Misplaced Pages

#606393

83-509: AODV is the routing protocol used in Zigbee – a low power, low data rate wireless ad hoc network . There are various implementations of AODV such as MAD-HOC, Kernel-AODV, AODV-UU, AODV-UCSB and AODV-UIUC. The original publication of AODV won the SIGMOBILE Test of Time Award in 2018. According to Google Scholar, this publication reached 30,000 citations at the end of 2022. AODV was published in

166-476: A mesh network of intermediate devices to reach more distant ones. Zigbee is typically used in low data rate applications that require long battery life and secure networking. (Zigbee networks are secured by 128-bit symmetric encryption keys.) Zigbee has a defined rate of up to 250  kbit/s , best suited for intermittent data transmissions from a sensor or input device. Zigbee was conceived in 1998, standardized in 2003, and revised in 2006. The name refers to

249-693: A Zigbee router, if not the Zigbee coordinator; the switch node is typically a Zigbee end device. In beacon-enabled networks, Zigbee routers transmit periodic beacons to confirm their presence to other network nodes. Nodes may sleep between beacons, thus extending their battery life. Beacon intervals depend on data rate; they may range from 15.36 milliseconds to 251.65824 seconds at 250 kbit/s, from 24 milliseconds to 393.216 seconds at 40 kbit/s and from 48 milliseconds to 786.432 seconds at 20 kbit/s. Long beacon intervals require precise timing, which can be expensive to implement in low-cost products. In general,

332-612: A battery life of at least two years to pass certification. Typical application areas include: Zigbee is not for situations with high mobility among nodes. Hence, it is not suitable for tactical ad hoc radio networks in the battlefield, where high data rate and high mobility is present and needed. The first Zigbee application profile, Home Automation, was announced November 2, 2007. Additional application profiles have since been published. The Zigbee Smart Energy 2.0 specifications define an Internet Protocol -based communication protocol to monitor, control, inform, and automate

415-461: A direct connection between the Tanzsprache and the performance of the waggle dance, recent criticism holds that potential foragers need not correctly translate the dance language from the waggle dance to successfully forage. In an experiment on the honeybee Apis mellifera , most individuals who thoroughly followed a waggle dance ignored the resource direction and location information. Instead, 93% of

498-444: A flower of another, but flies from one violet, say, to another violet, and never meddles with another flower until it has got back to the hive; on reaching the hive they throw off their load, and each bee on her return is followed by three or four companions. What it is that they gather is hard to see, and how they do it has not been observed. Jürgen Tautz also writes about it in his book The Buzz about Bees (2008): Many elements of

581-416: A heterogeneous network is a wireless light switch : The Zigbee node at the lamp may constantly receive since it is reliably powered by the mains supply to the lamp, while a battery-powered light switch would remain asleep until the switch is thrown. In this case, the switch wakes up, sends a command to the lamp, receives an acknowledgment, and returns to sleep. In such a network the lamp node will be at least

664-435: A key role in waggle dance traits. For example, the open nesting honeybee variety rely on celestial cues to orient their dance while the cavity-nesting bees are able to use gravity and orient their dances in their dark nests. The open-nesting bees have no reason to have to use gravity because they do not need to perform their dances in the dark. Further, cavity-nesting bees have incorporated a sound element into their dances. Using

747-450: A link, acquired through pre-installation, agreement or transport. Establishment of link keys is based on a master key which controls link key correspondence. Ultimately, at least, the initial master key must be obtained through a secure medium (transport or pre-installation), as the security of the whole network depends on it. Link and master keys are only visible to the application layer. Different services use different one-way variations of

830-438: A neighboring device belongs to the network and discovers new neighbors and routers. The routing protocol used by the network layer is AODV . To find a destination device, AODV is used to broadcast a route request to all of its neighbors. The neighbors then broadcast the request to their neighbors and onward until the destination is reached. Once the destination is reached, a route reply is sent via unicast transmission following

913-441: A network and the services that they offer, which endpoints can report when queried by the discovering device (which has previously obtained their addresses). Matching services can also be used. The use of cluster identifiers enforces the binding of complementary entities using the binding tables, which are maintained by Zigbee coordinators, as the table must always be available within a network and coordinators are most likely to have

SECTION 10

#1732858423607

996-465: A network key provided by the trust center (through the initially insecure channel) to communicate. Waggle dance Waggle dance is a term used in beekeeping and ethology for a particular figure-eight dance of the honey bee . By performing this dance, successful foragers can share information about the direction and distance to patches of flowers yielding nectar and pollen , to water sources, or to new nest-site locations with other members of

1079-410: A network, allocate addresses, and add and remove devices. This layer makes use of star, mesh and tree topologies. The data entity of the transport layer creates and manages protocol data units at the direction of the application layer and performs routing according to the current topology. The control entity handles the configuration of new devices and establishes new networks. It can determine whether

1162-407: A network, and discovering and securing devices. The Zigbee network layer natively supports both star and tree networks, and generic mesh networking . Every network must have one coordinator device. Within star networks, the coordinator must be the central node. Both trees and meshes allow the use of Zigbee routers to extend communication at the network level. Another defining feature of Zigbee

1245-487: A node briefly checks to see that other nodes are not talking before it starts. CSMA/CA is not used in three notable exceptions: The main functions of the network layer are to ensure correct use of the MAC sublayer and provide a suitable interface for use by the next upper layer, namely the application layer. The network layer deals with network functions such as connecting, disconnecting, and setting up networks. It can establish

1328-534: A permanent power supply. Backups, managed by higher-level layers, may be needed by some applications. Binding requires an established communication link; after it exists, whether to add a new node to the network is decided, according to the application and security policies. Communication can happen right after the association. Direct addressing uses both radio address and endpoint identifier, whereas indirect addressing uses every relevant field (address, endpoint, cluster, and attribute) and requires that they are sent to

1411-437: A potential nesting site. For cavity-nesting honey bees, like the western honey bee ( Apis mellifera ) or Apis nigrocincta , flowers that are located directly in line with the sun are represented by waggle runs in an upward direction on the vertical combs, and any angle to the right or left of the sun is coded by a corresponding angle to the right or left of the upward direction. The distance between hive and recruitment target

1494-413: A result, foragers have been reported to be attached to their food sites and continue to revisit a single patch many times after it has become unprofitable. For example, the waggle dance plays a significantly larger role in foraging when food sources are not as abundant. In temperate habitats, for instance, honey bee colonies routinely perform the waggle dance but were still able to successfully forage when

1577-768: A set of symbols. The waggle dance may be less efficient than once thought. Some bees observe over 50 waggle runs without successfully foraging, while others will forage successfully after observing 5 runs. Likewise, studies have found that honeybees rarely make use of the information communicated in the waggle dance and seem to only do so about ten percent of the time. There can be a conflict between private information based upon individual experiences, and social information transmitted through dance communication. Essentially, foragers often prefer to use remembered information about previously rewarding food sites that they have visited and will use this information even when receiving dance information about new food sources. This sheds light on

1660-471: A small figure-eight pattern: a waggle run (aka waggle phase) followed by a turn to the right to circle back to the starting point (aka return phase), another waggle run, followed by a turn and circle to the left, and so on in a regular alternation between right and left turns after waggle runs. Waggle-dancing bees produce and release two alkanes , tricosane and pentacosane, and two alkenes , ( Z )-9-tricosene and ( Z )-9-pentacosene, onto their abdomens and into

1743-786: Is a low-power, low-data-rate, and close proximity (i.e., personal area) wireless ad hoc network . The technology defined by the Zigbee specification is intended to be simpler and less expensive than other wireless personal area networks (WPANs), such as Bluetooth or more general wireless networking such as Wi-Fi (or Li-Fi ). Applications include wireless light switches, home energy monitors , traffic management systems, and other consumer and industrial equipment that requires short-range low-rate wireless data transfer. Its low power consumption limits transmission distances to 10–100 meters (33–328 ft) line-of-sight , depending on power output and environmental characteristics. Zigbee devices can transmit data over long distances by passing data through

SECTION 20

#1732858423607

1826-410: Is also part of the application layer. A network node consists of an IEEE 802.15.4-conformant radio transceiver and one or more device descriptions (collections of attributes that can be polled or set or can be monitored through events). The transceiver is the basis for addressing, and devices within a node are specified by an endpoint identifier in the range 1 to 240. For applications to communicate,

1909-474: Is being developed by partners including: Zigbee Smart Energy relies on Zigbee IP, a network layer that routes standard IPv6 traffic over IEEE 802.15.4 using 6LoWPAN header compression. In 2009, the Radio Frequency for Consumer Electronics Consortium (RF4CE) and Connectivity Standards Alliance (formerly Zigbee Alliance) agreed to deliver jointly a standard for radio frequency remote controls. Zigbee RF4CE

1992-622: Is designed for a broad range of consumer electronics products, such as TVs and set-top boxes. It promised many advantages over existing remote control solutions, including richer communication and increased reliability, enhanced features and flexibility, interoperability, and no line-of-sight barrier. The Zigbee RF4CE specification uses a subset of Zigbee functionality allowing to run on smaller memory configurations in lower-cost devices, such as remote control of consumer electronics. The radio design used by Zigbee has few analog stages and uses digital circuits wherever possible. Products that integrate

2075-511: Is encoded in the duration of the waggle runs. The farther the target, the longer the waggle phase. The more excited the bee is about the location, the more rapidly it will waggle, so it will grab the attention of the observing bees, and try to convince them. If multiple bees are doing the waggle dance, it's a competition to convince the observing bees to follow their lead, and competing bees may even disrupt other bees' dances or fight each other off. In addition, some open-air nesting honeybees such as

2158-586: Is facilities for carrying out secure communications, protecting the establishment and transport of cryptographic keys, ciphering frames, and controlling devices. It builds on the basic security framework defined in IEEE 802.15.4. Zigbee-style self-organizing ad hoc digital radio networks were conceived in the 1990s. The IEEE 802.15.4-2003 Zigbee specification was ratified on December 14, 2004. The Connectivity Standards Alliance (formerly Zigbee Alliance) announced availability of Specification 1.0 on June 13, 2005, known as

2241-541: Is generally 0–20  dBm (1–100 mW). There are three classes of Zigbee devices: The current Zigbee protocols support beacon-enabled and non-beacon-enabled networks. In non-beacon-enabled networks, an unslotted CSMA/CA channel access mechanism is used. In this type of network, Zigbee routers typically have their receivers continuously active, requiring additional power. However, this allows for heterogeneous networks in which some devices receive continuously while others transmit when necessary. The typical example of

2324-421: Is managed by the digital stream into the modulator. Binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) is used in the 868 and 915 MHz bands, and offset quadrature phase-shift keying (OQPSK) that transmits two bits per symbol is used in the 2.4 GHz band. The raw, over-the-air data rate is 250  kbit/s per channel in the 2.4 GHz band, 40 kbit/s per channel in the 915 MHz band, and 20 kbit/s in

2407-463: Is observed in other Hymenoptera including stingless bees, wasps, bumblebees and ants. One promising theory for the evolution of the waggle dance, first proposed by Martin Lindauer, is that the waggle dance originally aided in the communication of information about a new nest site, rather than spatial information about foraging sites. Honeybees with the most derived traits have been observed to perform

2490-448: Is performed until the resource is about 10 metres away from the hive, transitional dances are performed when the resource is at a distance of 20 to 30 metres away from the hive, and finally, when it is located at distances greater than 40 metres from the hive, the waggle dance is performed. However, even close to the nest, the round dance can contain elements of the waggle dance, such as a waggle portion. It has therefore been suggested that

2573-402: Is responsible for defining the role of a device as either coordinator or end device, as mentioned above, but also for the discovery of new devices on the network and the identification of their offered services. It may then go on to establish secure links with external devices and reply to binding requests accordingly. The application support sublayer (APS) is the other main standard component of

Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing - Misplaced Pages Continue

2656-467: Is the physical or phonetic representation of a sign. The signified is the conceptual component. If the dance language followed the Saussurian dyadic model of semiotics , the signifier would be the waggle dance and the signified would be the location of the foraging resource. Though the dance language may or may not follow this sort of pattern, it is not considered to be a language with syntactical grammar or

2739-451: Is the transmission of the network key, which confers a unified security layer to the grid, to a new connecting device. The Zigbee security architecture is based on CCM*, which adds encryption- and integrity-only features to CCM mode . Zigbee uses 128-bit keys to implement its security mechanisms. A key can be associated either to a network, being usable by Zigbee layers and the MAC sublayer, or to

2822-734: The 2.4  GHz band being primarily used for lighting and home automation devices in most jurisdictions worldwide. While devices for commercial utility metering and medical device data collection often use sub-GHz frequencies, (902-928  MHz in North America, Australia, and Israel, 868-870 MHz in Europe, 779-787 MHz in China, even those regions and countries still using the 2.4 GHz for most globally sold Zigbee devices meant for home use. With data rates varying from around 20 kbit/s for sub-GHz bands to around 250 kbit/s for channels on

2905-482: The Internet Protocol (IP). RREQ packets are broadcast from the source node, so a burst of messages is generated and forwarded through the entire network. When a node in the network receives a request packet, it can send an RREP packet through a temporary path to the requesting node, which can then exploit the newly received information. Generally, each node compares different paths based on their length and chooses

2988-503: The Johnston's organ indicate its sensitivity to electric fields. Therefore, it has been suggested that electric fields emanating from the surface charge of bees stimulate mechanoreceptors and may play a role in social communication during the waggle dance. As defined by von Frisch, Tanzsprache (German for 'dance language') is the information about direction, distance, and quality of a resource (such as food or nesting sites) contained within

3071-559: The ZigBee 2004 Specification . In September 2006, the Zigbee 2006 Specification was announced, obsoleting the 2004 stack The 2006 specification replaces the message and key–value pair structure used in the 2004 stack with a cluster library . The library is a set of standardised commands, attributes and global artifacts organised under groups known as clusters with names such as Smart Energy, Home Automation, and Zigbee Light Link . In January 2017, Connectivity Standards Alliance renamed

3154-422: The black dwarf honeybee ( Apis andreniformis ), whose nests hang from twigs or branches, will perform a horizontal dance on a stage above their nest in order to signal to resources. Waggle dancing bees that have been in the nest for an extended time adjust the angles of their dances to accommodate the changing direction of the sun. Therefore, bees that follow the waggle run of the dance are still correctly led to

3237-411: The colony . The waggle dance and the round dance are two forms of dance behaviour that are part of a continuous transition. As the distance between the resource and the hive increases, the round dance transforms into variations of a transitional dance, which, when communicating resources at even greater distances, becomes the waggle dance. In the case of Apis mellifera ligustica , the round dance

3320-419: The waggle dance of honey bees after their return to the beehive. Zigbee is a low-power wireless mesh network standard targeted at battery-powered devices in wireless control and monitoring applications. Zigbee delivers low-latency communication. Zigbee chips are typically integrated with radios and with microcontrollers . Zigbee operates in the industrial, scientific and medical ( ISM ) radio bands. With

3403-545: The "true" swarming behavior. Honeybees accumulate an electric charge during flying and when their body parts are moved or rubbed together. Bees emit constant and modulated electric fields during the waggle dance. Both low- and high-frequency components emitted by dancing bees induce passive antennal movements in stationary bees according to Coulomb's Law . The electrically charged flagella of mechanoreceptor cells are moved by electric fields and more strongly so if sound and electric fields interact. Recordings from axons of

Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing - Misplaced Pages Continue

3486-515: The 2.4 GHz band range). Zigbee builds on the physical layer and media access control defined in IEEE standard 802.15.4 for low-rate wireless personal area networks (WPANs). The specification includes four additional key components: network layer , application layer , Zigbee Device Objects (ZDOs) and manufacturer-defined application objects. ZDOs are responsible for some tasks, including keeping track of device roles, managing requests to join

3569-405: The 868 MHz band. The actual data throughput will be less than the maximum specified bit rate because of the packet overhead and processing delays. For indoor applications at 2.4 GHz transmission distance is 10–20 m, depending on the construction materials, the number of walls to be penetrated and the output power permitted in that geographical location. The output power of the radios

3652-411: The IEEE 802.15.4-2003 Low-rate Wireless Personal Area Network (LR-WPAN) standard. The standard specifies the lower protocol layers —the physical layer (PHY), and the media access control portion of the data link layer . The basic channel access mode is carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA). That is, the nodes communicate in a way somewhat analogous to how humans converse:

3735-494: The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) as Experimental RFC 3561 in 2003. Each node has its own sequence number that grows monotonically over time and ensures that there are no loops in the paths used. In addition, each network component assigned to routing functionality stores its own path index, which contains the address of the next node in the direction of the destination (next hop), its sequence number, and

3818-409: The Zigbee protocols minimize the time the radio is on, so as to reduce power use. In beaconing networks, nodes only need to be active while a beacon is being transmitted. In non-beacon-enabled networks, power consumption is decidedly asymmetrical: Some devices are always active while others spend most of their time sleeping. Except for Smart Energy Profile 2.0, Zigbee devices are required to conform to

3901-409: The air. The direction and duration of waggle runs are closely correlated with the direction and distance of the resource being advertised by the dancing bee. In an experiment with capture and relocation of bees exposed to a waggle dance the bees followed the path that would have taken them to an experimental feeder had they not been displaced. The resource can include the location of a food source or

3984-475: The available information, device discovery may follow different methods. When the network address is known, the IEEE address can be requested using unicast communication. When it is not, petitions are broadcast . End devices will simply respond with the requested address while a network coordinator or a router will also send the addresses of all the devices associated with it. This extended discovery protocol permits external devices to find out about devices in

4067-554: The behavior of social insects (including bees, ants and termites ), and vertebrates such as fish and birds, there has recently been research on using bee waggle dance behavior for efficient fault-tolerant routing. From the abstract of Wedde, Farooq, and Zhang (2004): In this paper we present a novel routing algorithm, BeeHive, which has been inspired by the communicative and evaluative methods and procedures of honey bees. In this algorithm, bee agents travel through network regions called foraging zones. On their way their information on

4150-404: The communication used to recruit miniswarms to feeding sites are also observed in "true" swarming behavior. Miniswarms of foragers are not placed under the same selection pressure as are true swarms, because the fate of the entire colony is not at stake. A truly swarming colony has to be quickly led to a new home, or it will perish. The behavior used to recruit to food sources possibly developed from

4233-690: The dance on a vertical plane. Horizontal dancing results in more error in the dance, thus it is advantageous to dance vertically (more accurately) as cavity-nesting species do. Observations have suggested that different species of honeybees have different "dialects" of the waggle dance, each species or subspecies dance varying by curve or duration. A study from 2008 demonstrated that a mixed colony of Asiatic honeybees ( Apis cerana cerana ) and European honeybees ( Apis mellifera ligustica ) were gradually able to understand one another's "dialects" of waggle dance. In line with recent work in swarm intelligence research involving optimization algorithms inspired by

SECTION 50

#1732858423607

4316-462: The delivery and use of energy and water. It is an enhancement of the Zigbee Smart Energy version 1 specifications. It adds services for plug-in electric vehicle charging, installation, configuration and firmware download, prepay services, user information and messaging, load control, demand response and common information and application profile interfaces for wired and wireless networks. It

4399-428: The devices that support them must use a common application protocol (types of messages, formats and so on); these sets of conventions are grouped in profiles . Furthermore, binding is decided upon by matching input and output cluster identifiers unique within the context of a given profile and associated to an incoming or outgoing data flow in a device. Binding tables contain source and destination pairs. Depending on

4482-477: The establishment and transport of cryptographic keys and encrypting data. It builds on the basic security framework defined in IEEE 802.15.4. The basic mechanism to ensure confidentiality is the adequate protection of all keying material. Keys are the cornerstone of the security architecture; as such their protection is of paramount importance, and keys are never supposed to be transported through an insecure channel . A momentary exception to this rule occurs during

4565-482: The fact that following social information is more energetically costly than foraging independently and is not always advantageous. Using olfactory cues and memory of plentiful foraging sites, honeybees are able to successfully forage independently without expending the potentially extensive energy it takes to process and execute the directions communicated by their fellow foragers. However, foragers following waggle dances will eventually switch to using public information,

4648-446: The food location information provided by the waggle dancer, when their private information is no longer useful. The waggle dance is beneficial in some environments and not in others, which provides a plausible explanation as to why the information provided by waggle dances are only used sparingly. Depending on weather, other competitors, and food source characteristics, transmitted information may quickly degrade and become obsolete. As

4731-521: The food source even though its angle relative to the sun has changed. The consumption of ethanol by foraging bees has been shown to reduce waggle dance activity and increase occurrence of the tremble dance . Kevin Abbott and Reuven Dukas of McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada discovered that if a dead western honeybee is placed on a flower, bees performed far fewer waggle dances upon returning to

4814-417: The foragers returned to foraging areas they had previous knowledge of. Bees that follow a waggle dance can successfully forage without decoding the dance language information in several ways: The use of the word language may lead to misrepresentations of the waggle dance. The Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure proposed a system of language where a sign is made up of two chief components. The signifier

4897-579: The hive. The scientists explain that the bees associate the dead bee with the presence of a predator at the food source. The reduction of the dance repetition frequency, therefore, indicates that the dancing bees perform and communicate a form of risk/benefit analysis. Though first decoded by Karl von Frisch , dancing behavior in bees had been observed and described multiple times prior. Around 100 years before Frisch's discovery, Nicholas Unhoch described dancing behavior of bees as being an indulgence "in certain pleasures and jollity". He admitted ignorance as to

4980-420: The implementation. The main advantage of AODV is that it does not generate traffic in the case of already established and working routes. In fact, the algorithm itself is completely irrelevant as long as it does not turn out to be necessary to send a packet to a node whose route is unknown. Beyond that, distance vector-based routing is computationally simple and does not require large amounts of memory. However,

5063-425: The initial phase of the addition to the network of a previously unconfigured device. Trust must be assumed in the initial installation of the keys, as well as in the processing of security information. The Zigbee network model must take particular care of security considerations, as ad hoc networks may be physically accessible to external devices. Also, the state of the working environment cannot be predicted. Within

SECTION 60

#1732858423607

5146-409: The layers of the protocol stack . An application may consist of communicating objects which cooperate to carry out the desired tasks. Tasks will typically be largely local to each device, such as the control of each household appliance. The focus of Zigbee is to distribute work among many different devices which reside within individual Zigbee nodes which in turn form a network. The objects that form

5229-414: The library to Dotdot and announced it as a new protocol to be represented by an emoticon ( ||: ) . They also announced it will now additionally run over other network types using Internet Protocol and will interconnect with other standards such as Thread . Since its unveiling, Dotdot has functioned as the default application layer for almost all Zigbee devices. Zigbee Pro, also known as Zigbee 2007,

5312-491: The link key to avoid leaks and security risks. Key distribution is one of the most important security functions of the network. A secure network will designate one special device, the trust center , which other devices trust for the distribution of security keys. Ideally, devices will have the trust center address and initial master key preloaded; if a momentary vulnerability is allowed, it will be sent as described above. Typical applications without special security needs will use

5395-815: The location information provided by the dance was experimentally obscured. In tropical habitats, however, honey bee foraging is severely impaired if waggle dancing is prevented. This difference is thought to be due to the patchiness of resources in tropical environment versus the homogeneity of resources in temperate environments. In the tropics, food resources can come in the form of flowering trees which are rich in nectar but are scattered sparsely and bloom only briefly. Thus, in tropical zones information about forage location might be more valuable than in temperate zones. Ancestors to modern honeybees most likely performed excitatory movements to encourage other nest-mates to forage. These excitatory movements include shaking, zig-zagging, buzzing and crashing into nestmates. Similar behavior

5478-525: The lowest cost path back to the source. Once the source receives the reply, it updates its routing table with the destination address of the next hop in the path and the associated path cost. The application layer is the highest-level layer defined by the specification and is the effective interface of the Zigbee system to its end users. It comprises the majority of components added by the Zigbee specification: both ZDO (Zigbee device object) and its management procedures, together with application objects defined by

5561-404: The manufacturer, are considered part of this layer. This layer binds tables, sends messages between bound devices, manages group addresses, reassembles packets, and transports data. It is responsible for providing service to Zigbee device profiles. The ZDO (Zigbee device object), a protocol in the Zigbee protocol stack, is responsible for overall device management, security keys, and policies. It

5644-405: The most convenient one. If a node is no longer reachable, a RERR message is generated to alert the rest of the network. Each RREQ has a "time to live" that limits the times it can be retransmitted. In addition, AODV implements a binary backoff mechanism in case the node does not receive a response to its RREQ, whereby requests are repeated at linearly increasing time intervals up to a maximum set by

5727-472: The most derived waggle dances. The honeybees can be categorized into three main groups: the dwarf honeybees (2 species), the giant honeybees (3 species), both of which build a single comb in an open nest site, while the remaining 6 species are cavity-nesting. It has been confirmed that the dwarf honey bees are basal and the giant and cavity-nesting honey bees are monophyletic. The waggle dances of each bee species varies to different extents, nesting behavior playing

5810-453: The network communicate using the facilities provided by APS, supervised by ZDO interfaces. Within a single device, up to 240 application objects can exist, numbered in the range 1–240. 0 is reserved for the ZDO data interface and 255 for broadcast; the 241-254 range is not currently in use but may be in the future. Two services are available for application objects to use (in Zigbee 1.0): Addressing

5893-520: The network coordinator, which maintains associations and translates requests for communication. Indirect addressing is particularly useful to keep some devices very simple and minimize their need for storage. Besides these two methods, broadcast to all endpoints in a device is available, and group addressing is used to communicate with groups of endpoints belonging to a specified set of devices. As one of its defining features, Zigbee provides facilities for carrying out secure communications , protecting

5976-409: The network state is delivered for updating the local routing tables. BeeHive is fault tolerant, scalable, and relies completely on local, or regional, information, respectively. We demonstrate through extensive simulations that BeeHive achieves a similar or better performance compared to state-of-the-art algorithms. Another bee-inspired stigmergic computational technique called bee colony optimization

6059-524: The power consumption of other devices on a Zigbee network. Thus, radios are tested with guidance given by Clause 6 of the 802.15.4-2006 Standard. This standard specifies operation in the unlicensed 2.4 to 2.4835 GHz (worldwide), 902 to 928 MHz (Americas and Australia) and 868 to 868.6 MHz (Europe) ISM bands . Sixteen channels are allocated in the 2.4 GHz band, spaced 5 MHz apart, though using only 2 MHz of bandwidth each. The radios use direct-sequence spread spectrum coding, which

6142-477: The protocol stack, different network layers are not cryptographically separated, so access policies are needed, and conventional design assumed. The open trust model within a device allows for key sharing, which notably decreases potential cost. Nevertheless, the layer which creates a frame is responsible for its security. As malicious devices may exist, every network layer payload must be ciphered, so unauthorized traffic can be immediately cut off. The exception, again,

6225-495: The protocol takes longer than other protocols to establish a connection between two nodes in a network. Zigbee Zigbee is an IEEE 802.15.4 -based specification for a suite of high-level communication protocols used to create personal area networks with small, low-power digital radios , such as for home automation , medical device data collection, and other low-power low-bandwidth needs, designed for small scale projects which need wireless connection. Hence, Zigbee

6308-399: The purpose of the dancing. 35 years prior to Unhoch's observations, Ernst Spitzner observed bees dancing and interpreted it as transmitting forage resource odors to other nestmates. Aristotle , in addition to describing flower constancy behavior, suspected that some form of communication occurred between foragers within a nest: On each trip the bee does not fly from a flower of one kind to

6391-407: The radio and microcontroller into a single module are available. The Zigbee qualification process involves a full validation of the requirements of the physical layer. All radios derived from the same validated semiconductor mask set would enjoy the same RF characteristics. Zigbee radios have very tight constraints on power and bandwidth. An uncertified physical layer that malfunctions can increase

6474-441: The stack, and as such it offers a well-defined interface and control services. It works as a bridge between the network layer and the other elements of the application layer: it keeps up-to-date binding tables in the form of a database, which can be used to find appropriate devices depending on the services that are needed and those the different devices offer. As the union between both specified layers, it also routes messages across

6557-413: The term waggle dance is better for describing both the waggle dance and the round dance. Austrian ethologist and Nobel laureate Karl von Frisch was one of the first who translated the meaning of the waggle dance. A waggle dance consists of one to 100 or more circuits, each of which consists of two phases: the waggle phase and the return phase. A worker bee's waggle dance involves running through

6640-400: The total distance given in hops, or possibly other metrics designed to measure link quality. In AODV, the network remains completely silent until a connection is required to forward a data packet. When routes need to be searched on the network, AODV resorts to the following packets defined by its protocol: These messages can be implemented as simple UDP packets, so routing is still based on

6723-437: The vibration of their wings, these bees use acoustics to aid in the signaling and provide more information about the distance, direction, and quality of the food/nesting site. It is suspected that this also evolved in response to the cavity-nesting bees having to perform their waggle dance in the dark. The dance orientation has evolved as well, ancestrally being performed on a horizontal plane, cavity-nesters have evolved to perform

6806-447: The waggle dance. There is supporting evidence of the waggle dance and "Tanzsprache" in Apis dorsata . Similar to other bees, they utilize the dance language to indicate the critical information regarding food resources. The dancer's body points in the direction of the food source and the sound produced during the dance indicates the profitability of the food. Although there is some evidence for

6889-590: Was finalized in 2007. A Zigbee Pro device may join and operate on a legacy Zigbee network and vice versa. Due to differences in routing options, a Zigbee Pro device must become a non-routing Zigbee End Device (ZED) on a legacy Zigbee network, and a legacy Zigbee device must become a ZED on a Zigbee Pro network. It operates using the 2.4 GHz ISM band, and adds a sub-GHz band. Zigbee protocols are intended for embedded applications requiring low power consumption and tolerating low data rates . The resulting network will use very little power—individual devices must have

#606393