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48-625: KRACK (" Key Reinstallation Attack ") is a replay attack (a type of exploitable flaw) on the Wi-Fi Protected Access protocol that secures Wi-Fi connections. It was discovered in 2016 by the Belgian researchers Mathy Vanhoef and Frank Piessens of the University of Leuven . Vanhoef's research group published details of the attack in October 2017. By repeatedly resetting the nonce transmitted in

96-483: A nonce (a kind of " shared secret ") in the WPA2 protocol. The standard for WPA2 anticipates occasional Wi-Fi disconnections, and allows reconnection using the same value for the third handshake (for quick reconnection and continuity). Because the standard does not require a different key to be used in this type of reconnection, which could be needed at any time, a replay attack is possible. An attacker can repeatedly re-send

144-540: A CNA requests a block of CVE numbers in advance (e.g., Red Hat currently requests CVEs in blocks of 500), the CVE number will be marked as reserved even though the CVE itself may not be assigned by the CNA for some time. Until the CVE is assigned, Mitre is made aware of it (i.e., the embargo passes and the issue is made public), and Mitre has researched the issue and written a description of it, entries will show up as "** RESERVED **". This

192-434: A CVE assignment at first place – a decision which Mitre can't reverse. The "!CVE" (not CVE) project, announced in 2023, aims to collect vulnerabilities that are denied by vendors, so long as they are considered valid by a panel of experts from the project. CVE identifiers have been awarded for bogus issues and issues without security consequences. In response, a number of open-source projects have themselves applied to become

240-423: A buffer for later use. Upon further attempts to unlock the vehicle, the transmitter will jam the new signal, buffer it, and playback an old one, creating a rolling buffer that is one step ahead of the vehicle. At a later time, the attacker may use this buffered code to unlock the vehicle. Various devices use speaker recognition to verify the identity of a speaker. In text-dependent systems, an attacker can record

288-414: A component number. This combination of solutions does not use anything that is interdependent on one another. Due to the fact that there is no interdependency, there are fewer vulnerabilities. This works because a unique, random session ID is created for each run of the program; thus, a previous run becomes more difficult to replicate. In this case, an attacker would be unable to perform the replay because on

336-525: A delayed frame transmission, thereby denying them access to the network, provided TDLS is not enabled. One disadvantage of this method is that, with poor connectivity, key reinstallation failure may cause failure of the Wi-Fi link. In October 2018, reports emerged that the KRACK vulnerability was still exploitable in spite of vendor patches, through a variety of workarounds for the techniques used by vendors to close off

384-527: A later date in order to produce an effect. For example, if a banking scheme were to be vulnerable to this attack, a message which results in the transfer of funds could be replayed over and over to transfer more funds than originally intended. However, the Kerberos protocol, as implemented in Microsoft Windows Active Directory, includes the use of a scheme involving time stamps to severely limit

432-437: A later time (when the previously predicted token is actually presented by Bob), and Bob will accept the authentication . One-time passwords are similar to session tokens in that the password expires after it has been used or after a very short amount of time. They can be used to authenticate individual transactions in addition to sessions. These can also be used during the authentication process to help establish trust between

480-510: A message, she includes her best estimate of the time on his clock in her message, which is also authenticated. Bob only accepts messages for which the timestamp is within a reasonable tolerance. Timestamps are also implemented during mutual authentication , when both Bob and Alice authenticate each other with unique session IDs, in order to prevent the replay attacks. The advantages of this scheme are that Bob does not need to generate (pseudo-) random numbers and that Alice doesn't need to ask Bob for

528-401: A minimum of four digits. CVE attempts to assign one CVE per security issue; however, in many cases this would lead to an extremely large number of CVEs (e.g., where several dozen cross-site scripting vulnerabilities are found in a PHP application due to lack of use of htmlspecialchars() or the insecure creation of files in /tmp ). To deal with this, guidelines (subject to change) cover

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576-486: A new run the session ID would have changed. Session IDs , also known as session tokens, are one mechanism that can be used to help avoid replay attacks. The way of generating a session ID works as follows. Session tokens should be chosen by a random process (usually, pseudorandom processes are used). Otherwise, Eve may be able to pose as Bob, presenting some predicted future token, and convince Alice to use that token in her transformation. Eve can then replay her reply at

624-408: A patch, or not provide patches at all in the case of many older devices. Patches are available for different devices to protect against KRACK, starting at these versions: In order to mitigate risk on vulnerable clients, some WPA2-enabled Wi-Fi access points have configuration options that can disable EAPOL-Key frame re-transmission during key installation. Attackers cannot cause re-transmissions with

672-404: A random number. In networks that are unidirectional or near unidirectional, it can be an advantage. The trade-off being that replay attacks, if they are performed quickly enough, i.e. within that 'reasonable' limit, could succeed. The Kerberos authentication protocol includes some countermeasures. In the classic case of a replay attack, a message is captured by an adversary and then replayed at

720-675: A reference method for publicly known information-security vulnerabilities and exposures. The United States' National Cybersecurity FFRDC , operated by The MITRE Corporation , maintains the system, with funding from the US National Cyber Security Division of the US Department of Homeland Security . The system was officially launched for the public in September 1999. The Security Content Automation Protocol uses CVE, and CVE IDs are listed on Mitre's system as well as in

768-417: A smart kettle, unlocking doors, or manipulating security systems. Such breaches pose significant safety, security, and privacy risks, as malicious actors can gain control over critical home systems. Replay attacks exploit the lack of robust security measures in many IoT devices. These attacks typically involve eavesdropping on network traffic, capturing legitimate communication packets, and then replaying them to

816-442: A wide array of devices, including smart plugs, security cameras, and even household appliances. A recent study demonstrated that a substantial portion of consumer IoT devices are prone to replay attacks. Researchers found that 75% of tested devices supporting local connectivity were vulnerable to such attacks. These vulnerabilities allow attackers to mimic legitimate commands, potentially enabling unauthorized actions such as turning on

864-503: Is a dictionary of common names (i.e., CVE Identifiers) for publicly known information security vulnerabilities. CVE's common identifiers make it easier to share data across separate network security databases and tools, and provide a baseline for evaluating the coverage of an organization's security tools. If a report from one of your security tools incorporates CVE Identifiers, you may then quickly and accurately access fix information in one or more separate CVE-compatible databases to remediate

912-417: Is a standardized text description of the issue(s). One common entry is: ** RESERVED ** This candidate has been reserved by an organization or individual that will use it when announcing a new security problem. When the candidate has been publicized, the details for this candidate will be provided. This means that the entry number has been reserved by Mitre for an issue or a CNA has reserved the number. So when

960-422: Is included in the "publicly released" category, but custom-built software that is not distributed would generally not be given a CVE. Additionally services (e.g., a Web-based email provider) are not assigned CVEs for vulnerabilities found in the service (e.g., an XSS vulnerability) unless the issue exists in an underlying software product that is publicly distributed. The CVE database contains several fields: This

1008-556: Is known, and the attacker can read the target's entire traffic on that connection. According to US-CERT : "US-CERT has become aware of several key management vulnerabilities in the 4-way handshake of the Wi-Fi Protected Access II (WPA2) security protocol. The impact of exploiting these vulnerabilities includes decryption, packet replay, TCP connection hijacking, HTTP content injection, and others. Note that as protocol-level issues, most or all correct implementations of

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1056-614: Is one of the lower-tier versions of a man-in-the-middle attack . Replay attacks are usually passive in nature. Another way of describing such an attack is: "an attack on a security protocol using a replay of messages from a different context into the intended (or original and expected) context, thereby fooling the honest participant(s) into thinking they have successfully completed the protocol run." Suppose Alice wants to prove her identity to Bob. Bob requests her password as proof of identity, which Alice dutifully provides (possibly after some transformation like hashing , or even salting ,

1104-469: Is provided by these three keys help aid in preventing replay attacks. Wireless ad hoc networks are also susceptible to replay attacks. In this case, the authentication system can be improved and made stronger by extending the AODV protocol. This method of improving the security of Ad Hoc networks increases the security of the network with a small amount of overhead. If there were to be extensive overhead then

1152-547: Is the date the entry was created. For CVEs assigned directly by Mitre, this is the date Mitre created the CVE entry. For CVEs assigned by CNAs (e.g., Microsoft, Oracle, HP, Red Hat) this is also the date that was created by Mitre, not by the CNA. When a CNA requests a block of CVE numbers in advance (e.g., Red Hat currently requests CVEs in blocks of 500) the entry date that CVE is assigned to the CNA. The following fields were previously used in CVE records, but are no longer used. In order to support CVE ID's beyond CVE-YEAR-9999 (aka

1200-514: The 'CVE10k problem' ) a change was made to the CVE syntax in 2014 and took effect on Jan 13, 2015. The new CVE-ID syntax is variable length and includes: CVE prefix + Year + Arbitrary Digits The variable-length arbitrary digits will begin at four fixed digits and expand with arbitrary digits only when needed in a calendar year; for example, CVE-YYYY-NNNN and if needed CVE-YYYY-NNNNN, CVE-YYYY-NNNNNN, and so on. This also means no changes will be needed to previously assigned CVE-IDs, which all include

1248-449: The KRACK vulnerability: CVE - 2017-13077 , CVE- 2017-13078 , CVE- 2017-13079 , CVE- 2017-13080 , CVE- 2017-13081 , CVE- 2017-13082 , CVE- 2017-13084 , CVE- 2017-13086 , CVE- 2017-13087 and CVE - 2017-13088 . Some WPA2 users may counter the attack by updating Wi-Fi client and access point device software, if they have devices for which vendor patches are available. However, vendors may delay in offering

1296-502: The US National Vulnerability Database . MITRE Corporation's documentation defines CVE Identifiers (also called "CVE names", "CVE numbers", "CVE-IDs", and "CVEs") as unique, common identifiers for publicly known information-security vulnerabilities in publicly released software packages. Historically, CVE identifiers had a status of "candidate" ("CAN-") and could then be promoted to entries ("CVE-"), but this practice

1344-400: The authenticating server then sends its acknowledgment in response to this; an intercepting client is therefore, free to read transmitted data and impersonate each of the client and server to the other, as well as being able to then store client credentials for later impersonation to the server. Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP) secures against this sort of replay attack during

1392-658: The authentication phase by instead using a "challenge" message from the authenticator that the client responds with a hash-computed value based on a shared secret (e.g. the client's password), which the authenticator compares with its own calculation of the challenge and shared secret to authenticate the client. By relying on a shared secret that has not itself been transmitted, as well as other features such as authenticator-controlled repetition of challenges, and changing identifier and challenge values, CHAP provides limited protection against replay attacks. There are several real-world examples of how replay attacks have been used and how

1440-432: The effectiveness of replay attacks. Messages which are past the "time to live (TTL)" are considered old and are discarded. There have been improvements proposed, including the use of a triple password scheme. These three passwords are used with the authentication server, ticket-granting server, and TGS. These servers use the passwords to encrypt messages with secret keys between the different servers. The encryption that

1488-449: The entry is not researched and written up by MITRE due to resource issues. The benefit of early CVE candidacy is that all future correspondence can refer to the CVE number. Information on getting CVE identifiers for issues with open source projects is available from Red Hat and GitHub . CVEs are for software that has been publicly released; this can include betas and other pre-release versions if they are widely used. Commercial software

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1536-507: The issues were detected and fixed in order to prevent further attacks. Many vehicles on the road use a remote keyless system , or key fob, for the convenience of the user. Modern systems are hardened against simple replay attacks but are vulnerable to buffered replay attacks. This attack is performed by placing a device that can receive and transmit radio waves within range of the target vehicle. The transmitter will attempt to jam any RF vehicle unlock signal while receiving it and placing it in

1584-480: The network would run the risk of becoming slower and its performance would decrease. By keeping a relatively low overhead, the network can maintain better performance while still improving the security. Authentication and sign-on by clients using Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) are susceptible to replay attacks when using Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) to validate their identity, as the authenticating client sends its username and password in " normal text ", and

1632-421: The original attack. Replay attack A replay attack (also known as a repeat attack or playback attack ) is a form of network attack in which valid data transmission is maliciously or fraudulently repeated or delayed. This is carried out either by the originator or by an adversary who intercepts the data and re-transmits it, possibly as part of a spoofing attack by IP packet substitution. This

1680-414: The password); meanwhile, Eve is eavesdropping on the conversation and keeps the password (or the hash). After the interchange is over, Eve (acting as Alice) connects to Bob; when asked for proof of identity, Eve sends Alice's password (or hash) read from the last session which Bob accepts, thus granting Eve access. Replay attacks can be prevented by tagging each encrypted component with a session ID and

1728-491: The problem. Users who have been assigned a CVE identifier for a vulnerability are encouraged to ensure that they place the identifier in any related security reports, web pages, emails, and so on. Per section 7 of the CNA Rules, a vendor which received a report about a security vulnerability has full discretion in regards to it. This can lead to a conflict of interest as a vendor may attempt to leave flaws unpatched by denying

1776-521: The reporter of the issue (e.g., if Alice reports one issue and Bob reports another issue, the issues would be SPLIT into separate CVE numbers). Another example is Alice reports a /tmp file creation vulnerability in version 1.2.3 and earlier of ExampleSoft web browser; in addition to this issue, several other /tmp file creation issues are found. In some cases this may be considered as two reporters (and thus SPLIT into two separate CVEs, or if Alice works for ExampleSoft and an ExampleSoft internal team finds

1824-698: The rest it may be MERGE'ed into a single CVE). Conversely, issues can be merged, such as if Bob finds 145 XSS vulnerabilities in ExamplePlugin for ExampleFrameWork regardless of the versions affected and so on, they may be merged into a single CVE. The Mitre CVE database can be searched at the CVE List Search , and the NVD CVE database can be searched at Search CVE and CCE Vulnerability Database . CVE identifiers are intended for use with respect to identifying vulnerabilities: Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVE)

1872-407: The splitting and merging of issues into distinct CVE numbers. As a general guideline, one should first consider issues to be merged, then issues should be split by the type of vulnerability (e.g., buffer overflow vs. stack overflow ), then by the software version affected (e.g., if one issue affects version 1.3.4 through 2.5.4 and the other affects 1.3.4 through 2.5.8 they would be SPLIT) and then by

1920-510: The standard will be affected. The CERT/CC and the reporting researcher KU Leuven, will be publicly disclosing these vulnerabilities on 16 October 2017." The paper describing the vulnerability is available online, and was formally presented at the ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security on 1 November 2017. US-CERT is tracking this vulnerability, listed as VU#228519, across multiple platforms. The following CVE identifiers relate to

1968-578: The target device. This method is particularly effective against devices that do not employ sophisticated encryption or authentication protocols. In the folk tale Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves , the thieves' captain used the passphrase "Open, Sesame" to open the door to their loot depot. This was overheard by Ali Baba, who later reused the passphrase to get access and collect as much of the loot as he could carry. CVE (identifier) The Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures ( CVE ) system provides

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2016-601: The target individual’s speech that was correctly verified by the system, then play the recording again to be verified by the system. A counter-measure was devised using spectral bitmaps from the stored speech of verified users. Replayed speech has a different pattern in this scenario and will then be rejected by the system. In the realm of smart home environments, Internet of Things (IoT) devices are increasingly vulnerable to replay attacks, where an adversary intercepts and replays legitimate communication signals between an IoT device and its companion app. These attacks can compromise

2064-406: The third handshake of another device's communication to manipulate or reset the WPA2 encryption key. Each reset causes data to be encrypted using the same values, so blocks with the same content can be seen and matched, working backwards to identify parts of the keychain which were used to encrypt that block of data. Repeated resets gradually expose more of the keychain until eventually the whole key

2112-638: The third step of the WPA2 handshake , an attacker can gradually match encrypted packets seen before and learn the full keychain used to encrypt the traffic. The weakness is exhibited in the Wi-Fi standard itself, and not due to errors in the implementation of a sound standard by individual products or implementations. Therefore, any correct implementation of WPA2 is likely to be vulnerable. The vulnerability affects all major software platforms, including Microsoft Windows , macOS , iOS , Android , Linux , OpenBSD and others. The widely used open-source implementation wpa_supplicant , utilized by Linux and Android,

2160-412: The two parties that are communicating with each other. Bob can also send nonces but should then include a message authentication code (MAC), which Alice should check. Timestamping is another way of preventing a replay attack. Synchronization should be achieved using a secure protocol. For example, Bob periodically broadcasts the time on his clock together with a MAC. When Alice wants to send Bob

2208-412: Was ended in 2005 and all identifiers are now assigned as CVEs. The assignment of a CVE number is not a guarantee that it will become an official CVE entry (e.g., a CVE may be improperly assigned to an issue which is not a security vulnerability, or which duplicates an existing entry). CVEs are assigned by a CVE Numbering Authority (CNA). While some vendors acted as a CNA before, the name and designation

2256-418: Was especially susceptible as it can be manipulated to install an all-zeros encryption key , effectively nullifying WPA2 protection in a man-in-the-middle attack . Version 2.7 fixed this vulnerability. The security protocol protecting many Wi-Fi devices can essentially be bypassed, potentially allowing an attacker to intercept sent and received data. The attack targets the four-way handshake used to establish

2304-496: Was not created until February 1, 2005. There are three primary types of CVE number assignments: When investigating a vulnerability or potential vulnerability it helps to acquire a CVE number early on. CVE numbers may not appear in the MITRE or NVD CVE databases for some time (days, weeks, months or potentially years) due to issues that are embargoed (the CVE number has been assigned but the issue has not been made public), or in cases where

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