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109-648: The country within the Kachin Hill tracts is roughly estimated at 19,177 square miles (49,670 km), and consists of a series of ranges, for the most part running north and south, and intersected by valleys, all leading towards the Irrawaddy River , which drains the whole country. According to the Kachin Hill Tribes Regulation of 1895, administrative responsibility was accepted by the British government on

218-421: A farm can stabilize and enhance the provision of pollination services. The presence of such ecosystem elements functions almost like an insurance policy for farmers. Coastal and estuarine ecosystems act as buffer zones against natural hazards and environmental disturbances, such as floods, cyclones, tidal surges and storms. The role they play is to "[absorb] a portion of the impact and thus [lessen] its effect on

327-489: A Bayesian decision support system to both model the uncertainty in the scientific information Bayes Nets and to assist collecting and fusing the input from stakeholders. This study was about siting wave energy devices off the Oregon Coast, but presents a general method for managing uncertain spatial science and stakeholder information in a decision making environment. Remote sensing data and analyses can be used to assess

436-631: A complete victory for the British. A strong force of military police was stationed at Myitkyina, with several outposts in the Kachin hills. In 1910, during the very last year of Qing Empire , the British occupied Hpimaw (Pianma) in the Pianma Incident , as well as a part of what is now Northern Kachin state in 1926-27 and part of the Wa states in 1940. Myanmar relinquished the eastern villages of Hpimaw (Pianma) and adjacent Gawlam (Gulang) and Kangfang (Gangfang) to

545-467: A considerable amount of passenger and goods traffic moves by river. As the Irrawaddy Delta is one of the world's major rice-growing areas, one of the most important goods transported is rice. Teak logs – Myanmar is one of the world's top exporters – are floated down the river as large rafts. Before it is transported, teak has to be seasoned, because otherwise it won't float. This happens by girdling ,

654-665: A local ecosystem. The mixture of fresh water and salt water ( brackish water ) in estuaries provides many nutrients for marine life . Salt marshes , mangroves and beaches also support a diversity of plants, animals and insects crucial to the food chain . The high level of biodiversity creates a high level of biological activity, which has attracted human activity for thousands of years. Coasts also create essential material for organisms to live by, including estuaries, wetland , seagrass , coral reefs , and mangroves. Coasts provide habitats for migratory birds , sea turtles, marine mammals, and coral reefs. There are questions regarding

763-521: A lot of tourists also travel to resorts close to the sea or rivers or lakes to be able to experience these activities, and relax near the water. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14 also has targets aimed at enhancing the use of ecosystem services for sustainable tourism especially in Small Island Developing States . Estuarine and marine coastal ecosystems are both marine ecosystems . Together, these ecosystems perform

872-599: A major mud wedge with a distal depocenter, up to 60 m in thickness, has been deposited seaward in the Gulf of Martaban, extending to ~130 m water depth into the Martaban Depression. Further, 2) There is no evidence showing that modern sediment has accumulated or is transported into the Martaban Canyon; 3) There is a mud drape/blanket wrapping around the narrow western Myanmar Shelf in the eastern Bay of Bengal. The thickness of

981-699: A narrow valley between forest-covered mountain ranges—the ridge of the Arakan Mountains to the west and that of the Pegu Yoma Mountains to the east. The delta of the Irrawaddy begins about 93 kilometres (58 mi) above Hinthada (Henzada) and about 290 kilometres (180 mi) from its curved base, which faces the Andaman Sea. The westernmost distributary of the delta is the Pathein (Bassein) River, while

1090-484: A nutritional resource is not limited to low- and middle-income countries; more than 100 million people in the European Union (EU) regularly consume wild food. Some 2.4 billion people – in both urban and rural settings – use wood-based energy for cooking. Regulating services are the "benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes". These include: An example for water purification as an ecosystem service

1199-416: A practice where a deep circular cut through bark and sapwood is made into the heartwood. Other major goods that are transported from the nation's heartlands to Yangon for export are other foodstuffs, petroleum, cotton, and local commodities. Commercial transportation on the Irrawaddy is maintained for about 1,300 kilometres (810 mi): from Hinthada to Bhamo (1,080 kilometres (670 mi)) throughout

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1308-596: Is a separate river, tributary to the Yangon . After Rudyard Kipling 's poem, the river is sometimes referred to as ' The Road to Mandalay '. The Irrawaddy River bisects Myanmar from north to south and empties through the nine-armed Irrawaddy Delta into the Indian Ocean. The Irrawaddy River arises by the confluence of the N'mai (Nam Gio) and Mali Rivers in Kachin State . Both the N'mai and Mali Rivers find their sources in

1417-661: Is as follows: In New York City , where the quality of drinking water had fallen below standards required by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) , authorities opted to restore the polluted Catskill Watershed that had previously provided the city with the ecosystem service of water purification. Once the input of sewage and pesticides to the watershed area was reduced, natural abiotic processes such as soil absorption and filtration of chemicals, together with biotic recycling via root systems and soil microorganisms , water quality improved to levels that met government standards. The cost of this investment in natural capital

1526-612: Is derived from Pali . Irāvatī or Airāvatī ( Erāvatī in Pali) is the name of the elephant mount of Sakka and Indra in Hinduism. Saka is an important deva in Buddhism and elephants were often a symbol for water and were used as the name for several other rivers, such as the Achiravati . It can also be based on Iravati , who birthed the mythological elephant. The Irrawaddy gives its name to

1635-538: Is expected to cause a 9% decline in ecosystem services on average at global scale by 2100 Ecosystem-based adaptation (EBA or EbA) encompasses a broad set of approaches to adapt to climate change . They all involve the management of ecosystems and their services to reduce the vulnerability of human communities to the impacts of climate change . The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) defines EBA as "the use of biodiversity and ecosystem services as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people to adapt to

1744-541: Is infinite, so having debate about what is the total value of nature is actually pointless because we can't live without it'. As of 2012, many companies were not fully aware of the extent of their dependence and impact on ecosystems and the possible ramifications. Likewise, environmental management systems and environmental due diligence tools are more suited to handle "traditional" issues of pollution and natural resource consumption . Most focus on environmental impacts , not dependence. Several tools and methodologies can help

1853-572: Is involved, Kansai Electric Power Company . Due to its location and size, construction of the Myitsone Dam has raised significant ecological and sociological concerns. According to the Irrawaddy Myitsone Dam Multipurpose Water Utilizing Project study, the maximum water level of the reservoir will be 290 metres. This makes for a flood zone of 766 km , compromising 47 villages. Other consequences of

1962-460: Is made up of fanlike marshes with oxbow lakes , islands, and meandering streams . Birds of the delta are both winter visitors and passage migrants including great cormorant ( Phalacrocorax carbo ), a wide variety of Anatidae , Eurasian coot ( Fulica atra ), about thirty species of migratory shorebirds , the whiskered tern ( Chlidonias hybrida ), the Caspian tern ( Hydroprogne caspia ), and

2071-456: Is no longer under construction at the convergence of these rivers. The town of Bhamo , about 240 kilometres (150 mi) south of the Mali and N'mai river confluence, is the northernmost city reachable by boat all year round although during the monsoons most of the river cannot be used by boats. The city of Myitkyina lies 50 kilometres (31 mi) south of the confluence and can be reached during

2180-477: Is said to provide substantial ecosystem services to local communities, including benefits to carbon storage, resiliency to climate, and endangered species habitat. As of 2020, the Eglin Air Force Base is said to provide about $ 110 million in ecosystem services per year, $ 40 million more than if no base was present. Although monetary pricing continues with respect to the valuation of ecosystem services,

2289-568: Is the largest river in Myanmar . Originating from the confluence of the N'mai and Mali rivers, it flows from north to south before emptying through the Irrawaddy Delta in the Ayeyarwady Region into the Andaman Sea. Its drainage basin of about 404,000 square kilometres (156,000 sq mi) covers 61% of the land area of Burma , and contains five of its largest cities. As early as

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2398-453: Is the most important for plant life, is atmospheric humidity . This is always high, except in the winter in certain localities. Humidity usually does not fall below 75% and is 90% or more for long periods during summer. Another feature is the prevalent southerly summer winds which erode the soil of the basin. The natural habitats of this central zone have been much altered for farming and there are few protected areas. The predominant trees of

2507-722: Is usually assumed that humans benefit from a combination of these services. The services offered by diverse types of ecosystems (forests, seas, coral reefs, mangroves, etc.) differ in nature and in consequence. In fact, some services directly affect the livelihood of neighboring human populations (such as fresh water, food or aesthetic value, etc.) while other services affect general environmental conditions by which humans are indirectly impacted (such as climate change , erosion regulation or natural hazard regulation, etc.). The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment report 2005 defined ecosystem services as benefits people obtain from ecosystems and distinguishes four categories of ecosystem services, where

2616-589: The Bay of Bengal and South-East Asia. Along the north–south course of the Irrawaddy River, a number of notably different ecoregions can be distinguished. The streams of the Nmai and Mali that form the Irrawaddy originate in high and remote mountains near the border with Tibet . This part of Myanmar, which extends north from Myitkyina and the Irrawaddy confluence, lies entirely outside the tropics. Rain falls at all seasons of

2725-479: The European Union , just 60% of the yearly forest growth is harvested. Forests also provide non-wood forest products, including fodder, aromatic and medicinal plants, and wild foods. Worldwide, around 1 billion people depend to some extent on wild foods such as wild meat, edible insects, edible plant products, mushrooms and fish, which often contain high levels of key micronutrients. The value of forest foods as

2834-761: The People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1960, ending the political boundary dispute. Although Kachin Hills had been granted much autonomy under the 1947 constitution, the Myanmar government has since integrated it into the rest of the country, but not without the resistance of groups such as the Kachin Independence Organisation , which has fought the government since 1961. Irrawaddy River The Irrawaddy River ( Burmese : ဧရာဝတီမြစ် , pronounced [ʔèjàwədì mjɪʔ] , official romanisation: Ayeyarwady )

2943-548: The Sittaung River plain to the east of the delta was described in November 1877 as covering 300 square kilometres (100 sq mi) and containing millions of birds. Immense colonies still bred in the area in 1910, but the birds had disappeared completely by 1939. Small numbers were regularly reported in the delta in the 1940s, but no breeding sites were located. As of 2010 , no pelicans have been recorded, and it may well be that

3052-400: The [1] shows a 38% decrease in discharge compared to where the river enters the delta. it also silted up around 278 tons of sand every year. Variation between high and low water levels is also great. At Mandalay and Prome , a range of 9.66 to 11.37 metres (31.7–37.3 ft) has been measured between low-water level and flood level respectively. Because of the monsoonal character of

3161-469: The basin , the average population density is 79 people/km . For these people, the river supply amounts to 18,614 m per person per year. Collectively, the modern Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) and Thanlwin (Salween) rivers deliver >600 Mt/yr of sediment to the sea. Most recent study shows: 1) There is little modern sediment accumulating on the shelf immediately off the Ayeyarwady River mouths. In contrast,

3270-481: The brown-headed gull ( Larus brunnicephalus ), which is very common. One of the most numerous wintering shorebird is the lesser sand plover ( Charadrius mongolus ), which occurs in flocks of many thousands along the outer coast of the delta. The wood sandpiper ( Tringa glareola ) and red junglefowl ( Gallus gallus ) are also abundant. In the late 19th century, the spot-billed pelican ( Pelecanus philippensis ) nested in huge numbers in south Myanmar. One colony on

3379-450: The stone loach Malihkaia aligera in 2017), and it is likely that undescribed species remain. Among the most well-known species in the river is the Irrawaddy dolphin ( Orcaella brevirostris ), a euryhaline species of oceanic dolphin with a high and rounded forehead, lacking a beak. It is found in discontinuous sub-populations near sea coasts and in estuaries and rivers in parts of

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3488-1112: The 1990s is the marketing of ecosystem services protection. Payment and trading of services is an emerging worldwide small-scale solution where one can acquire credits for activities such as sponsoring the protection of carbon sequestration sources or the restoration of ecosystem service providers. In some cases, banks for handling such credits have been established and conservation companies have even gone public on stock exchanges, defining an evermore parallel link with economic endeavors and opportunities for tying into social perceptions. However, crucial for implementation are clearly defined land rights , which are often lacking in many developing countries . In particular, many forest-rich developing countries suffering deforestation experience conflict between different forest stakeholders. In addition, concerns for such global transactions include inconsistent compensation for services or resources sacrificed elsewhere and misconceived warrants for irresponsible use. As of 2001, another approach focused on protecting ecosystem service biodiversity hotspots . Recognition that

3597-617: The 1999 cyclone that hit India. Villages that were surrounded with mangrove forests encountered less damages than other villages that were not protected by mangroves. Supporting services are the services that allow for the other ecosystem services to be present. They have indirect impacts on humans that last over a long period of time. Several services can be considered as being both supporting services and regulating/cultural/provisioning services. Supporting services include for example nutrient cycling , primary production , soil formation , habitat provision. These services make it possible for

3706-459: The Andaman Sea through the Irrawaddy Delta. This ecoregion consists of mangroves and freshwater swamp forests. It is an extremely fertile area because of the river-borne silt deposited in the delta. The upper and central portions of the delta are almost entirely under cultivation , principally for rice. The southern portion of the ecoregion transitions into the Burmese Coast mangroves and

3815-462: The China – India route. By the twelfth century, a well-developed network of canals made for flourishing rice cultivation. Later, the river became a key economic tool of Imperial British interests, who set up trading ports along its shores. Today, the Irrawaddy is still the country's most important commercial waterway. Despite Mandalay's position as the chief rail and highway focus in northern Myanmar,

3924-583: The Himalayan glaciers of Upper Burma near 28° N. The eastern branch of the two, N'mai, is the largest and rises in the Languela Glacier north of Putao . It is unnavigable because of the strong current whereas the smaller western branch, the Mali River, is navigable, despite a few rapids . Therefore, the Mali River is still called by the same name as the main river by locals. The controversial Myitsone Dam

4033-652: The Indo-Burma and South Central China biodiversity hotspots . The Mali and N'mai River confluence region falls within the Mizoram-Manipur-Kachin rainforests , added to the WWF list of outstanding examples of biodiverse regions. The location of the Myitsone Dam, located less than 100 km from a fault line where the Eurasian and Indian tectonic plates meet, raised concerns about its earthquake resistance. Earthquakes in

4142-718: The Irrawaddy dolphin ( Orcaella brevirostris ), which is found in the lower reaches of the river and known to help fishers who practice cast-net fishing . Though called the Irrawaddy dolphin, it has been also found in the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean . During the Age of Discovery , the Irrawaddy was also known to European explorers as the Pegu as the main river of the Hanthawaddy Kingdom , itself known as Pegu after its capital, now romanized as Bago . The modern Pegu or Bago River

4251-577: The Mediterranean. It was not until the late 1940s that three key authors— Henry Fairfield Osborn, Jr , William Vogt , and Aldo Leopold —promoted recognition of human dependence on the environment. In 1956, Paul Sears drew attention to the critical role of the ecosystem in processing wastes and recycling nutrients. In 1970, Paul Ehrlich and Rosa Weigert called attention to "ecological systems" in their environmental science textbook and "the most subtle and dangerous threat to man's existence ...

4360-461: The Middle Rio Grande basin of New Mexico. This study focused on modeling the stakeholder inputs across a spatial decision, but ignored uncertainty. Another study used Monte Carlo methods to exercise econometric models of landowner decisions in a study of the effects of land-use change . Here the stakeholder inputs were modeled as random effects to reflect the uncertainty. A third study used

4469-480: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment lumped all of these together as ecosystem services . Four different types of ecosystem services have been distinguished by the scientific body: regulating services, provisioning services, cultural services and supporting services. An ecosystem does not necessarily offer all four types of services simultaneously; but given the intricate nature of any ecosystem, it

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4578-411: The Myitsone Dam construction will alter the hydrological characteristics of the river, e.g. preventing sediment from enriching riverbanks downstream, where it usually enriches the riverside food-producing plains. This can affect fertility as far downstream as the Irrawaddy Delta , the major rice-producing area of Myanmar. Ecological concerns focus on the inundation of an area that is the border of

4687-505: The Sana Kachins from beyond the administrative border rendered punitive measures necessary, in the eyes of British colonists. No retaliation had taken place since the attack on Myitkyina in December 1892. Now two columns were sent up, one of 250 rifles from Myitkyina, the other of 200 rifles from Mogaung , marching in December 1895. The resistance was insignificant, and the fighting resulted in

4796-761: The South-East Asian region, with most going to China. Other countries targeted for power export are Thailand , India and Bangladesh . The largest of the seven, the Myitsone Dam , is located at the confluence of the Mali and N'Mai Rivers at the creation of the Irrawaddy. Although the China Power Investment Corporation is project manager of the Confluence Region Hydropower Projects. ParConfluence Region Hydropower Projects, several companies have been or are currently involved in

4905-432: The adverse effects of climate change ". Ecosystem services decisions require making complex choices at the intersection of ecology , technology , society , and the economy . The process of making ecosystem services decisions must consider the interaction of many types of information, honor all stakeholder viewpoints, including regulatory agencies , proposal proponents, decision makers, residents, NGOs , and measure

5014-481: The basis of all food webs. Further, it generates oxygen (O2), a molecule necessary to sustain animals and humans. On average, a human consumes about 550 liter of oxygen per day, whereas plants produce 1,5 liter of oxygen per 10 grams of growth. Cultural services relate to the non-material world, as they benefit the benefit recreational, aesthetic, cognitive and spiritual activities, which are not easily quantifiable in monetary terms. They include: As of 2012, there

5123-411: The best grassland management solution for concrete grassland. It will look holistically at the processes in the countryside and help to find best grassland management solutions by taking into account both natural and socioeconomic factors of the particular site. While the notion of human dependence on Earth's ecosystems reaches to the start of Homo sapiens ' existence, the term 'natural capital'

5232-688: The challenges in policy implementation and management are significant and considerable. The administration of common pool resources has been a subject of extensive academic pursuit. From defining the problems to finding solutions that can be applied in practical and sustainable ways, there is much to overcome. Considering options must balance present and future human needs, and decision-makers must frequently work from valid but incomplete information. Existing legal policies are often considered insufficient since they typically pertain to human health-based standards that are mismatched with necessary means to protect ecosystem health and services. In 2000, to improve

5341-553: The coasts of the Rakhine State and Tanintharyi Region . On the Chindwin River , transportation is carried on by steam or diesel vessels throughout the year up to Homalin —about 640 km from its confluence with the Irrawaddy. Seasonal navigation is carried on into Tamanthi , which is 57 miles (92 km) by river above Homalin. The Chindwin valley has no railroad and relies heavily on river transport. Chauk , downstream from

5450-477: The concept of cultural ecosystem services that builds on three arguments: The Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) is a classification scheme developed to accounting systems (like National counts etc.), in order to avoid double-counting of Supporting Services with others Provisioning and Regulating Services. Sea sports are very popular among coastal populations: surfing, snorkeling, whale watching, kayaking, recreational fishing ...

5559-479: The confluence in the oil-field district, is a petroleum port. It is linked to Yangon by road and rail. Hinthada , near the apex of the delta, is the rail junction for lines leading to Kyangin and Bassein (Pathein). A ferry operates between Hinthada on the west bank and the railway station at Tharrawaw on the east bank. Myanmar's military junta signed an agreement with China Power Investment Corporation in May 2007 for

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5668-481: The conservation of many ecosystem services aligns with more traditional conservation goals (i.e. biodiversity ) has led to the suggested merging of objectives for maximizing their mutual success. This may be particularly strategic when employing networks that permit the flow of services across landscapes , and might also facilitate securing the financial means to protect services through a diversification of investors. For example, as of 2013, there had been interest in

5777-534: The construction of seven hydroelectric dams along the Irrawaddy, Mali , and N'Mai River in Kachin State. The total planned output of all seven plants will be 15,160 MWs of electricity, making it the largest hydropower project in Myanmar, surpassing the 7100 MW Tasang Dam in Shan State. The following data is available for the dam locations: The power generated by the dams will be transmitted to other countries in

5886-460: The construction of seven hydroelectric dams , yielding a total of 13,360 MW, in the N'mai and Mali Rivers, including the 3600 MW Myitsone Dam at the confluence of both rivers. Environmental organisations have raised concerns about the project's ecological impact on the river's biodiverse ecosystems . Animals potentially impacted include the endangered Irrawaddy dolphin and the critically endangered Ganges shark . The name "Irrawaddy"

5995-415: The country with numbers as high as 10,000 animals, but in the last decade numbers have dwindled, partly due to transferring the animals to logging camps. Other species reported to be present include the leopard , Bengal tiger , crab-eating macaque , wild dog , and otters ( Panthera pardus, P. tigris, Cuon alpinus , and Lutra species). The saltwater crocodile ( Crocodylus porosus ) can be found in

6104-451: The drier patches are the thorny Terminalia oliveri and the hardwood dahat teak ( Tectona hamiltoniana ) with stands of Indaing ( Dipterocarpus tuberculatus ) which is cut for timber. The wildlife includes many birds, small mammals and reptiles such as the huge Burmese python . However, most of the large animals including the tiger have been hunted out or seen their habitats disappear. The Irrawaddy River and its tributaries flow into

6213-506: The dry season. Between Myitkyina and Mandalay , the Irrawaddy flows through three well-marked defiles : This sheet of lava is the Singu Plateau , a volcanic field from the Holocene . This field consists of magma from the fissure vents and covers an area of about 62 square kilometres (24 sq mi). The plateau is also known as Letha Taung. Leaving this plateau at Kyaukmyaung ,

6322-419: The dynamics of ecological processes relative to ecosystem services is essential in aiding economic decisions. Weighting factors such as a service's irreplaceability or bundled services can also allocate economic value such that goal attainment becomes more efficient. The economic valuation of ecosystem services also involves social communication and information, areas that remain particularly challenging and are

6431-511: The early 2000s has made this concept better known. Ecosystem services or eco-services are defined as the goods and services provided by ecosystems to humans. Per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ecosystem services are "the benefits people obtain from ecosystems". The MA also delineated the four categories of ecosystem services into provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural. By 2010, there had evolved various working definitions and descriptions of ecosystem services in

6540-561: The easternmost stream is the Yangon River, on the left bank of which stands Myanmar's former capital city, Yangon (Rangoon). Because the Yangon River is only a minor channel, the flow of water is insufficient to prevent Yangon Harbour from silting up, and dredging is necessary. The relief of the delta's landscape is low but not flat. The soils consist of fine silt, which is replenished continuously by fertile alluvium carried downstream by

6649-425: The ecosystems to continue providing services such as food supply, flood regulation, and water purification. Nutrient cycling is the movement of nutrients through an ecosystem by biotic and abiotic processes. The ocean is a vast storage pool for these nutrients, such as carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus. The nutrients are absorbed by the basic organisms of the marine food web and are thus transferred from one organism to

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6758-400: The environmental and economic values of ecosystem services. Some people may be unaware of the environment in general and humanity's interrelatedness with the natural environment, which may cause misconceptions. Although environmental awareness is rapidly improving in our contemporary world, ecosystem capital and its flow are still poorly understood, threats continue to impose, and we suffer from

6867-418: The fish in the Irrawaddy river basin currently exists, but in 1996 it was estimated that there are about 200 species. In 2008, it was estimated that the Irrawaddy ecoregion is home to 119–195 species of fish found nowhere else in the world ( endemic ). Several new species of fish have been described from the Irrawaddy river basin in recent years (for example, the cyprinid Danio htamanthinus in 2016 and

6976-602: The focus of many researchers. In general, the idea is that although individuals make decisions for any variety of reasons, trends reveal the aggregated preferences of a society, from which the economic value of services can be inferred and assigned. The six major methods for valuing ecosystem services in monetary terms are: A peer-reviewed study published in 1997 estimated the value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital to be between US$ 16 and $ 54 trillion per year, with an average of US$ 33 trillion per year. However, Salles (2011) indicated 'The total value of biodiversity

7085-696: The four categories of ecosystem services in a variety of ways: The provisioning services include forest products, marine products, fresh water , raw materials, biochemical and genetic resources. Regulating services include carbon sequestration (contributing to climate change mitigation ) as well as waste treatment and disease regulation and buffer zones. Supporting services of coastal ecosystems include nutrient cycling , biologically mediated habitats and primary production . Cultural services of coastal ecosystems include inspirational aspects, recreation and tourism , science and education. Coasts and their adjacent areas on and offshore are an important part of

7194-485: The four categories of ecosystem services in several ways. Firstly, their provisioning services include marine resources and genetic resources . Secondly, their supporting services include nutrient cycling and primary production . Thirdly, their regulating services include carbon sequestration (which helps with climate change mitigation ) and flood control. Lastly, their cultural services include recreation and tourism . The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) in

7303-502: The health and extent of land cover classes that provide ecosystem services, which aids in planning, management, monitoring of stakeholders' actions, and communication between stakeholders. In Baltic countries scientists, nature conservationists and local authorities are implementing integrated planning approach for grassland ecosystems. They are developing an integrated planning tool based on GIS (geographic information system) technology and put online that will help for planners to choose

7412-411: The impacts on all four parts of the intersection. These decisions are usually spatial , always multi-objective , and based on uncertain data, models, and estimates. Often it is the combination of the best science combined with the stakeholder values, estimates and opinions that drive the process. One analytical study modeled the stakeholders as agents to support water resource management decisions in

7521-543: The information available, the implementation of an Ecosystem Services Framework has been suggested (ESF ), which integrates the biophysical and socio-economic dimensions of protecting the environment and is designed to guide institutions through multidisciplinary information and jargon, helping to direct strategic choices. As of 2005 Local to regional collective management efforts were considered appropriate for services like crop pollination or resources like water. Another approach that has become increasingly popular during

7630-480: The inundation include loss of farmland, loss of spawning habitat as fish can not swim upstream anymore. The Kachin Development Networking Group, a network of civil society groups and development organisations in Kachin State warn this will lead to a loss of income for fishermen. They report locals are also worried about the flooding of cultural sites in the flood zone. As with other large dam projects,

7739-407: The land". Wetlands (which include saltwater swamps , salt marshes , ...) and the vegetation it supports – trees, root mats, etc. – retain large amounts of water (surface water, snowmelt, rain, groundwater) and then slowly releases them back, decreasing the likeliness of floods. Mangrove forests protect coastal shorelines from tidal erosion or erosion by currents; a process that was studied after

7848-561: The left bank of the Irrawaddy for the country south of the Nmaikha , and on the right bank for the country south of a line drawn from the confluence of the Malikha and Nmaikha through the northern limit of the Laban district and including the jade mines. The tribes north of this line were told that if they abstained from raiding to the south of it they would not be interfered with. South of that line peace

7957-477: The list of "ecosystem engineers"—organisms that physically, biologically or chemically modify the environment around them in ways that influence the health of other organisms. Many of the ecological functions and processes performed or affected by shellfish contribute to human well-being by providing a stream of valuable ecosystem services over time by filtering out particulate materials and potentially mitigating water quality issues by controlling excess nutrients in

8066-608: The literature. To prevent double-counting in ecosystem services audits, for instance, The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) replaced "Supporting Services" in the MA with "Habitat Services" and "ecosystem functions", defined as "a subset of the interactions between ecosystem structure and processes that underpin the capacity of an ecosystem to provide goods and services". While Gretchen Daily 's original definition distinguished between ecosystem goods and ecosystem services , Robert Costanza and colleagues' later work and that of

8175-469: The main wood-based product groups ranged from 1 percent (woodbased panels) to 5 percent (industrial roundwood). The fastest growth occurred in the Asia-Pacific, Northern American and European regions, likely due to positive economic growth in these areas. Over 40% of the territory in the European Union is covered by forests. This region has grown via afforestation by roughly 0.4% year in recent decades. In

8284-400: The mud deposit is up to 20 m nearshore and gradually thins to the slope at −300 m water depth, and likely escapes into the deep Andaman Trench; 4) The estimated total amount of Holocene sediments deposited offshore is ~1290 × 10 tons. If we assume this has mainly accumulated since the middle Holocene highstand (~6000 yr BP) like other major deltas, the historical annual mean depositional flux on

8393-450: The northern tip of Myanmar – the Kachin State – they cut long north–south alluvial plains and relatively narrow upland valleys between the 2,000 to 3,000 metres (7,000–10,000 ft) mountain ridges. The rivers joining the Irrawaddy are, from north to south: As early as the sixth century, the Bamars were using the Irrawaddy to gain power in the region through trade and transport on

8502-738: The only way across the Irrawaddy was by ferry. The bridge was destroyed by the retreating British Army during World War II and was rebuilt in 1954 after Burmese independence and was the only bridge to span the Irrawaddy until recent times when a spate of bridge construction has been carried out by the government. Ecosystem service Ecosystem services are the various benefits that humans derive from healthy ecosystems . These ecosystems, when functioning well, offer such things as provision of food, natural pollination of crops, clean air and water, decomposition of wastes, or flood control . Ecosystem services are grouped into four broad categories of services. There are provisioning services , such as

8611-557: The other and from one ecosystem to the other. Nutrients are recycled through the life cycle of organisms as they die and decompose, releasing the nutrients into the neighboring environment. "The service of nutrient cycling eventually impacts all other ecosystem services as all living things require a constant supply of nutrients to survive". Primary production refers to the production of organic matter, i.e., chemically bound energy, through processes such as photosynthesis and chemosynthesis. The organic matter produced by primary producers forms

8720-448: The potential destruction, by man's own activities, of those ecological systems upon which the very existence of the human species depends". The term environmental services was introduced in a 1970 report of the Study of Critical Environmental Problems , which listed services including insect pollination, fisheries , climate regulation and flood control. In following years, variations of

8829-555: The preparation, construction and financing of the 3,600 MW Myitsone Dam. Asia World Company has a key position, amidst Burmese Suntac Technologies and state-run Myanmar Electrical Power Enterprise, a state-owned utility enterprise responsible for power generation, transmission and distribution Chinese involvement comes from China Power Investment Corporation , China Southern Power Grid , Yunnan Machinery Equipment Import & Export Company Changjiang Institute of Surveying, Planning, Design and Research. At least one Japanese company

8938-635: The private sector value and assess ecosystem services, including Our Ecosystem, the 2008 Corporate Ecosystem Services Review, the Artificial Intelligence for Environment & Sustainability (ARIES) project from 2007, the Natural Value Initiative (2012) and InVEST (Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services & Tradeoffs, 2012) To provide an example of a cost comparison: The land of the United States Department of Defense

9047-433: The production of food and water. Regulating services , such as the control of climate and disease. Supporting services , such as nutrient cycles and oxygen production. And finally there are cultural services , such as spiritual and recreational benefits. Evaluations of ecosystem services may include assigning an economic value to them. For example, estuarine and coastal ecosystems are marine ecosystems that perform

9156-549: The production of timber, forestry activities may also result in products that undergo little processing, such as fire wood, charcoal, wood chips and roundwood used in an unprocessed form. Global production and trade of all major wood-based products recorded their highest ever values in 2018. Production, imports and exports of roundwood, sawnwood, wood-based panels, wood pulp, wood charcoal and pellets reached their maximum quantities since 1947 when FAO started reporting global forest product statistics. In 2018, growth in production of

9265-550: The rain, the highest point is recorded in August, the lowest in February. This variation in water level makes it necessary for ports along the river to have separate landing ports for low- and high-water. Still, low water levels have caused problems for ports along the river, as in the Bamaw – Mandalay – Pyay sectors, the shallowest point is as shallow as 60 centimetres (2.0 ft). Within

9374-582: The region, such as the 5.3 magnitude earthquake that struck near the Myanmar-China border on 20 August 2008, prompted Naw Lar, the coordinator of the KDNG dam research project, to ask the junta to reconsider its dam projects. The river flows through or past the following cities: Until the construction of the Ava (Innwa) Bridge, a 16 span rail and road cantilever bridge built by the British colonial government in 1934,

9483-453: The river follows a broad, open course through the central Dry Zone – the Bamar people's ancient cultural heartland – where large areas consist of alluvial flats. From Mandalay (the former capital of the kingdom of Myanmar), the river makes an abrupt westward turn before curving southwest to unite with the Chindwin River , after which it continues in a southwestern direction. It is probable that

9592-422: The river. As a result of heavy rainfall varying from 2,000 to 3,000 millimetres (79–118 in) a year in the delta, and the motion and sediment load of the river, the delta surface extends into the Andaman Sea at a rate of about 50 metres (160 ft) per year. Due to monsoonal rains, which occur between mid-May and mid-October, the volume of the Irrawaddy and its tributaries varies greatly throughout

9701-515: The shelf would be 215 Mt/yr, which is equivalent to ~35% of the modern Ayeyarwady-Thanlwin rivers derived sediments; 5) Unlike other large river systems in Asia, such as the Yangtze and Mekong, this study indicates a bi-directional transport and depositional pattern controlled by the local currents that are influenced by tides, and seasonally varying monsoons winds and waves. No complete and precise list of all

9810-447: The sixth century, the river was used for trade and transport, and an extensive network of irrigation canals was developed to support agriculture. The river is still of great importance as the largest commercial waterway of Myanmar. It also provides important ecosystem services to different communities and economic sectors, including agriculture, fisheries, and tourism. In 2007, Myanmar's military dictatorship signed an agreement for

9919-507: The so-called ' tragedy of the commons '. Many efforts to inform decision-makers of current versus future costs and benefits now involve organizing and translating scientific knowledge to economics , which articulate the consequences of our choices in comparable units of impact on human well-being. An especially challenging aspect of this process is that interpreting ecological information collected from one spatial-temporal scale does not necessarily mean it can be applied at another; understanding

10028-462: The so-called supporting services are regarded as the basis for the services of the other three categories. Provisioning services consist of all "the products obtained from ecosystems". The following services are also known as ecosystem goods : Forests and forest management produce a large type and variety of timber products, including roundwood, sawnwood, panels, and engineered wood, e.g., cross-laminated timber, as well as pulp and paper. Besides

10137-413: The southern part of the delta. The species was formerly abundant in coastal regions, but population numbers have decreased because of a combination of commercial skin hunting, habitat loss, drowning in fishing nets and over-collection of living animals to supply crocodile farms . It was at this river that a battle between a saltwater crocodile and a tiger was observed that ended with the reptile devouring

10246-467: The species is now extinct in Myanmar. Several species of large mammal occur in the delta, but their populations are small and scattered, with the possible exceptions of the Malayan sambar deer ( Cervus unicolor equinus ), Indian hog deer ( C. porcinus ), and wild boar ( Sus scrofa ), which have been reported from all Reserved Forests. Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus ) were once widespread throughout

10355-414: The term were used, but eventually 'ecosystem services' became the standard in scientific literature. The ecosystem services concept has continued to expand and includes socio-economic and conservation objectives. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO ( license statement/permission ). Text taken from The State of

10464-522: The tiger. Despite recent declines in the sea turtle populations, five species are known to nest in Myanmar at well known island and mainland beaches known as turtle-banks. These are the olive ridley sea turtle ( Lepidochelys olivacea ), the loggerhead sea turtle ( Caretta caretta ), the green sea turtle ( Chelonia mydas ), the hawksbill sea turtle ( Eretmochelys imbricata ), and the leatherback sea turtle ( Dermochelys coriacea ). The Irrawaddy River has five major tributaries. As they flow through

10573-540: The upper Irrawaddy originally flowed south from Mandalay, discharging its water through the present Sittaung River to the Gulf of Martaban , and that its present westward course is geologically recent. Below its confluence with the Chindwin, the Irrawaddy continues to meander through the petroleum producing city of Yenangyaung , below which it flows generally southward. In its lower course, between Minbu and Pyay , it flows through

10682-504: The valley of the middle Irrawaddy and lower Chindwin. It lies within the 'dry zone' and consists almost entirely of plains covered with the teak -dominated Irrawaddy moist deciduous forests ecoregion , which surrounds dry forest patches in drier areas. The central basin receives little rain (ave 650mm per year) although it does flood quickly during the July–October storms. The one meteorological factor which does not vary greatly, and which

10791-453: The valuation of ecosystem services provided by shellfish production and restoration. A keystone species, low in the food chain, bivalve shellfish such as oysters support a complex community of species by performing a number of functions essential to the diverse array of species that surround them. There is also increasing recognition that some shellfish species may impact or control many ecological processes; so much so that they are included on

10900-636: The water. As of 2018, the concept of ecosystem services had not been properly implemented into international and regional legislation yet. Notwithstanding, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 15 has a target to ensure the conservation, restoration, and sustainable use of ecosystem services. An estimated $ 125 trillion to $ 140 trillion is added to the economy each year by all ecosystem services. However, many of these services are at risk due to climate and other anthropogenic impacts. Climate-driven shifts in biome ranges

11009-470: The year, but from Bhamo to Myitkyina (200 km) for only seven months. More than 3,200 kilometres (2,000 mi) of navigable waterways exist in the Irrawaddy delta, and there is a system of connecting canals. The Sittang is usable by smaller boats, but the Salween River , because of its rapids, is navigable for less than 160 kilometres (99 mi) from the sea. Small steamers and country boats also serve

11118-709: The year, but mostly in the summer. The valleys and lower hill ranges are covered with tropical and subtropical evergreen rainforest instead of monsoon (deciduous) forest. This region is characterised by subtropical and temperate forests of oak and pine are found at elevations above 900 metres (3,000 ft). This evergreen forest passes into sub-tropical pine forest at about 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) feet. Above 1,800 metres (5,900 ft), are forests of rhododendrons , and that in turn into evergreen conifer forest above 2,400 metres (7,900 ft) feet. The Irrawaddy river basin covers an approximate area of 255 81 km (31 sq mi). The Central Basin consists of

11227-539: The year. In summer, the melting of the snow and glaciers in Northern Burma add to the volume. The average discharge near the head of the delta is between a high of 32,600 cubic metres (1,150,000 cu ft) and a low of 2,300 cubic metres (81,000 cu ft) per second. The discharge can be as high as 40,393 cubic meter per second in the rainy season. Over a year, the discharge averages 15,112 cubic metres (533,700 cu ft). Further North, at Sagaing ,

11336-407: Was a discussion as to how the concept of cultural ecosystem services could be operationalized, how landscape aesthetics, cultural heritage, outdoor recreation, and spiritual significance to define can fit into the ecosystem services approach. who vote for models that explicitly link ecological structures and functions with cultural values and benefits. Likewise, there has been a fundamental critique of

11445-470: Was estimated at $ 1–1.5 billion, which contrasted dramatically with the estimated $ 6–8 billion cost of constructing a water filtration plant plus the $ 300 million annual running costs. Pollination of crops by bees is required for 15–30% of U.S. food production ; most large-scale farmers import non-native honey bees to provide this service. A 2005 study reported that in California's agricultural region, it

11554-476: Was first coined by E. F. Schumacher in 1973 in his book Small is Beautiful . Recognition of how ecosystems could provide complex services to humankind date back to at least Plato (c. 400 BC) who understood that deforestation could lead to soil erosion and the drying of springs. Modern ideas of ecosystem services probably began when Marsh challenged in 1864 the idea that Earth's natural resources are unbounded by pointing out changes in soil fertility in

11663-480: Was found that wild bees alone could provide partial or complete pollination services or enhance the services provided by honey bees through behavioral interactions. However, intensified agricultural practices can quickly erode pollination services through the loss of species. The remaining species are unable to compensate this. The results of this study also indicate that the proportion of chaparral and oak-woodland habitat available for wild bees within 1–2 km of

11772-599: Was occupied by the British on December 28, 1885, and almost immediately, trouble began. Constant punitive measures were carried out by the military police ; but in December 1892, a police column proceeding to establish a post at Sima was heavily attacked, and simultaneously the town of Myitkyina was raided by Kachin fighters. A force of 1,200 troops was sent to put down the rebellion. The Kachin fighters received their final blow at Palap , but not before three British officers were killed, three wounded and 102 sepoys and followers killed and wounded. The continued "misconduct" of

11881-426: Was to be enforced and a small tribute taken, with a minimum of interference in their private affairs. On the British side of the border, the chief objects of Britain's colonial policy were the disarmament of the tribes and construction of frontier and internal roads. A small tribute was taken by the British. The Kachins were subject to many British "police operations" and two fighting expeditions: The city of Bhamo

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