122-522: The Kadazans are an ethnic group indigenous to the state of Sabah in Malaysia . They are found mainly in Penampang on the west coast of Sabah, the surrounding locales, and various locations in the interior. As a result of integration in culture and language, as well as for political initiatives, the new term " Kadazan-Dusun " was created to combine the two "Kadazan" and " Dusun " groups. Together, they are
244-414: A dough . The dough is pressed into round cakes, about 3 cm across and 1 cm thick, and left to incubate on trays with banana leaves under and over them for two to three days. They are then dried and stored, ready for their next use. Traditionally, cooked white rice or glutinous rice are fermented in tapayan jars. Depending on the length of time and various processes, tapai will result in
366-496: A host of men, a band of comrades as well as a swarm or flock of animals. In Classical Greek , the word took on a meaning comparable to the concept now expressed by "ethnic group", mostly translated as " nation , tribe, a unique people group"; only in Hellenistic Greek did the term tend to become further narrowed to refer to "foreign" or " barbarous " nations in particular (whence the later meaning "heathen, pagan"). In
488-564: A Homo sapiens by Tom and Barbara Harrisson in the Niah Caves in Baram in present-day Sarawak, led some to propose the "out of Borneo" theory of human migration in parts of Asia. Prehistoric Kadazan can be traced back to the time in which the Nunuk Ragang tree had existed. It is roughly located to-date at Tampias, where two rivers (Liwagu and Gelibang) meet to the east of Ranau and Tambunan . Nunuk
610-732: A Malaysian context, also results in an automatic conversion by law of ethnicity to Malay (source?) . The resultant demographic shift has in recent years further compounded the dwindling numbers of the Kadazan-Dusun community and consequently making it more challenging in its efforts to preserve the heritage. (statistics?) Traditional Kadazan cuisine involves mostly boiling or grilling which employs little use of oil, and with locally unique modifications and nuances as well as particular usage of locally available ingredients, particularly bamboo shoots , sago and fresh water fish. From simple appetizers of unripe mango dressed with soy sauce and chili flakes to
732-484: A few of Kadazan people that know the skills of beating the tagung s. It would require one long practice to gain experience. It has been an issue that the present-day Kadazan youths are not inclined to gain skills in playing the traditional music instruments. Thus, magagung competitions and Sumazau competitions are organised at the village level not only to mark the Kaamatan celebrations but rather to preserve and promote
854-417: A flat surface, and representatives from each side push and pull the sticks across a boundary to denote the bargaining of the dowry. Dowries traditionally consisted of water buffaloes, pigs, sacks of rice and even urns of tapai . Modern dowry negotiations also include cash and land ownership deeds. The dowry includes the costs of the wedding with any additional costs above the price of the dowry to be paid for by
976-421: A focus on the interface between groups. "Ethnic Groups and Boundaries", therefore, is a focus on the interconnectedness of ethnic identities. Barth writes: "... categorical ethnic distinctions do not depend on an absence of mobility, contact, and information, but do entail social processes of exclusion and incorporation whereby discrete categories are maintained despite changing participation and membership in
1098-500: A horizontal-type melodic instrument. The late Chief Priestess Bobohizan Bianti Moujing from Kg. Kandazon and the High Priestess Bobohizan Binjulin Sigayun from Kg. Hungab were consulted during their heyday on the evolution of tagung or gongs and the beats rhythm. Recently, O.K.K. Datuk Jintol Mogunting, the former District Native Chief of Penampang, who was an authority on the traditional culture and customs
1220-459: A hut measures 12 by 20 feet. Its numerous branches and giant thick foliage provided for ideal shelter and habitat of wild life, birds, insects and even spirits according to local beliefs. It was believed that the roots of the giant tree produced red latex that had a great medicinal value. In fact, the Nunuk's latex is still used to treat rashes and other minor skin diseases in modern days. Evacuation from
1342-686: A large number of end products. These include slightly fermented dough used for rice cakes (Filipino galapong ); dried fermented cakes (Indonesian brem cakes); fermented cooked rice (Filipino buro , tapay , inuruban , binubudan , binuboran ; Indonesian/Malaysian tapai or tape ); fermented rice with shrimp (Filipino buro , balaobalao , balobalo , tag-ilo ); fermented rice with fish (Filipino buro ); or various rice wines (Filipino tapuy , tapey , bubod , basi , pangasi ; Indonesian brem wine). In modern times, in addition to rice, different types of carbohydrates such as cassava or sweet potatoes can also be used. The general process
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#17328520158551464-542: A means of seeking the spirit's sanction and soliciting their protection during a climb. The Kadazan community as a ritual isolate is in constant interaction with the spirit world. This involves a number of sacrificial ceremonies to create a balanced ritual state between the Kadazans and the spirit world. The Kadazans believe in four principal spirits; the Almighty Creator ( Minamangun ), a living person's spirit ( koduduvo ),
1586-499: A mercurial character. Ronald Cohen concluded that ethnicity is "a series of nesting dichotomizations of inclusiveness and exclusiveness". He agrees with Joan Vincent's observation that (in Cohen's paraphrase) "Ethnicity ... can be narrowed or broadened in boundary terms in relation to the specific needs of political mobilization." This may be why descent is sometimes a marker of ethnicity, and sometimes not: which diacritic of ethnicity
1708-622: A paste. It is used as a base for various kakanin rice cakes (notably puto and bibingka ). Fermented gruel-type tapay are also common, with various ethnic groups having their own versions like Tagalog and Kapampangan buro , the Ifugao binuburan , and the Maranao and Maguindanao tapay . These are usually traditionally fermented with or paired with fish or shrimp (similar to Japanese narezushi ), as in burong isda , balao-balao , or tinapayan . Rice wines derived from tapay include
1830-519: A preoccupation with scientists, theologians, and the public. Religious institutions asked questions about whether there had been multiple creations of races (polygenesis) and whether God had created lesser races. Many of the foremost scientists of the time took up the idea of racial difference and found that white Europeans were superior. The ethnicity theory was based on the assimilation model. Park outlined four steps to assimilation: contact, conflict, accommodation, and assimilation. Instead of attributing
1952-412: A process known as ethnogenesis, a period of several generations of endogamy resulting in common ancestry (which is then sometimes cast in terms of a mythological narrative of a founding figure ); ethnic identity is reinforced by reference to "boundary markers" – characteristics said to be unique to the group which set it apart from other groups. Ethnicity theory argues that race
2074-742: A shared cultural heritage , ancestry, origin myth , history , homeland , language , dialect , religion, mythology , folklore , ritual , cuisine , dressing style , art , or physical appearance . Ethnic groups may share a narrow or broad spectrum of genetic ancestry, depending on group identification, with some groups having mixed genetic ancestry. By way of assimilation , acculturation , amalgamation , language shift , intermarriage , adoption , and religious conversion , individuals or groups may over time shift from one ethnic group to another. Ethnic groups may be divided into subgroups or tribes , which over time may become separate ethnic groups themselves due to endogamy or physical isolation from
2196-710: A similar meaning of 'Kadazan' and reiterated that the term has always been used to refer to 'the people of the Land'. Over a hundred years ago, the Kadazans were ruled by the Brunei Sultanate; the Kadazan or Kadayan (in Lotud, Kimaragang, Liwan etc.) were referred to officially by the Sultanate as the 'Orang Dusun' which literally means 'people of the orchard' in the Malay language. Administratively,
2318-450: A simple inait or prayer to heal the sick. There are a number of inait or prayers that a Bobohizan has to choose depending on the cause of the sickness. The basic is the popo'ontong or sumuku to get in touch with the good spirit consultants for further guidance. The Bobohizan may proceed to any of the following or other form of prayers which are; searching for strayed spirit of the sick person and preparing for its homecoming, appeasing
2440-480: A smooth, reverberating and xylophonic tone. Gongs made entirely of brass are not popular because the sound produced has a flatsonic resonance. Kulintangan or miniature gongs consist of nine ensemble and according to preference, it may be performed simultaneously with the gong to enhance the gong music. The latest type of gongs are made entirely of flat iron sheets, that were produced in Kudat. These are usually available at
2562-508: A stand-in for "paganism" in the 18th century, but now came to express the meaning of an "ethnic character" (first recorded 1953). The term ethnic group was first recorded in 1935 and entered the Oxford English Dictionary in 1972. Depending on context, the term nationality may be used either synonymously with ethnicity or synonymously with citizenship (in a sovereign state). The process that results in emergence of an ethnicity
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#17328520158552684-414: A type of gooey rice cake steamed in banana leaves and flavoured with dark palm sugar. The Kadazan people are also renowned for lihing , a sweet-tasting wine brewed from glutinous rice and natural yeast. Contemporary Kadazan food is influenced by Chinese and Malay food as well as international trends, and often sees the use of traditional ingredients interpreted in new and novel ways. For example, bambangan
2806-530: A variety of pickled foods collectively known as noonsom , tangy and pungent flavours from souring agents or fermentation techniques is a key characteristic of traditional Kadazan cooking. One of the most well known Kadazan dishes is hinava , which is similar in concept to the South American ceviche . It is a salad made with pieces of raw fish marinated in citrus juice, ginger, onion and other ingredients like bitter gourd and grated dried bambangan seed which
2928-534: Is a Dusun word for banyan tree. Ragang as well comes from the Dusun word "aragang", which means "red". Nunuk looks like a giant mangrove tree with highly developed buttress stems with deep indentions that provide good natural shelters. The Nunuk Ragang or 'the red banyan tree' as told by the old folks, Widu Tambunan, measured of six out-stretched arms in circumference. The top of its canopy was estimated to be able to shelter under its seven joined Kadazan-Dusun huts, in which
3050-548: Is a group of people who identify with each other on the basis of perceived shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. Those attributes can include a people of a common language , culture , common sets of ancestry , traditions , society, religion , history, or social treatment. The term ethnicity is sometimes used interchangeably with the term nation , particularly in cases of ethnic nationalism . Ethnicity may be construed as an inherited or societally imposed construct. Ethnic membership tends to be defined by
3172-521: Is a roasted block of bland-tasted ketan or pulut (glutinous rice) served with sweet tapai ketan or tapai pulut . The peuyeum goreng or tapai goreng , or known in Javanese as rondho royal is another example of Indonesian gorengan (assorted fritters), which is deep fried battered cassava tapai . In beverages, tapai , both cassava or glutinous rice, might be added into sweet iced concoction desserts, such as es campur and es doger . In
3294-443: Is a social category and is only one of several factors in determining ethnicity. Other criteria include "religion, language, 'customs', nationality, and political identification". This theory was put forward by sociologist Robert E. Park in the 1920s. It is based on the notion of "culture". This theory was preceded by more than 100 years during which biological essentialism was the dominant paradigm on race. Biological essentialism
3416-500: Is also called tapai ). Tapai is traditionally made with white rice or glutinous rice , but can also be made from a variety of carbohydrate sources, including cassava and potatoes. Fermentation is performed by a variety of moulds including Aspergillus oryzae , Rhizopus oryzae , Amylomyces rouxii or Mucor species , and yeasts including Saccharomyces cerevisiae , and Saccharomycopsis fibuliger , Endomycopsis burtonii and others, along with bacteria. Tapai
3538-496: Is also eaten with meals as an appetiser. It is often pickled as noonsom and garnished with grated bambangan seed. Tuhau is a fragrant local root that is often made into a salad or is preserved with vinegar as noonsom . Wild boar or bakas , whether char grilled, stewed or even made into noonsom is very popular with the Kadazandusun community, often an essential item at weddings and major gatherings. Sweets include hinompuka ,
3660-466: Is available as an ice cream flavour and chicken lihing soup or sup manuk nansak miampai lihing is popular with both Chinese and Kadazan communities alike. Lihing is also used in marinades, local variants of sambal relishes and even as a flavouring for stir-fried noodles. The Kadazans have also developed their own unique dance and music. Sumazau is the name of the dance between a male and female, performed by couples as well as groups of couples, which
3782-423: Is called ethnogenesis , a term in use in ethnological literature since about 1950. The term may also be used with the connotation of something unique and unusually exotic (cf. "an ethnic restaurant", etc.), generally related to cultures of more recent immigrants, who arrived after the dominant population of an area was established. Depending on which source of group identity is emphasized to define membership,
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3904-420: Is called ethnogenesis. Members of an ethnic group, on the whole, claim cultural continuities over time, although historians and cultural anthropologists have documented that many of the values, practices, and norms that imply continuity with the past are of relatively recent invention. Ethnic groups can form a cultural mosaic in a society. That could be in a city like New York City or Trieste , but also
4026-586: Is derived from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *tapay ("fermented [food]"), which in turn is derived from Proto-Austronesian *tapaJ ("fermented [food]"). Derived cognates has come to refer to a wide variety of fermented food throughout Austronesia , including yeasted bread and rice wine . Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *tapay-an also refers to large earthen jars originally used for this fermentation process. Cognates in modern Austronesian languages include tapayan ( Tagalog ), tapayan ( Maguindanaon ), tepayan ( Iban ), and tempayan ( Javanese and Malay ). Tapai
4148-431: Is due to later British influence during the 20th century. There was no "religion" for ancient Kadazan-Dusuns and to them, it was just a sort of relationship between the seen and the unseen. The Kadazan belief system centres around a single omnipotent deity called Kinorohingan. Rice cultivation is the center of Kadazan life and as such, various rites and festivals are celebrated and revolve around paddy cultivation. Kaamatan
4270-600: Is guided by the flow of Liwagu River. A Bobohizan said that, had the Kadazan-Dusuns not moved out of Nunuk Ragang, they would have not existed today. The Kadazan and Rungus migrated out of Nunuk Ragang through Labuk River. The grouping of Kadazan and Rungus later arrived in Tempasuk, Kota Belud through the Marak-Parak valley. This is where they made the decision to split, in which one group would be heading to Matunggong, Kudat and
4392-420: Is heavily influenced by the farming of rice, culminating in various delicacies and alcoholic drinks prepared through differing home-brewed fermentation processes. To'omis and linutau are the main rice wine variants served and consumed in Kadazan populated areas, and are a staple of Kadazan social gatherings and ceremonies. The most important festival of the Kadazans is the Kaamatan or harvest festival, where
4514-425: Is held to commemorate the spirit of Huminodun, a mythological character of unparalleled beauty said to have given her life in exchange for a bountiful harvest for her community. In marriages, dowries are paid to the bride's family and an elaborate negotiation is arranged between the groom and bride's families. As a traditional gesture of politeness and civility, the dowry is metaphorically laid out with match sticks on
4636-419: Is made by inoculating a carbohydrate source with the required microorganisms in a starter culture . This culture has different names in different regions, shown in the table below. The culture can be naturally captured from the wild, by mixing rice flour with ground spices (include garlic, pepper , chili , cinnamon ), cane sugar or coconut water , slices of ginger or ginger extract, and water to make
4758-642: Is not a noun in Britain. In effect there are no "ethnics"; there are only "ethnic relations". In the U.S., the OMB says the definition of race as used for the purposes of the US Census is not "scientific or anthropological" and takes into account "social and cultural characteristics as well as ancestry", using "appropriate scientific methodologies" that are not "primarily biological or genetic in reference". Sometimes ethnic groups are subject to prejudicial attitudes and actions by
4880-442: Is salient depends on whether people are scaling ethnic boundaries up or down, and whether they are scaling them up or down depends generally on the political situation. Kanchan Chandra rejects the expansive definitions of ethnic identity (such as those that include common culture, common language, common history and common territory), choosing instead to define ethnic identity narrowly as a subset of identity categories determined by
5002-500: Is similar in texture to desiccated coconut strands. This dish is sometimes served in certain Sabahan restaurants which do not otherwise have a traditional Kadazan menu. Another popular dish is pinasakan , which consists of sea or freshwater fish (usually smaller species) cooked with bambangan (a variety of mango found in Borneo) or takob-akob (a very tart dried fruit). The bambangan fruit
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5124-431: Is the belief that some races, specifically white Europeans in western versions of the paradigm, are biologically superior and other races, specifically non-white races in western debates, are inherently inferior. This view arose as a way to justify enslavement of African Americans and genocide of Native Americans in a society that was officially founded on freedom for all. This was a notion that developed slowly and came to be
5246-493: Is the most recognisable festival attributed to the Kadazan-Dusun . This annual festival is essentially a thanks-giving ceremony and in the olden days also serve to appease the rice spirit, Bambaazon . Special rituals are performed before and after each harvest by a tribal priestess or a spirit medium known as a Bobohizan . Additionally, the majority of the Kadazan-Dusun people believe that the spirits of their ancestors dwell on
5368-554: Is to wash and cook the target food, cool to about 30 °C, mix in some powdered starter culture, and rest in covered jars for one to two days. With cassava and sweet potato, the tubers are washed and peeled before cooking, then layered in baskets with starter culture sprinkled over each layer. The finished gruel will taste sweet with a hint of alcohol , and can be consumed as is, or left for several days more to become more sour . Tapai and its variants are usually consumed as it is; as sweet mildly-alcoholic snacks, to accompany tea in
5490-649: Is usually accompanied by a symphony of handcrafted bronze gongs that are individually called tagung . A ceremonial ring of cloth sash is worn by both male and female. The Sumazau and gong accompaniment is typically performed during joyous ceremonies and occasions, the most common of which being wedding feasts. The sompoton is another musical instrument. The Kadazan have a musical heritage consisting of various types of tagung ensembles – ensembles composed of large hanging, suspended or held, bossed/knobbed gongs which act as drone without any accompanying melodic instrument. They also use kulintangan ensembles – ensembles with
5612-458: The Caribbean and South Asia . Max Weber maintained that ethnic groups were künstlich (artificial, i.e. a social construct ) because they were based on a subjective belief in shared Gemeinschaft (community). Secondly, this belief in shared Gemeinschaft did not create the group; the group created the belief. Third, group formation resulted from the drive to monopolize power and status. This
5734-450: The New World were multi-ethnic from the onset, as they were formed as colonies imposed on existing indigenous populations. In recent decades, feminist scholars (most notably Nira Yuval-Davis) have drawn attention to the fundamental ways in which women participate in the creation and reproduction of ethnic and national categories. Though these categories are usually discussed as belonging to
5856-561: The 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense of "peculiar to a tribe, race, people or nation", in a return to the original Greek meaning. The sense of "different cultural groups", and in American English "tribal, racial, cultural or national minority group " arises in the 1930s to 1940s, serving as a replacement of the term race which had earlier taken this sense but was now becoming deprecated due to its association with ideological racism . The abstract ethnicity had been used as
5978-834: The Bambaazon in the previous evening and tapai . The ceremony ends with merry making as a mark of thanksgiving. Bambaazon stays in the house, guarding the paddy in the barn until the next planting season when another ceremony known as monogit is performed to take 'her' to the paddy field. Here is an instance of the prayers or incantations, Odoi kada' kati gangang arai kotunguan ko do pa'is otimbaar ko do sadap odoi kososodop zou do mogiginipi kosou ku do nokotimung kito do pamakanan do karamaian diti Nga ino noh maan zou do mamagavau do paai diti do ounsikou nodi kaka do Bambaazon do kosuni vagu do to'un tiso do ka'anu no vagu kotimung kito om ogumu' nodi do pamakanan tokou mantad do paai The ancestors of present-day Kadazans were among
6100-606: The Greeks. Herodotus (8.144.2) gave a famous account of what defined Greek (Hellenic) ethnic identity in his day, enumerating Whether ethnicity qualifies as a cultural universal is to some extent dependent on the exact definition used. Many social scientists, such as anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf , do not consider ethnic identity to be universal. They regard ethnicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups. According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen ,
6222-549: The KDCA (formally called KCA) the term Dusun was reintroduced after much pressure from various parties desiring a division between the Kadazan and the 'Orang Dusun' once again. This was largely successful and a precursor to the fall of the ruling political state party Parti Bersatu Sabah (PBS). PBS, through the KCA, then coined the new term 'Kadazandusun' to represent both the 'Orang Dusun' and 'Kadazan'. Today, both Singapore and Malaysia acknowledge
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#17328520158556344-430: The Kadazans are Christians, mainly Catholics and some Protestants . Islam is also practised by a growing minority. Prior to the conversion to Christianity and Islam, the dominant religion was Momolianism , which some scholars equate to animism. Animism was the predominant religion prior to the arrival of Roman Catholic missionaries during British North Borneo administration in the 1880s. The Protestant influence
6466-589: The Kadazans were called 'Orang Dusun' by the Sultanate (or more specifically the tax-collector) but in reality the 'Orang Dusun' were Kadazans. An account of this fact was written by the first census made by the North Borneo Company in Sabah, 1881. Owen Rutter wrote in 1927 that the native people residing in Papar preferred to call themselves as Kadazans. Administratively, all Kadazans were categorised as Dusuns. Only through
6588-633: The Nunuk Ragang area due to the Minorit Push of Nunuk Ragang, was decided through a meeting between the Bobohizans and the people. The leaders had made an agreement that the Tagahas (literally "strong") people were given a role to be the rear guard while others were immediately leaving Nunuk Ragang. River tributaries became their principal guidance to the direction of migrating. Each group's direction of migration
6710-534: The Philippines, there are various tapay -derived dishes and drinks. They were originally referred to by the term tinapay (literally "done through tapay ), as recorded by Antonio Pigafetta . But the term tinapay is now restricted to "bread" in modern Filipino languages. The most common use of fermented rice is in galapong , a traditional Filipino viscous rice dough made by soaking (and usually fermenting) uncooked glutinous rice overnight and then grinding it into
6832-655: The Rungus obtained their demonym. The Kadazan and Rungus share similarities in their languages, most probably because of the close relationship at Nunuk Ragang. As they settled the West Coast, the Kadazans met the Bruneians and other settlers. Barter trade occurred in which the Kadazans had their gongs, copper and silver wares, necklaces and bangles from the Bruneians. According to P.S. Shim's book "Inland People of Sabah: Before, During and After Nunuk Ragang" published in 2007, states that
6954-518: The United States that the ethnicity theory was exclusively based on the immigration patterns of the white population and did take into account the unique experiences of non-whites in the United States. While Park's theory identified different stages in the immigration process – contact, conflict, struggle, and as the last and best response, assimilation – it did so only for white communities. The ethnicity paradigm neglected
7076-994: The added value of being able to describe the commonalities between systems of group identity in both tribal and modern societies. Cohen also suggested that claims concerning "ethnic" identity (like earlier claims concerning "tribal" identity) are often colonialist practices and effects of the relations between colonized peoples and nation-states. According to Paul James , formations of identity were often changed and distorted by colonization, but identities are not made out of nothing: Categorizations about identity, even when codified and hardened into clear typologies by processes of colonization, state formation or general modernizing processes, are always full of tensions and contradictions. Sometimes these contradictions are destructive, but they can also be creative and positive. Social scientists have thus focused on how, when, and why different markers of ethnic identity become salient. Thus, anthropologist Joan Vincent observed that ethnic boundaries often have
7198-400: The afternoon. The sweet fermented tapai however, are often used as the ingredient in a recipe of certain dishes. Sundanese cassava peuyeum is the main ingredient for colenak ; a roasted fermented cassava tapai served with kinca a sweet syrup made of grated coconut and liquid palm sugar. Colenak is Sundanese portmanteau of dicocol enak which translates to "tasty dip". Tapai uli
7320-552: The ancestors of the Kadazandusuns came from Baram, Sarawak starting from the year 1200. P.S. Shim insisted that the Kadazan tribe settled the plains of Kimanis, Papar around 1220. Another group which identify themselves as the Tatana tribe settled in Bundu, Kuala Penyu. Subsequently, a great number of Kadazans migrated from Papar to Putatan-Penampang in the 1800s. Specifically, the first group
7442-523: The art of rites, ritual practices and ceremonies, taboos, traditional cultures including the art of gong beating and the Sumazau dance. During the civilisation of Nunuk Ragang, the Bobohizans taught the people to fashion bamboos into various lengths, shapes and sizes and arranged them into an ensemble of seven musical instruments, the seventh item being the drum ( gandang ), which we know today as tongkungon , tongunggu and tongunggak . The Bobohizans then taught
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#17328520158557564-449: The belief of common descent. Jóhanna Birnir similarly defines ethnicity as "group self-identification around a characteristic that is very difficult or even impossible to change, such as language, race, or location." Different approaches to understanding ethnicity have been used by different social scientists when trying to understand the nature of ethnicity as a factor in human life and society. As Jonathan M. Hall observes, World War II
7686-574: The boundaries of the nation-state. Tapai Tapai (also tapay or tape ) is a traditional fermented preparation of rice or other starchy foods, and is found throughout much of Southeast Asia , especially in Austronesian cultures, and parts of East Asia . It refers to both the alcoholic paste and the alcoholic beverage derived from it. It has a sweet or sour taste and can be eaten as is, as ingredients for traditional recipes, or fermented further to make rice wine (which in some cultures
7808-460: The brasswares elegant and gong sound melodious. Then, they began to acquire collections of these brass times as family heirlooms and the gongs were arranged into the typical ensemble of seven instruments, to replace the bamboo gongs. Since then, the gong beats and rhythm were improved for a variety usage. The gong beats to accompany any ritual ceremonies are usually monotonous. As for weddings, festive occasions and welcoming receptions for dignitaries,
7930-509: The brides family. Kadazan women from the Penampang and Dusun women from the Keningau , Ranau and Tuaran districts are widely regarded to have the most expensive dowries. While it is traditionally customary for Kadazans to marry within a village or a neighbouring village, a downshift of xenophobia over the past few decades has eased the difficulty once associated with interracial marriage. Due to
8052-573: The context of European colonial expansion, when mercantilism and capitalism were promoting global movements of populations at the same time that state boundaries were being more clearly and rigidly defined. In the 19th century, modern states generally sought legitimacy through their claim to represent "nations". Nation-states , however, invariably include populations who have been excluded from national life for one reason or another. Members of excluded groups, consequently, will either demand inclusion based on equality or seek autonomy, sometimes even to
8174-422: The course of individual life histories." In 1978, anthropologist Ronald Cohen claimed that the identification of "ethnic groups" in the usage of social scientists often reflected inaccurate labels more than indigenous realities: ... the named ethnic identities we accept, often unthinkingly, as basic givens in the literature are often arbitrarily, or even worse inaccurately, imposed. In this way, he pointed to
8296-526: The cultural traits of such groups have no demonstrated genetic connection with racial traits. Because serious errors of this kind are habitually committed when the term "race" is used in popular parlance, it would be better when speaking of human races to drop the term "race" altogether and speak of "ethnic groups". In 1982, anthropologist David Craig Griffith summed up forty years of ethnographic research, arguing that racial and ethnic categories are symbolic markers for different ways people from different parts of
8418-580: The culture of Kadazan music and dance. Eventually, the competitions are held at district level where the Sumazau competitions were judged according to its choreography and the magagung according to the gong beats, rhythm and tempo. In the early 1900s, these brass items were valuable items and became a symbol of family wealth. Once, they were highly in demand as dowries for marriage. Families that did not have them face difficulty meeting dowry requirement and would be compelled to search for these items elsewhere before
8540-429: The debris' that has been induced into the person's body by evil spirit, cure a person from the effects of black magic and liberate a sick person from the grip or disturbance of the dead. After being treated by Bobohizan for a day, sometimes for three days, one is not allowed to go out from the house. In preparation for the ceremony, the village priestess carefully select stalks of paddy and ties them together just before
8662-447: The distant past. Perspectives that developed after the 1960s increasingly viewed ethnic groups as social constructs , with identity assigned by societal rules. The term ethnic is ultimately derived from the Greek ethnos , through its adjectival form ethnikos , loaned into Latin as ethnicus . The inherited English language term for this concept is folk , used alongside
8784-452: The distinctions of ethnicity and race that function to set off categories of workers from one another. It is, nevertheless, the process of labor mobilization under capitalism that imparts to these distinctions their effective values. According to Wolf, racial categories were constructed and incorporated during the period of European mercantile expansion , and ethnic groupings during the period of capitalist expansion . Writing in 1977 about
8906-471: The establishment of the KCA (Kadazan Cultural Association) in 1960 was this terminology corrected and replaced by 'Kadazan'. When Sabah, Sarawak, Singapore and Malaya formed the Federation of Malaysia in 1963, administratively all Dusuns born since were referred to as Kadazans. Initially, there were no conflicts with regard to 'Kadazan' as the identity of the 'Orang Dusun' between 1963 and 1984. In 1985, through
9028-496: The ethnic group as Kadazandusun. According to a Genome-wide SNP genotypic data studies by human genetics research team from University Malaysia Sabah (2018), the Northern Borneon Dusun (Sonsogon, Rungus, Lingkabau and Murut) are closely related to Taiwan natives (Ami, Atayal) and non–Austro-Melanesian Filipinos (Visayan, Tagalog, Ilocano, Minanubu), rather than populations from other parts of Borneo Island. Kadazan culture
9150-457: The evil spirits that cause the person's sickness with the offerings, reaching the stage of Rundukon or being in the trance of possible dialogue with the evil spirit in which the priestess becomes the oracle for communicating in attempt to know the evil spirit's intentions. It is the longest performance of the Bobohizan that could last for almost 24 hours. They also can read the prayers to 'cleanse
9272-530: The extent of complete political separation in their nation-state. Under these conditions when people moved from one state to another, or one state conquered or colonized peoples beyond its national boundaries – ethnic groups were formed by people who identified with one nation but lived in another state. In the 1920s, Estonia introduced a flexible system of ethnicity/nationality self-choice for its citizens, which included Estonians Russians, Baltic Germans and Jews. Multi-ethnic states can be
9394-414: The fact that identification of an ethnic group by outsiders, e.g. anthropologists, may not coincide with the self-identification of the members of that group. He also described that in the first decades of usage, the term ethnicity had often been used in lieu of older terms such as "cultural" or "tribal" when referring to smaller groups with shared cultural systems and shared heritage, but that "ethnicity" had
9516-518: The fallen monarchy of the Austro-Hungarian Empire or the United States. Current topics are in particular social and cultural differentiation, multilingualism, competing identity offers, multiple cultural identities and the formation of Salad bowl and melting pot . Ethnic groups differ from other social groups, such as subcultures , interest groups or social classes , because they emerge and change over historical periods (centuries) in
9638-580: The following types of (often mutually overlapping) groups can be identified: In many cases, more than one aspect determines membership: for instance, Armenian ethnicity can be defined by Armenian citizenship, having Armenian heritage, native use of the Armenian language , or membership of the Armenian Apostolic Church . Ethnography begins in classical antiquity ; after early authors like Anaximander and Hecataeus of Miletus , Herodotus laid
9760-672: The foundation of both historiography and ethnography of the ancient world c. 480 BC . The Greeks had developed a concept of their own ethnicity, which they grouped under the name of Hellenes . Although there were exceptions, such as Macedonia, which was ruled by nobility in a way that was not typically Greek, and Sparta, which had an unusual ruling class, the ancient Greeks generally enslaved only non-Greeks due to their strong belief in ethnonationalism. The Greeks sometimes believed that even their lowest citizens were superior to any barbarian. In his Politics 1.2–7; 3.14, Aristotle even described barbarians as natural slaves in contrast to
9882-558: The genes. Examples of various approaches are primordialism, essentialism, perennialism, constructivism, modernism, and instrumentalism. Ethnicity is an important means by which people may identify with a larger group. Many social scientists, such as anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf , do not consider ethnic identity to be universal. They regard ethnicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups. The process that results in emergence of such identification
10004-408: The ghostly spirit of the dead ( tombivo ) and the evil spirit ( ogon ). When asking for help from a Bobohizan to cure someone's prolonged or severe illness, the priestess is usually called upon. The Bobohizan would be informed with the latest information that will give her a good background in locating to the cause of sickness. Bobohizans can also do preliminary consultations with the susukuon or
10126-401: The good spirit consultants. Before the Bobohizan goes to the house of the sick person the next day, she firstly would have to consult her susukuon the night before as to find the best way possible, determining the right offerings she could approach in the healing ceremony. She will then know whether a chicken, a pig or even a buffalo would be needed as a sacrifice. At some time, it may only take
10248-408: The harvesting period starts. These stalks are left in the field and not to be cut or tampered with until the harvesting is completed. The selected stalks of paddy symbolise the spirit of paddy, which is Bambaazon . As soon as the harvest is over, these stalks are cut by the priestess and taken into the house of the owner of the field. The spirit would be in the house. Magavau will then take place when
10370-433: The kernel of a nation which must be defended in times of conflict, or in iconic figures such as Britannia or Marianne . Ethnicity is used as a matter of cultural identity of a group, often based on shared ancestry, language, and cultural traditions, while race is applied as a taxonomic grouping, based on physical similarities among groups. Race is a more controversial subject than ethnicity, due to common political use of
10492-480: The largest ethnic group in Sabah. Kadazan-Dusun has been recognised as an indigenous nation of Borneo with documented heritage by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) since 2004. An extensive research was carried out by Gundohing Richard Francis Tunggolou entitled, The Origins and Meanings of the terms "Kadazan" and "Dusun" . The article explains in detail on
10614-639: The latinate people since the late Middle English period. In Early Modern English and until the mid-19th century, ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan (in the sense of disparate "nations" which did not yet participate in the Christian ecumene ), as the Septuagint used ta ethne 'the nations' to translate the Hebrew goyim "the foreign nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews". The Greek term in early antiquity ( Homeric Greek ) could refer to any large group,
10736-477: The marginalized status of people of color in the United States to their inherent biological inferiority, he attributed it to their failure to assimilate into American culture. They could become equal if they abandoned their inferior cultures. Michael Omi and Howard Winant 's theory of racial formation directly confronts both the premises and the practices of ethnicity theory. They argue in Racial Formation in
10858-444: The men join in the circle, singing together with the priestess and attendants. As they sing, they stamp their feet on the floor in rhythmic timing and at regular intervals uttering the awe-insparing "pangkis" which is the triumphant cry of the Kadazans. This ceremony will go on until the break of dawn when preparations are made to feed Bambaazon with the fermented rice ( habot ), with ingredients similar to tapai , prepared especially for
10980-479: The modernist understanding of ethnicity as proposed by Ernest Gellner and Benedict Anderson see nations and nationalism as developing with the rise of the modern state system in the 17th century. They culminated in the rise of "nation-states" in which the presumptive boundaries of the nation coincided (or ideally coincided) with state boundaries. Thus, in the West, the notion of ethnicity, like race and nation , developed in
11102-477: The origins of the Kadazan term. It is believed that there is evidence to suggest that the term has been used long before the 1950s. The Bobolians or the Bobohizans of Borneo were interviewed to seek a better picture of the true meaning of the term 'Kadazan'. According to a Lotud Bobolian, Bobolian Odun Badin, the term 'Kadazan' means 'the people of the land'. A Bobohizan from Penampang, Gundohing Dousia Moujing, gave
11224-420: The other would be heading to the West Coast, particularly Penampang and Papar. Initially, the Kadazans' settlement was an area with an abundant growth of mangroves ("tangar-tangar"), the area is believed to be present-day Beluran. Hence, they are referred to as Tangara or Tangaa. As for the Rungus, they had reached an area described to have the presence of white sand ("pirungusan"), which gives an explanation of how
11346-602: The overwhelming Christian influence and some marriages to Muslim spouses, resulting in a mandatory conversion to Islam, still induces outrage and rejection and is known to divide fiercely traditional Kadazans. Islam has lately been embraced by a growing minority as a means to political ends considering the fact that the local Malay minority has gained political ascendance in recent years. Ruling Malay political parties have also openly been giving political and economical privileges to Kadazans who agree to convert to Islam as well as to other non-Christian Kadazans. Conversion to Islam, in
11468-459: The padi is winnowed and stored away into the barns. The ceremony of Magavau begins just after sunset. The priestess and her attendants sit on the floor in the living room and start chanting ancient prayers ( inaait ) to Bambaazon. This continues further into the night. Thereafter, the priestess and attendants stand up and circle slowly around the living room, while chanting. After a while, they start to sing songs of praise to Bambaazon. At this stage,
11590-551: The parent group. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can merge to form a panethnicity and may eventually merge into one single ethnicity . Whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis . Although both organic and performative criteria characterise ethnic groups, debate in the past has dichotomised between primordialism and constructivism. Earlier 20th-century "Primordialists" viewed ethnic groups as real phenomena whose distinct characteristics have endured since
11712-558: The people the beat rhythm of tagung , known today as magagung , botibas and dunsai . Another musical instrument, the Kulintangan ; akin to the xylophone, would be played as an accompaniment to the magagung . In the late 18th century, the Bruneian traders introduced brass gong canons and brasswares in North Borneo. The Kadazans were fascinated with these new brass items as they perceived
11834-741: The people who have migrated from Taiwan. They can be referred to as Taiwanese aborigines (Formosan people). A research has stated, "Over the next thousand years to 1500 BC, the Austronesians spread south through the Philippines to the Celebes, the Moluccas, northern Borneo and eastern Java. One branch went east from the Moluccan Island of Halmahera about 1600 BC to colonize eastern Melanesia (1200 BC) and Micronesia (500 BC). The migration had continued well into Polynesia by 0 AD and on to Hawaii and Easter Island by
11956-450: The problem of racism became the sole responsibility of already disadvantaged communities. It was assumed that if a Black or Latino community was not "making it" by the standards that had been set by whites, it was because that community did not hold the right values or beliefs, or were stubbornly resisting dominant norms because they did not want to fit in. Omi and Winant's critique of ethnicity theory explains how looking to cultural defect as
12078-433: The public, political sphere, they are upheld within the private, family sphere to a great extent. It is here that women act not just as biological reproducers but also as "cultural carriers", transmitting knowledge and enforcing behaviors that belong to a specific collectivity. Women also often play a significant symbolic role in conceptions of nation or ethnicity, for example in the notion that "women and children" constitute
12200-567: The result of inherited traits and tendencies. With Weber's introduction of the idea of ethnicity as a social construct, race and ethnicity became more divided from each other. In 1950, the UNESCO statement " The Race Question ", signed by some of the internationally renowned scholars of the time (including Ashley Montagu , Claude Lévi-Strauss , Gunnar Myrdal , Julian Huxley , etc.), said: National, religious, geographic, linguistic and cultural groups do not necessarily coincide with racial groups: and
12322-483: The result of two opposite events, either the recent creation of state borders at variance with traditional tribal territories, or the recent immigration of ethnic minorities into a former nation-state. Examples for the first case are found throughout Africa , where countries created during decolonization inherited arbitrary colonial borders, but also in European countries such as Belgium or United Kingdom . Examples for
12444-438: The rhythm of the gong beat is exhilarating, melodious, lively and smooth. Sometimes the botibas gong beat is performed as variation. During funerals, the dunsai gong beat is very solemn and fearsome as a symbol of respect for the dead. The single beat of a solitary gong at short intervals was used to be signal for emergencies such as house on fire and missing people who were lost in the jungle or drowning. However, there are only
12566-581: The second case are countries such as Netherlands , which were relatively ethnically homogeneous when they attained statehood but have received significant immigration in the 17th century and even more so in the second half of the 20th century. States such as the United Kingdom , France and Switzerland comprised distinct ethnic groups from their formation and have likewise experienced substantial immigration, resulting in what has been termed " multicultural " societies, especially in large cities. The states of
12688-427: The so-called Momogun Rungus was founded by a man who was persecuted by his brothers because he had various skills. He was good at making animal traps and making weapons which were capable of protecting his community then. It was because of his skills, he was persecuted. This caused him to be punished with his faithful wife and people by banishing them into the ocean. Ethnic group An ethnicity or ethnic group
12810-420: The source of inequality ignores the "concrete sociopolitical dynamics within which racial phenomena operate in the U.S." It prevents critical examination of the structural components of racism and encourages a "benign neglect" of social inequality. In some cases, especially those involving transnational migration or colonial expansion, ethnicity is linked to nationality. Anthropologists and historians, following
12932-502: The spirit of the paddy is honoured after a year's harvest. This takes place in May, and the two last days of the month are public holidays throughout Sabah. During the celebration, the most celebrated event is the crowning of the Unduk Ngadau , the harvest festival beauty queen. Young women of Kadazan, Dusun, Murut or Rungus descent from certain districts compete for this title. The beauty pageant
13054-407: The state or its constituents. In the 20th century, people began to argue that conflicts among ethnic groups or between members of an ethnic group and the state can and should be resolved in one of two ways. Some, like Jürgen Habermas and Bruce Barry, have argued that the legitimacy of modern states must be based on a notion of political rights of autonomous individual subjects. According to this view,
13176-441: The state should not acknowledge ethnic, national or racial identity but rather instead enforce political and legal equality of all individuals. Others, like Charles Taylor and Will Kymlicka , argue that the notion of the autonomous individual is itself a cultural construct. According to this view, states must recognize ethnic identity and develop processes through which the particular needs of ethnic groups can be accommodated within
13298-512: The study of ethnicity was dominated by two distinct debates until recently. According to Eriksen , these debates have been superseded, especially in anthropology , by scholars' attempts to respond to increasingly politicized forms of self-representation by members of different ethnic groups and nations. This is in the context of debates over multiculturalism in countries, such as the United States and Canada, which have large immigrant populations from many different cultures, and post-colonialism in
13420-524: The term in social studies in the 1980s and 1990s. Barth went further than Weber in stressing the constructed nature of ethnicity. To Barth, ethnicity was perpetually negotiated and renegotiated by both external ascription and internal self-identification. Barth's view is that ethnic groups are not discontinuous cultural isolates or logical a priori to which people naturally belong. He wanted to part with anthropological notions of cultures as bounded entities, and ethnicity as primordialist bonds, replacing it with
13542-446: The term. Ramón Grosfoguel (University of California, Berkeley) argues that "racial/ethnic identity" is one concept and concepts of race and ethnicity cannot be used as separate and autonomous categories. Before Weber (1864–1920), race and ethnicity were primarily seen as two aspects of the same thing. Around 1900 and before, the primordialist understanding of ethnicity predominated: cultural differences between peoples were seen as being
13664-516: The top of Mount Kinabalu. The Kadazans call this mountain Akinabalu which consists of two words 'Aki' which means ancestors and Nabalu (or Nabahu) that means 'coffin'. Thus combined, Akinabalu means 'abode of the dead'. Bobohizan does a ritual every year to appease the guiding spirit of the mount. The purpose of conducting such rituals is to placate the spirit of Mount Kinabalu as well as the ancestral spirits. The religious ceremonies are understood to be
13786-461: The usage of the term "ethnic" in the ordinary language of Great Britain and the United States , Wallman noted The term "ethnic" popularly connotes "[race]" in Britain, only less precisely, and with a lighter value load. In North America, by contrast, "[race]" most commonly means color, and "ethnics" are the descendants of relatively recent immigrants from non-English-speaking countries. "[Ethnic]"
13908-448: The ways in which race can complicate a community's interactions with social and political structures, especially upon contact. Assimilation – shedding the particular qualities of a native culture for the purpose of blending in with a host culture – did not work for some groups as a response to racism and discrimination, though it did for others. Once the legal barriers to achieving equality had been dismantled,
14030-517: The wedding. This custom still prevails in certain districts. Notably, many districts have most of the dowry converted into cash. As for the badil or canons, brassware and especially the gongs, they have become priceless and rare commodities. An ordinary set of gongs would cost about RM10,000 and the best set with high quality sound would cost around RM15,000. The original gongs, though popularly known as brass, are not entirely brass. They are actually made of composites of iron, brass and copper, to produce
14152-551: The weekend market or Tamu in Donggongon, Penampang in which each set would cost between RM700 to RM1,500. The sound quality of these gongs are more like cymbals clashing and shrills. People who are interested to know the best-quality melody gongs may drop by to any magagung and Sumazau competitions during Ka'amatan Harvest Festival from 30 to 31 May at the Hongkod of Kadazan Dusun Cultural Association (KDCA) in Penampang. The majority of
14274-442: The world have been incorporated into a global economy: The opposing interests that divide the working classes are further reinforced through appeals to "racial" and "ethnic" distinctions. Such appeals serve to allocate different categories of workers to rungs on the scale of labor markets, relegating stigmatized populations to the lower levels and insulating the higher echelons from competition from below. Capitalism did not create all
14396-405: The year 500. The Austronesians finally reached the last uninhabited land on earth, New Zealand, sometime around 1300." There is a contrary belief that the ancestors of the Kadazans came from Yunnan. If there is some truth in this, the question arises whether or not they migrated first to Taiwan and then went southwards at a later period. The discovery in 1958 of the 37,000 year-old "Deep Skull" of
14518-483: Was a turning point in ethnic studies. The consequences of Nazi racism discouraged essentialist interpretations of ethnic groups and race. Ethnic groups came to be defined as social rather than biological entities. Their coherence was attributed to shared myths, descent, kinship , a common place of origin, language, religion, customs, and national character. So, ethnic groups are conceived as mutable rather than stable, constructed in discursive practices rather than written in
14640-427: Was also consulted and he gave similar narration of the legend that has been used for centuries of generations. It was said that after the resurrection of Huminodun, from the original Bambaazon, the lifestyle of the Nunuk Ragang community as they were then known, began to improve as there was an abundant supply of food. The legend goes on to narrate that the spirit of Huminodun founded the Bobohizans as they were taught
14762-407: Was contrary to the prevailing naturalist belief of the time, which held that socio-cultural and behavioral differences between peoples stemmed from inherited traits and tendencies derived from common descent, then called "race". Another influential theoretician of ethnicity was Fredrik Barth , whose "Ethnic Groups and Boundaries" from 1969 has been described as instrumental in spreading the usage of
14884-599: Was the Tangaa group. The second group was given the name 'Bangkaakon', which followed afterwards. There was a war between the Tangaa and Bangkaakon which is believed to have occurred somewhere in Tombovo, Putatan. The altercation was impactful enough that the Bangkaakon group had to move out and consequently made a settlement in an area known today as Minintod, Inanam. According to the legends that are told from generation to generation,
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