' be read aloud as the equivalent Old French word */verdʒjǽr/. It now had to be pronounced precisely as spelled, with all six syllables: /viridiarium/. Such a radical change had the effect of rendering Latin sermons completely unintelligible to the general Romance-speaking public, which prompted officials

5428-427: The first time, setting the stage for the rise of Romanesque art and eventually Gothic art in the West. Illuminated manuscripts , metalwork , small-scale sculpture , mosaics , and frescos survive from the period. Carolingian architecture is the style of North European architecture promoted by Charlemagne. The period of architecture spans the late eighth and ninth centuries until the reign of Otto I in 936, and

5520-415: The following text in the Evangelistary about Christ's life which includes the same words. Christ in Majesty was probably based on a famous painting known as the Acheropita , located in the Lateran Basilica in Rome . This is the same Lateran where Pope Adrian I baptized Charlemagne's son, Pepin. In its treatment of form, the miniature is elongated between shoulders and hip. This shows possible influence from

5612-436: The glory, the majesty and the dominion of His kingship, for, having been associated to the King of Martyrs in the ... work of human Redemption as Mother and cooperator, she remains forever associated to Him, with a practically unlimited power, in the distribution of the graces which flow from the Redemption. Jesus is King throughout all eternity by nature and by right of conquest: through Him, with Him, and subordinate to Him, Mary

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5704-400: The heart of Downtown Los Angeles ' historic core. This yearly procession, intended to coincide with the anniversary of the founding of the City of Los Angeles, begins outside of the parish of La Iglesia de Nuestra Señora Reina de los Angeles which is part of the Los Angeles Plaza Historic District , better known as "La Placita". By way of city streets, the procession eventually terminates at

5796-529: The house of Jacob forever and his reign will be without end."(Luke 1:32) The biblical precedent in ancient Israel is that the mother of the king becomes the queen mother . Mary's queenship is a share in Jesus’ kingship. The Catholic Church from the earliest times venerated the Queen of Heaven, according to Pius XII: From the earliest ages of the Catholic Church a Christian people, whether in time of triumph or more especially in time of crisis, has addressed prayers of petition and hymns of praise and veneration to

5888-408: The image of the Fountain of Life is much older than the Godescalc Evangelistary. Earlier examples come from Eastern manuscripts, where the fons vitae was a symbol of the Gospels as “the font of eternal life”. The meaning was modified in the Evangelistary and because of its placement and heading; the miniature refers to Christ's birth as the Fountain of Life. The Fountain of Life takes up a full page in

5980-410: The limits of the system. After a period of disruption from 830 to 850, caused by civil wars and Viking raids, economic development resumed in the 850s, with the emporiums disappearing completely and being replaced by fortified commercial towns. One of the major causes of the sudden economic growth was the Arab slave trade . Following the rise of the Arab Muslim caliphates , the Arab elites created

6072-440: The lines of the periscope of the Vigil of Nativity provide a beautiful image of silver(now oxidized to black) and golden letters on a purple background, reading In illo tempore ( Matt. 1 :18-21). The golden letters and the golden words show a promise of a golden kingdom. Precious materials like gold were believed to be gifts of God in the Middle Ages and Godescalc uses golden letters in his poem to emulate eternal life. The image of

6164-450: The main principle on which the royal dignity of Mary rests is her divine motherhood, and thus John of Damascus wrote, "When she became Mother of the Creator, she truly became Queen of every creature." In the Hebrew Bible some Davidic kings had in their court a gebirah ("Great Lady") who was often their mother, and held great power as his advisor and an advocate to him. In 1 Kings 2:20, Solomon said to his mother Bathsheba , seated on

6256-410: The messianic ministry; in his Passion and death; and finally, in the glory of his Resurrection and Ascension into Heaven ... Benedict XVI. The Queenship of Mary is commemorated in the last of the Glorious Mysteries of the Holy Rosary—the Coronation of the Virgin as Queen of Heaven and Earth. Parishes and private groups often process and crown an image of Mary with flowers. This often is referred to as

6348-450: The most obvious of which was that Charlemagne's uniting of most of Western Europe brought about peace and stability, which set the stage for prosperity. This period marked an economic revival in Western Europe, following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Local economies in the West had degenerated into largely subsistence agriculture by the early 7th century, with towns functioning merely as places of gift-exchange for

6440-449: The need to create distinct spelling systems for their own vernaculars as well, thereby initiating the literary phase of Medieval Romance. Writing in Romance does not appear to have become widespread until the Renaissance of the Twelfth Century , however. Carolingian art spans the roughly hundred-year period from about 800–900. Although brief, it was an influential period. Northern Europe embraced classical Mediterranean Roman art forms for

6532-486: The new pennies, however, they were repeatedly rejected by traders throughout the Carolingian period in favor of the gold coins used elsewhere, a situation that led to repeated legislation against such refusal to accept the king's currency. The Carolingian system was imported to England by Offa of Mercia and other kings, where it formed the basis of English currency until the late 20th century. Queen of Heaven#Art Queen of Heaven ( Latin : Regina Caeli )

6624-551: The nucleus of the library at York Cathedral. His enthusiasm for learning made him an effective teacher. Alcuin writes: In the morning, at the height of my powers, I sowed the seed in Britain, now in the evening when my blood is growing cold I am still sowing in France, hoping both will grow, by the grace of God, giving some the honey of the holy scriptures, making others drunk on the old wine of ancient learning Another prominent figure in

6716-462: The past rather than to create a new one. There was a movement to correct Psalters, Gospel books, and other works to provide easier understanding of texts that had become unclear over time. The Godescalc Evangelistary is written in gold and silver ink on purple vellum in uncial characters except the dedication, which is written in Carolingian minuscule . The codex is decorated by six miniature figures. The first four are Evangelist portraits , of

6808-510: The same, doctrinally correct story.” They are all pictured with their respective emblems in the miniatures. Each portrait features one of the Evangelists with a stylus and a book. This is symbolic of the power of God and gives the religious message a scholarly context. Through this presentation, the miniatures present the elevated value of learning which Charlemagne wished to convey through his campaign to reform education. Furthermore, all four Evangelists are looking up, away from their books. This

6900-566: The sixth century. Hymns of the 11th to 13th centuries address Mary as queen: “ Hail, Holy Queen ,” “ Hail, Queen of Heaven ,” “ Queen of Heaven ”. The Dominican rosary and the Franciscan crown , as well as numerous invocations in Mary’s litany, celebrate her queenship. For centuries she has been invoked as the Queen of Heaven. During the English Reformation , the title "Queen of Heaven", while eliminated from state-approved liturgy, became

6992-408: The skin of its teeth. However, the use of the term renaissance to describe this period is contested, notably by Lynn Thorndike , due to the majority of changes brought about by this period being confined almost entirely to the clergy , and due to the period lacking the wide-ranging social movements of the later Italian Renaissance . Instead of being a rebirth of new cultural movements, the period

7084-628: The style of the icon of the Virgin crowned as Queen (also known as Queen of Heaven ); located in the Santa Maria in Trastevere , executed for Pope John VII (705-707). The round face and the large eyes of the youthful Christ recall the image of the Virgin in the Mount Sinai icon . St. John is given special status mainly because his portrait is placed on the same opening as that of Christ in Majesty (St. John

7176-428: The territories which practiced Western Christianity at the time. Carolingian workshops produced over 100,000 manuscripts in the 9th century, of which some 6000 to 7000 survive. The Carolingians produced the earliest surviving copies of the works of Cicero , Horace , Martial , Statius , Lucretius , Terence , Julius Caesar , Boethius and Martianus Capella . No copies of the texts of these authors were made in

7268-502: The title of Mary Queen of Heaven developed at the Council of Ephesus , where Mary was defined to be the Mother of God. The members of the Council specifically approved this version against the opinion, that Mary is "only" the mother of Jesus. Nobody, they ruled, had participated in the life of her son more than Mary, who gave birth to the Son of God. The word "Queen" is common during and after

7360-586: The universe, that she might be the more fully conformed to her Son" ( Lumen gentium , 59). The movement to officially recognise the Queenship of Mary was initially promoted by several Catholic Mariological congresses in Lyon , France; Freiburg , Germany; and Einsiedeln , Switzerland. Gabriel Roschini founded in Rome, Italy, an international society to promote the Queenship of Mary, Pro Regalitate Mariae . Several popes had described Mary as Queen and Queen of Heaven, which

7452-745: The victory against the Turks at Lepanto , Mary is depicted as the Queen of Victory, sometimes wearing the crown of the Habsburg empire. National interpretations existed in France as well, where Jean Fouquet painted the Queen of Heaven in 1450 with the face of the mistress of King Charles VII . Statues and pictures of Mary were crowned by kings in Poland , France, Bavaria , Hungary and Austria, sometimes apparently using crowns previously worn by earthly monarchs. A surviving small crown presented by Margaret of York seems to have been that worn by her at her wedding to Charles

7544-596: The year, at the end of Compline . Mary as Queen of Heaven is praised in the Salve Regina ("Hail Queen"), which is sung in the time from Trinity Sunday until the Saturday before the first Sunday of Advent. It is attributed to a German Benedictine monk, Hermann of Reichenau (1013–1054). Traditionally it has been sung in Latin, though many translations exist. In the Middle Ages, Salve Regina offices were held every Saturday. In

7636-578: Was a conscious attempt to create a Roman Renaissance, emulating Roman , Early Christian and Byzantine architecture , with its own innovation, resulting in having a unique character. This syncretic architectural style can be exemplified by the first church of St Mark's in Venice, fusing proto-Romanesque and Byzantine influences. There was a profusion of new clerical and secular buildings constructed during this period, John Contreni calculated that "The little more than eight decades between 768 to 855 alone saw

7728-414: Was able to offer the cultureless and, I might say, almost completely unenlightened territory of the realm which God had entrusted to him, a new enthusiasm for all human knowledge. In its earlier state of barbarousness, his kingdom had been hardly touched at all by any such zeal, but now it opened its eyes to God's illumination. In our own time the thirst for knowledge is disappearing again: the light of wisdom

7820-536: Was documented by Roschini. Pope Pius XII repeated the title in numerous encyclicals and apostolic letters , especially during World War II. In Los Angeles, California , a Marian procession took place annually for roughly the first 100 years following the founding of the city. In an attempt to revive the custom of religious processions, in September 2011 the Queen of Angels Foundation , founded by Mark Anchor Albert, inaugurated an annual "Grand Marian Procession" in

7912-422: Was established at that value, making it 1/22 of the silver pound. This was later adjusted to 12 and 1/20, respectively. During the Carolingian period, however, neither shillings or pounds were minted, being instead used as notional units of account . (For instance, a "shilling" or "solidus" of grain was a measure equivalent to the amount of grain that 12 pennies could purchase.) Despite the purity and quality of

8004-421: Was lasting. The Carolingian minuscule was so successful that after the year 800, most of France had adopted the new way of writing. Although the Evangelistary is named after Godescalc, the production involved a team of writers, editors, Godescalc himself (who was a poet and scribe), parchment makers, an illuminator, a painter, and a book binder. Godescalc began a trend of luxuriously decorated Bible manuscripts in

8096-468: Was more an attempt to recreate the previous culture of the Roman Empire . The Carolingian Renaissance in retrospect also has some of the character of a false dawn, in that its cultural gains were largely dissipated within a couple of generations, a perception voiced by Walahfrid Strabo (died 849), in his introduction to Einhard 's Life of Charlemagne , summing up the generation of renewal: Charlemagne

8188-776: Was popularized by the Transitus literature, that, according to Stephen Shoemaker, has its origins before the Council of Nicaea. Origen of Alexandria called Mary "my Lady", in his Hom VII in Lucam (PG 13:1902D), which is a royal title. In the fourth century, Ephrem the Syrian called Mary "Lady" and "Queen". Later Church fathers and doctors continued to use the title. Similarly, Gregory of Nyssa in his Sermo de Annuntiatione (PG 62: 766) called her "Lady" (δέσποιναν). This title also appears in many other early writers, e.g., Jerome , and Peter Chrysologus . The first Mariological definition and basis for

8280-539: Was properly spelled ⟨saeculum⟩, as it had been for the better part of a millennium. The scribe would not have read aloud ⟨saeculum⟩ as /sɛkulum/ any more than an English speaker today would pronounce ⟨knight⟩ as */knɪxt/ rather than /naɪt/. Non-native speakers of Latin, however—such as clergy of Anglo-Saxon or Irish origin—appear to have used a rather different pronunciation, presumably attempting to sound out each word according to its spelling. The Carolingian Renaissance in France introduced this artificial pronunciation for

8372-415: Was responsible for the writing of textbooks, creation of word lists, and establishing the trivium and quadrivium as the basis for education. Another contribution from this period was the development of Carolingian minuscule , a "book-hand" first used at the monasteries of Corbie and Tours that introduced the use of lower-case letters. A standardized version of Latin was also developed that allowed for

8464-676: Was so lucrative that it almost immediately transformed the long-distance trade of the European economies. The slave trade enabled the West to re-engage with the Arab Muslim caliphates and the Eastern Roman Empire , so that other industries, such as textiles, were able to grow in Europe as well. Kenneth Clark was of the view that by means of the Carolingian Renaissance, Western civilization survived by

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