Johanna Spyri ( German: [joˈhana ˈʃpiːri] ; née Heusser [ˈhɔʏsər] ; 12 June 1827 – 7 July 1901) was a Swiss author of novels, notably children's stories. She wrote the popular book Heidi . Born in Hirzel , a rural area in the canton of Zürich , as a child she spent several summers near Chur in Graubünden , the setting she later would use in her novels.
107-428: In 1852, Johanna Heusser married a lawyer named Bernherd Spyri. Whilst living in the city of Zürich she began to write about life in the country. Her first story, "A Leaf on Vrony's Grave", which deals with a woman's life of domestic violence , was published in 1873; the following years further stories for both adults and children appeared, among them the novel Heidi , which she wrote in four weeks only. Heidi tells
214-479: A causal relationship, a number of longitudinal studies suggest that the experience of physical punishment does have a direct causal effect on later aggressive behaviors. Such research has shown that corporal punishment of children (e.g. smacking, slapping, or spanking) predicts weaker internalisation of values such as empathy, altruism, and resistance to temptation, along with more antisocial behavior , including dating violence. In some patrilineal societies around
321-491: A public health emergency of international concern, marking the second such declaration in the last two years due to the virus's transmission. The WHO's Constitution states that its objective "is the attainment by all people of the highest possible level of health". The WHO fulfils this objective through its functions as defined in its Constitution: As of 2012 , the WHO has defined its role in public health as follows: Since
428-450: A bride may be subjected to extreme violence, including an honor killing, if she is deemed not to be a virgin on her wedding night due to the absence of blood. Bride burning or dowry killing is a form of domestic violence in which a newly married woman is killed at home by her husband or husband's family due to their dissatisfaction over the dowry provided by her family. The act is often a result of demands for more or prolonged dowry after
535-534: A call for the end of legal impunity for domestic violence, an impunity often based on the idea that such acts are private. The Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence , better known as the Istanbul Convention, is the first legally binding instrument in Europe dealing with domestic violence and violence against women. The convention seeks to put an end to
642-468: A common trope in fiction in the eighteenth (nineteenth in the article) century (as well as, while not mentioned in the article, it being discovered before von Kamp was even born) and characters that are either drastically different or not in "Adelaide", at all. The following is a list of her main books: Her books were originally written in German. The translations into English at the end of the 19th century, or
749-600: A controlling behavior designed to make a person dependent by isolating them from support, exploiting them of independence and regulating their everyday activities. It involves the acts of verbal assault , punish, humiliation, threats or intimidation. Coercive control can occur physically, for example through physical abuse, harming or frightening the victims. The victim's human rights might be infringed through being deprived of their right to liberty and reduced ability to act freely. Abusers tend to dehumanize , make threats, deprive basic needs and personal access, isolate, and track
856-495: A convention concerning the bubonic plague was signed by sixteen of the nineteen states attending the Venice conference. While Denmark , Sweden-Norway , and the US did not sign this convention, it was unanimously agreed that the work of the prior conferences should be codified for implementation. Subsequent conferences, from 1902 until the final one in 1938, widened the diseases of concern for
963-551: A cycle of violence in which the formerly abused bride becomes the abusing mother-in-law to her new daughter-in-law". Amnesty International writes that, in Tajikistan, "it is almost an initiation ritual for the mother-in-law to put her daughter-in-law through the same torments she went through herself as a young wife." These factors include genetics and brain dysfunction and are studied by neuroscience . Psychological theories focus on personality traits and mental characteristics of
1070-409: A domestic setting, such as in a marriage or cohabitation . Domestic violence is often used as a synonym for intimate partner violence , which is committed by one of the people in an intimate relationship against the other person, and can take place in relationships or between former spouses or partners. In its broadest sense, domestic violence also involves violence against children, parents, or
1177-523: A leading role in several public health achievements, most notably the eradication of smallpox , the near- eradication of polio , and the development of an Ebola vaccine . Its current priorities include communicable diseases , such as HIV/AIDS , Ebola , malaria and tuberculosis ; non-communicable diseases such as heart disease and cancer ; healthy diet , nutrition, and food security ; occupational health ; and substance abuse . The agency advocates for universal health care coverage, engagement with
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#17328486655831284-404: A person's sexuality using coercion . It also includes obligatory inspections for virginity and female genital mutilation. Aside from initiation of the sexual act through physical force, sexual abuse occurs if a person is verbally pressured into consenting, unable to understand the nature or condition of the act, unable to decline participation, or unable to communicate unwillingness to engage in
1391-490: A proposed law that would criminalize marital rape, Sheik Ahmad Al-Kurdi, a judge in the Sunni religious court, said that the law "could lead to the imprisonment of the man where in reality he is exercising the least of his marital rights." Feminists have worked systematically since the 1960s to criminalize marital rape internationally. In 2006, a study by the UN found that marital rape was
1498-423: A prosecutable offense in at least 104 countries. Once widely condoned or ignored by law and society, marital rape is now repudiated by international conventions and increasingly criminalized. The countries which ratified the Istanbul Convention, the first legally binding instrument in Europe in the field of violence against women, are bound by its provisions to ensure that non-consensual sexual acts committed against
1605-595: A relationship is to establish and maintain relationships based on power and control over victims. Batterers morality is out of step with the law and society's standards. Research shows the key issue for perpetrators of abuse is their conscious and deliberate decision to offend in the pursuit of self-gratification. Men who perpetrate violence have specific characteristics: they are narcissistic, they willfully lack empathy, and they choose to treat their needs as more important than others. Perpetrators psychologically manipulate their victim to believe their abuse and violence
1712-500: A relationship. The most prominent example is rape within marriage, which for a long time had not been recognised as rape because of the relationship between victim and perpetrator." There has been increased attention given to specific forms of domestic violence, such as honor killings, dowry deaths, and forced marriages. India has, in recent decades, made efforts to curtail dowry violence: the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act
1819-528: A resolution on disability prevention and rehabilitation , with a focus on community-driven care. 1977 and 1978: The first list of essential medicines was drawn up, and a year later the ambitious goal of " Health For All " was declared. 1986: The WHO began its global programme on HIV/AIDS . Two years later preventing discrimination against patients was attended to and in 1996 the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS)
1926-429: A resolution passed on the subject, Alger Hiss , the secretary general of the conference, recommended using a declaration to establish such an organization. Sze and other delegates lobbied and a declaration passed calling for an international conference on health. The use of the word "world", rather than "international", emphasized the truly global nature of what the organization was seeking to achieve. The constitution of
2033-554: A result of abuse, victims may experience physical disabilities, dysregulated aggression, chronic health problems, mental illness, limited finances, and a poor ability to create healthy relationships. Victims may experience severe psychological disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Children who live in a household with violence often show psychological problems from an early age, such as avoidance, hypervigilance to threats and dysregulated aggression, which may contribute to vicarious traumatization. The first known use of
2140-649: A result of domestic violence makes up a greater proportion of female homicides than it does male homicides. More than 50% of female homicides are committed by former or current intimate partners in the US. In the UK, 37% of murdered women were killed by an intimate partner compared to 6% for men. Between 40 and 70 percent of women murdered in Canada, Australia, South Africa, Israel and the US were killed by an intimate partner. The WHO states that globally, about 38% of female homicides are committed by an intimate partner. During pregnancy ,
2247-501: A series of conferences that took place until 1938, about 87 years. The first conference, in Paris, was almost solely concerned with cholera , which would remain the disease of major concern for the ISC for most of the 19th century. With the cause , origin, and communicability of many epidemic diseases still uncertain and a matter of scientific argument, international agreement on appropriate measures
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#17328486655832354-550: A significant infusion of financial and technical resources. The WHO's official mandate is to promote health and safety while helping the vulnerable worldwide. It provides technical assistance to countries, sets international health standards, collects data on global health issues, and serves as a forum for scientific or policy discussions related to health. Its official publication, the World Health Report , provides assessments of worldwide health topics. The WHO has played
2461-503: A similar dynamic [to honor killings] in that the women are killed by male family members and the crimes are perceived as excusable or understandable". Historically, children had few protections from violence by their parents, and in many parts of the world, this is still the case. For example, in Ancient Rome, a father could legally kill his children. Many cultures have allowed fathers to sell their children into slavery . Child sacrifice
2568-428: A spouse from resource acquisition, limiting what the victim may use, or by otherwise exploiting economic resources of the victim. Economic abuse diminishes the victim's capacity to support themselves, increasing dependence on the perpetrator, including reduced access to education, employment, career advancement, and asset acquisition. Forcing or pressuring a family member to sign documents, to sell things, or to change
2675-660: A spouse or partner are illegal. The convention came into force in August 2014. Emotional or psychological abuse is a pattern of behavior that threatens, intimidates, dehumanizes or systematically undermines self-worth. According to the Istanbul Convention, psychological violence is "the intentional conduct of seriously impairing a person's psychological integrity through coercion or threats". Emotional abuse includes minimizing, threats, isolation, public humiliation , unrelenting criticism, constant personal devaluation, coercive control, repeated stonewalling and gaslighting . Stalking
2782-432: A wife or, if they do not do so now, have done so within the last 100 years. Again, most legal systems fail to criminalize circumstances where a wife is forced to have sexual relations with her husband against her will. ... Indeed, in the case of violence against wives, there is a widespread belief that women provoke, can tolerate or even enjoy a certain level of violence from their spouses." In recent decades, there has been
2889-696: A will are forms of economic abuse. A victim may be put on an allowance, allowing close monitoring of how much money is spent, preventing spending without the perpetrator's consent, leading to the accumulation of debt or depletion of the victim's savings. Disagreements about money spent can result in retaliation with additional physical, sexual or emotional abuse. In parts of the world where women depend on husbands' income in order to survive (due to lack of opportunities for female employment and lack of state welfare) economic abuse can have very severe consequences. Abusive relations have been associated with malnutrition among both mothers and children. In India, for example,
2996-429: A woman is at higher risk to be abused or long-standing abuse may change in severity, causing negative health effects to the mother and fetus. Pregnancy can also lead to a hiatus of domestic violence when the abuser does not want to harm the unborn child. The risk of domestic violence for women who have been pregnant is greatest immediately after childbirth . Acid attacks , are an extreme form of violence in which acid
3103-510: Is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for global public health . It is headquartered in Geneva , Switzerland, and has six regional offices and 150 field offices worldwide. Only sovereign States can participate, and it is the largest intergovernmental health organization at the international level. The WHO's purpose is to achieve the highest possible level of health for all
3210-474: Is a common form of psychological intimidation, and is most often perpetrated by former or current intimate partners. Victims tend to feel their partner has nearly total control over them, greatly affecting the power dynamic in a relationship, empowering the perpetrator, and disempowering the victim. Victims often experience depression , putting them at increased risk of eating disorders , suicide , and drug and alcohol abuse . Coercive control involves
3317-400: Is a period of calm. When the situation is calm, the abused person may be hopeful that the situation will change. Then, tensions begin to build, and the cycle starts again. A common aspect among abusers is that they witnessed abuse in their childhood. They were participants in a chain of intergenerational cycles of domestic violence. That does not mean, conversely, that if a child witnesses or
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3424-487: Is a type of marriage in which the brother of a deceased man is obliged to marry his widow, and the widow is obliged to marry her deceased husband's brother. Marital rape is non-consensual penetration perpetrated against a spouse. It is under-reported, under-prosecuted, and legal in many countries, due in part to the belief that through marriage, a woman gives irrevocable consent for her husband to have sex with her when he wishes. In Lebanon , for instance, while discussing
3531-620: Is associated with forced sex, fear of or inability to make a contraceptive decision, fear of violence after refusing sex, and abusive partner interference with access to healthcare. In some cultures, marriage imposes a social obligation for women to reproduce. In northern Ghana, for example, payment of bride price signifies a woman's requirement to bear children, and women who use birth control face threats of violence and reprisals. WHO includes forced marriage, cohabitation, and pregnancy including wife inheritance within its definition of sexual violence. Wife inheritance, or levirate marriage ,
3638-428: Is caused by the victim's inadequacy (as a wife, a lover, or as a human being) rather than the perpetrators' selfish desire for power and control over them. Lenore E. Walker presented the model of a cycle of abuse which consists of four phases. First, there is a buildup to abuse when tension rises until a domestic violence incident ensues. During the reconciliation stage, the abuser may be kind and loving and then there
3745-569: Is defined by WHO as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons." This procedure has been performed on more than 125 million females alive today, and it is concentrated in 29 countries in Africa and Middle East. Incest , or sexual contact between a related adult and a child, is one form of familial sexual violence. In some cultures, there are ritualized forms of child sexual abuse taking place with
3852-563: Is equivalent. Differences in frequency, severity, purpose, and outcome are all significant. Domestic violence can take many forms, including physical aggression or assault (hitting, kicking, biting, shoving, restraining, slapping, throwing objects, beating up, etc.), or threats thereof; sexual abuse; controlling or domineering; intimidation ; stalking ; passive/covert abuse (e.g. neglect ); and economic deprivation. It can also mean endangerment, criminal coercion, kidnapping, unlawful imprisonment, trespassing, and harassment . Physical abuse
3959-452: Is now commonly defined broadly to include "all acts of physical, sexual, psychological or economic violence " that may be committed by a family member or intimate partner. The term intimate partner violence is often used synonymously with domestic abuse or domestic violence , but it specifically refers to violence occurring within a couple's relationship (i.e. marriage, cohabitation, or non-cohabiting intimate partners). To these,
4066-557: Is now on the verge of extinction, thanks to a Global Vaccination Drive. The World Health Organization (WHO) stated the eradication programme has saved millions from deadly disease. Between 1990 and 2010, WHO's help has contributed to a 40% decline in the number of deaths from tuberculosis, and since 2005, over 46 million people have been treated and an estimated 7 million lives saved through practices advocated by WHO. These include engaging national governments and their financing, early diagnosis, standardising treatment, monitoring of
4173-433: Is subject to violence that they will become abusers. Understanding and breaking the intergenerational abuse patterns may do more to reduce domestic violence than other remedies for managing the abuse. Responses that focus on children suggest that experiences throughout life influence an individual's propensity to engage in family violence (either as a victim or as a perpetrator). Researchers supporting this theory suggest it
4280-714: Is that involving contact intended to cause fear, pain, injury, other physical suffering or bodily harm. In the context of coercive control, physical abuse is used to control the victim. The dynamics of physical abuse in a relationship are often complex. Physical violence can be the culmination of other abusive behavior, such as threats, intimidation, and restriction of victim self-determination through isolation, manipulation and other limitations of personal freedom. Denying medical care, sleep deprivation, and forced drug or alcohol use, are also forms of physical abuse. It can also include inflicting physical injury onto other targets, such as children or pets, in order to cause emotional harm to
4387-460: Is thrown at the victims, usually their faces, resulting in extensive damage including long-term blindness and permanent scarring . These are commonly a form of revenge against a woman for rejecting a marriage proposal or sexual advance. In the Middle East and other parts of the world, planned domestic homicides, or honor killings , are carried out due to the belief of the perpetrators that
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4494-403: Is useful to think of three sources of domestic violence: childhood socialization, previous experiences in couple relationships during adolescence, and levels of strain in a person's current life. People who observe their parents abusing each other, or who were themselves abused may incorporate abuse into their behaviour within relationships that they establish as adults. Research indicates that
4601-565: The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), and smaller organizations. As of 2011 , it has been working to immunize young children and prevent the re-emergence of cases in countries declared "polio-free". In 2017, a study was conducted as to why Polio Vaccines may not be enough to eradicate the Virus & conduct new technology. Polio
4708-815: The USSR , called on the World Health Assembly to undertake a global initiative to eradicate smallpox, resulting in Resolution WHA11.54. 1965: The first report on diabetes mellitus and the creation of the International Agency for Research on Cancer . 1966: The WHO moved its headquarters from the Ariana wing at the Palace of Nations to a newly constructed headquarters elsewhere in Geneva. 1967: The WHO intensified
4815-998: The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the World Bank . 1975: The WHO launched the Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical diseases (the TDR). Co-sponsored by UNICEF , UNDP, and the World Bank, it was established in response to a 1974 request from the WHA for an intensive effort to develop improved control of tropical diseases. The TDR's goals are, firstly, to support and coordinate international research into diagnosis, treatment and control of tropical diseases; and, secondly, to strengthen research capabilities within endemic countries. 1976: The WHA enacted
4922-572: The World Health Assembly finished on 24 July 1948, having secured a budget of US$ 5 million (then £1,250,000 ) for the 1949 year. G. Brock Chisholm was appointed director-general of the WHO, having served as executive secretary and a founding member during the planning stages, while Andrija Štampar was the assembly's first president. Its first priorities were to control the spread of malaria , tuberculosis and sexually transmitted infections , and to improve maternal and child health , nutrition and environmental hygiene. Its first legislative act
5029-545: The World Health Organization (WHO) adds controlling behaviors as a form of abuse. Intimate partner violence has been observed in opposite and same-sex relationships, and in the former instance by both men against women and women against men. Family violence is a broader term, often used to include child abuse , elder abuse , and other violent acts between family members. In 1993, the UN Declaration on
5136-507: The first-wave feminist movement , during the 19th century, led to changes in both popular opinion and legislation regarding domestic violence within the UK, the US, and other countries. In 1850, Tennessee became the first state in the US to explicitly outlaw wife beating. Other states soon followed. In 1871, the tide of legal opinion began to turn against the idea of a right to wife-beating, as courts in Massachusetts and Alabama reversed
5243-724: The American colonies. The 1641 Body of Liberties of the Massachusetts Bay colonists declared that a married woman should be "free from bodily correction or stripes by her husband." New Hampshire and Rhode Island also explicitly banned wife-beating in their criminal codes. Following the American Revolution , changes in the legal system placed greater power in the hands of precedent-setting state courts rather than local justices. Many states transferred jurisdiction in divorce cases from their legislatures to their judicial system, and
5350-493: The Elimination of Violence Against Women defined domestic violence as: Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family, including battering, sexual abuse of female children in the household, dowry -related violence, marital rape, female genital mutilation and other traditional practices harmful to women, non-spousal violence and violence related to exploitation. The Encyclopædia Britannica states that "in
5457-544: The Health Organization of the League of Nations. After World War II , the United Nations absorbed all the other health organizations, to form the WHO. During the 1945 United Nations Conference on International Organization, Szeming Sze , a delegate from China, conferred with Norwegian and Brazilian delegates on creating an international health organization under the auspices of the new United Nations. After failing to get
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#17328486655835564-655: The ISC, and included discussions of responses to yellow fever , brucellosis , leprosy , tuberculosis , and typhoid . In part as a result of the successes of the Conferences, the Pan-American Sanitary Bureau (1902), and the Office International d'Hygiène Publique or " International office of Public Hygiene " in english(1907) were soon founded. When the League of Nations was formed in 1920, it established
5671-635: The United Nations together with the exchange of letters related thereto, and taking into account the respective co-ordinating responsibilities of both organizations, it is recognized by the World Health Organization that the International Atomic Energy Agency has the primary responsibility for encouraging, assisting and co-ordinating research and development and practical application of atomic energy for peaceful uses throughout
5778-480: The WHO over the organization's unwillingness to share the penicillin recipe. They would not return until 1956. 1950: A mass tuberculosis inoculation drive using the BCG vaccine gets under way. 1955: The malaria eradication programme was launched, although objectives were later modified. (In most areas, the programme goals became control instead of eradication.) 1958: Viktor Zhdanov , Deputy Minister of Health for
5885-590: The WHO was to report as to whether RTS,S /AS01, were a viable malaria vaccine . For the time being, insecticide -treated mosquito nets and insecticide sprays are used to prevent the spread of malaria, as are antimalarial drugs – particularly to vulnerable people such as pregnant women and young children. In 1988, WHO launched the Global Polio Eradication Initiative to eradicate polio . It has also been successful in helping to reduce cases by 99% since WHO partnered with Rotary International ,
5992-425: The WHO's role and priorities in public health, ranging from narrowing its mandate to strengthening its independence and authority. During the 1970s, WHO had dropped its commitment to a global malaria eradication campaign as too ambitious, it retained a strong commitment to malaria control. WHO's Global Malaria Programme works to keep track of malaria cases, and future problems in malaria control schemes. As of 2012,
6099-498: The World Health Organization was signed by all 51 countries of the United Nations, and by 10 other countries, on 22 July 1946. It thus became the first specialized agency of the United Nations to which every member subscribed. Its constitution formally came into force on the first World Health Day on 7 April 1948, when it was ratified by the 26th member state. The WHO formally began its work in September 1, 1948. The first meeting of
6206-589: The abuser believes that they are entitled to it, or that it is acceptable, justified, or unlikely to be reported. It may produce an intergenerational cycle of violence in children and other family members, who may feel that such violence is acceptable or condoned. Many people do not recognize themselves as abusers or victims, because they may consider their experiences as family conflicts that had gotten out of control. Awareness, perception, definition and documentation of domestic violence differs widely from country to country. Additionally, domestic violence often happens in
6313-565: The basis for global prevention, treatment, and support the plan to fight the AIDS pandemic . 2006: The WHO launches the Global action plan for influenza vaccines 2016: The Global action plan for influenza vaccines ends with a report which concludes that while substantial progress has been made over the 10 years of the Plan, the world is still not ready to respond to an influenza pandemic. 2016: Following
6420-424: The budget and activities. The WHO is funded primarily by contributions from member states (both assessed and voluntary), followed by private donors. Its total approved budget for 2020–2021 is over $ 7.2 billion, while the approved budget for 2022–2023 is over $ 6.2 billion. The budget is $ 6.83 billion for 2024–2025. The International Sanitary Conferences (ISC), the first of which was held on 23 June 1851, were
6527-457: The context of forced or child marriages . In abusive relationships, there may be a cycle of abuse during which tensions rise and an act of violence is committed, followed by a period of reconciliation and calm. The victims may be trapped in domestically violent situations through isolation , power and control , traumatic bonding to the abuser, cultural acceptance, lack of financial resources, fear , and shame , or to protect children. As
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#17328486655836634-611: The continuing effects of nuclear disasters in Chernobyl and Fukushima . They believe WHO must regain what they see as independence. Independent WHO held a weekly vigil from 2007 to 2017 in front of WHO headquarters. However, as pointed out by Foreman in clause 2 it states: In particular, and in accordance with the Constitution of the World Health Organization and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency and its agreement with
6741-406: The early 1800s, most legal systems implicitly accepted wife-beating as a husband's right" over his wife. English common law , dating back to the 16th century, treated domestic violence as a crime against the community rather than against the individual woman by charging wife beating as a breach of the peace . Wives had the right to seek redress in the form of a peace bond from a local justice of
6848-402: The early 1900s, mention H. A. Melcon (1839–1910), Maria Louise Kirk (1860–1938), Emma Stelter Hopkins, Louise Brooks, Helen B. Dole and the couple Charles Wharton Stork and Elisabeth P. Stork. She wrote a song that became a Volkslied , " Rote Rosen am Hügel ". [1] Deutsche Digitale Bibliothek Domestic violence Domestic violence is violence or other abuse that occurs in
6955-416: The elderly. It can assume multiple forms, including physical , verbal , emotional , economic , religious , reproductive , financial abuse, or sexual abuse , or combinations of these. It can range from subtle, coercive forms to marital rape and other violent physical abuse, such as choking, beating, female genital mutilation , and acid throwing that may result in disfigurement or death, and includes
7062-589: The establishment of international standards for biological products. The WHO was established on April 7, 1948, and formally began its work on September 1, 1948. It incorporated the assets, personnel, and duties of the League of Nations ' Health Organization and the Paris-based Office International d'Hygiène Publique , including the International Classification of Diseases (ICD). The agency's work began in earnest in 1951 after
7169-400: The family. In divorce and criminal domestic violence cases, judges would levy harsh punishments against male perpetrators, but when the gender roles were reversed they would often give little to no punishment to female perpetrators. By the early 20th century, it was common for police to intervene in cases of domestic violence in the US, but arrests remained rare. In most legal systems around
7276-586: The fiftieth anniversary of WHO's founding. He, did, however, accept that more had to be done to assist maternal health and that progress in this area had been slow. 2000: The Stop TB Partnership was created along with the UN's formulation of the Millennium Development Goals . 2001: The measles initiative was formed, and credited with reducing global deaths from the disease by 68% by 2007. 2002: The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria
7383-779: The general population would be more in the 15–20% range ... As violence becomes more severe and chronic in the relationship, the likelihood of psychopathology in these men approaches 100%." Dutton has suggested a psychological profile of men who abuse their wives, arguing that they have borderline personalities that are developed early in life. However, these psychological theories are disputed: Gelles suggests that psychological theories are limited, and points out that other researchers have found that only 10% (or less) fit this psychological profile. He argues that social factors are important, while personality traits, mental illness, or psychopathy are lesser factors. World Health Organization (WHO) The World Health Organization ( WHO )
7490-449: The global smallpox eradication campaign by contributing $ 2.4 million annually to the effort and adopted a new disease surveillance method, at a time when 2 million people were dying from smallpox per year. The initial problem the WHO team faced was inadequate reporting of smallpox cases. WHO established a network of consultants who assisted countries in setting up surveillance and containment activities. The WHO also helped contain
7597-504: The knowledge and consent of the family, where the child is induced to engage in sexual acts with adults, possibly in exchange for money or goods. For instance, in Malawi some parents arrange for an older man, often called a hyena , to have sex with their daughters as a form of initiation. The Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children Against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse
7704-526: The last European outbreak in Yugoslavia in 1972 . After over two decades of fighting smallpox, a Global Commission declared in 1979 that the disease had been eradicated – the first disease in history to be eliminated by human effort. 1974: The Expanded Programme on Immunization and the control programme of onchocerciasis was started, an important partnership between the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),
7811-449: The late 20th century, the rise of new actors engaged in global health—such as the World Bank , the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief ( PEPFAR ) and dozens of public-private partnerships for global health—have weakened the WHO's role as a coordinator and policy leader in the field; subsequently, there are various proposals to reform or reorient
7918-586: The legal recourse available to battered women increasingly became divorce on grounds of cruelty and suing for assault. This placed a greater burden of proof on the woman, as she needed to demonstrate to a court that her life was at risk. In 1824, the Mississippi Supreme Court , citing the rule of thumb , established a positive right to wife-beating in State v. Bradley , a precedent which would hold sway in common law for decades to come. Political agitation and
8025-575: The marriage. Dowry violence is most common in South Asia , especially in India. In 2011, the National Crime Records Bureau reported 8,618 dowry deaths in India, but unofficial figures estimate at least three times this amount. The WHO defines sexual abuse as any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances, or acts to traffic , or otherwise directed, against
8132-477: The monitoring of public health risks, coordinating responses to health emergencies, and promoting health and well-being generally. The WHO is governed by the World Health Assembly (WHA), which is composed of its 194 member states. The WHA elects and advises an executive board made up of 34 health specialists; selects the WHO's chief administrator, the director-general (currently Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus of Ethiopia ); sets goals and priorities; and approves
8239-557: The more children are physically punished, the more likely they will be as adults to act violently towards family members, including intimate partners. People who are spanked more as children are more likely as adults to approve of hitting a partner, and also experience more marital conflict and feelings of anger in general. A number of studies have found physical punishment to be associated with "higher levels of aggression against parents, siblings, peers and spouses", even when controlling for other factors. While these associations do not prove
8346-688: The offender. Personality traits include sudden bursts of anger , poor impulse control , and poor self-esteem . Various theories suggest that psychopathology is a factor, and that abuse experienced as a child leads some people to be more violent as adults. Correlation has been found between juvenile delinquency and domestic violence in adulthood. Studies have found a high incidence of psychopathology among domestic abusers. For instance, some research suggests that about 80% of both court-referred and self-referred men in these domestic violence studies exhibited diagnosable psychopathology, typically personality disorders . "The estimate of personality disorders in
8453-421: The other organization has or may have a substantial interest, the first party shall consult the other with a view to adjusting the matter by mutual agreement. The nature of this statement has led some groups and activists including Women in Europe for a Common Future to claim that the WHO is restricted in its ability to investigate the effects on human health of radiation caused by the use of nuclear power and
8560-406: The part of the woman. Research has established that there exists a direct and significant correlation between a country's level of gender inequality and rates of domestic violence, where countries with less gender equality experience higher rates of domestic violence. Domestic violence is among the most underreported crimes worldwide for both men and women. Domestic violence often occurs when
8667-540: The peace . Procedures were informal and off the record, and no legal guidance specified the standard of proof or degree of violence which would suffice for a conviction. The two typical sentences were forcing a husband to post bond, or forcing him to stake pledges from his associates to guarantee good behavior in the future. Beatings could also be formally charged as assault, although such prosecutions were rare and save for cases of severe injury or death, sentences were typically small fines. By extension, this framework held in
8774-546: The perceived failure of the response to the West Africa Ebola outbreak , the World Health Emergencies programme was formed, changing the WHO from just being a "normative" agency to one that responds operationally to health emergencies. 2020: the World Health Organization announced that it had classified the novel coronavirus outbreak as a public health emergency of international concern. The novel coronavirus
8881-549: The precedent set in Bradley . In 1878, the UK Matrimonial Causes Act made it possible for women in the UK to seek legal separation from an abusive husband. By the end of the 1870s, most courts in the US had rejected a claimed right of husbands to physically discipline their wives. In the early 20th century, paternalistic judges regularly protected perpetrators of domestic violence in order to reinforce gender norms within
8988-441: The right to a private family life does not include the right to abuse family members, and acknowledged that, at the time of its writing, most legal systems considered domestic violence to be largely outside the scope of the law, describing the situation at that time as follows: "Physical discipline of children is allowed and, indeed, encouraged in many legal systems and a large number of countries allow moderate physical chastisement of
9095-420: The sexual act. This could be because of underage immaturity, illness, disability, or the influence of alcohol or other drugs, or due to intimidation or pressure. In many cultures, victims of rape are considered to have brought dishonor or disgrace to their families and face severe familial violence, including honor killings. This is especially the case if the victim becomes pregnant. Female genital mutilation
9202-656: The story of an orphan girl who lives with her grandfather in the Swiss Alps , and is famous for its vivid portrayal of the landscape. Spyri's husband and her only child, both named Bernhard, both died in 1884. Alone, she devoted herself to charitable causes and wrote over fifty more stories before her death in 1901. She was interred in the family plot at the Sihlfeld-A Cemetery in Zürich. An icon in Switzerland, Spyri's portrait
9309-799: The term domestic violence in a modern context, meaning violence in the home, was in an address to the Parliament of the United Kingdom by Jack Ashley in 1973. The term previously referred primarily to civil unrest , domestic violence from within a country as opposed to international violence perpetrated by a foreign power. Traditionally, domestic violence (DV) was mostly associated with physical violence. Terms such as wife abuse , wife beating , wife battering , and battered woman were used, but have declined in popularity due to efforts to include unmarried partners, abuse other than physical, female perpetrators, and same-sex relationships. Domestic violence
9416-570: The toleration, in law or in practice, of violence against women and domestic violence. In its explanatory report, it acknowledges the long tradition of European countries of ignoring, de jure or de facto , these forms of violence. At para 219, it states: "There are many examples from past practice in Council of Europe member states that show that exceptions to the prosecution of such cases were made, either in law or in practice, if victim and perpetrator were, for example, married to each other or had been in
9523-748: The use of technology to harass, control, monitor, stalk or hack. Domestic murder includes stoning , bride burning , honor killing , and dowry death , which sometimes involves non-cohabitating family members. In 2015, the United Kingdom's Home Office widened the definition of domestic violence to include coercive control. Worldwide, the victims of domestic violence are overwhelmingly women, and women tend to experience more severe forms of violence. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates one in three of all women are subject to domestic violence at some point in their life. In some countries, domestic violence may be seen as justified or legally permitted, particularly in cases of actual or suspected infidelity on
9630-427: The victim has brought dishonor upon the family or community. According to Human Rights Watch , honor killings are generally performed against women for "refusing to enter into an arranged marriage , being the victim of a sexual assault , seeking a divorce" or being accused of committing adultery . In some parts of the world, where there is a strong social expectation for a woman to be a virgin prior to marriage,
9737-419: The victim's daily schedule via spyware. Victims usually feel a sense of anxiety and fear that seriously affects their personal life, financially, physically and psychologically. Economic abuse (or financial abuse) is a form of abuse when one intimate partner has control over the other partner's access to economic resources. Marital assets are used as a means of control. Economic abuse may involve preventing
9844-456: The victim. Strangulation in the context of domestic violence has received significant attention. It is now recognized as one of the most lethal forms of domestic violence; yet, because of the lack of external injuries, and the lack of social awareness and medical training in regard to it, strangulation has often been a hidden problem. As a result, in recent years, many US states have enacted specific laws against strangulation. Homicide as
9951-443: The withholding of food is a documented form of family abuse. One of the most important factors in domestic violence is a belief that abuse, whether physical or verbal, is acceptable. Other risk factors include substance abuse, lack of education, mental health problems, lack of coping skills, childhood abuse, and excessive dependence on the abuser. An overriding motive for committing acts of domestic and interpersonal violence in
10058-488: The world without prejudice to the right of the World Health Organization to concern itself with promoting, developing, assisting and co-ordinating international health work, including research, in all its aspects. The key text is highlighted in bold, the agreement in clause 2 states that the WHO is free to perform any health-related work. 1947: The WHO established an epidemiological information service via telex . 1949: The Soviet Union and its constituent republics quit
10165-407: The world's people, defining health as "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity." The main functions of the World Health Organization include: to promote the control of epidemic and endemic diseases; to provide and improve the teaching and training in public health, the medical treatment of disease and related matters; and to promote
10272-509: The world, a young bride moves with the family of her husband. As a new girl in the home, she starts as having the lowest (or among the lowest) position in the family, is often subjected to violence and abuse, and is, in particular, strongly controlled by the parents-in-law: with the arrival of the daughter-in-law in the family, the mother-in-law's status is elevated and she now has (often for the first time in her life) substantial power over someone else, and "this family system itself tends to produce
10379-418: The world, domestic violence has been addressed only from the 1990s onward; indeed, before the late 20th century, in most countries there was very little protection, in law or in practice, against domestic violence. In 1993, the UN published Strategies for Confronting Domestic Violence: A Resource Manual . This publication urged countries around the world to treat domestic violence as a criminal act, stated that
10486-500: Was a new strain of coronavirus that had never been detected in humans before. The WHO named this new coronavirus " COVID-19 " or "2019-nCov". 2022: The WHO suggests formation of a Global Health Emergency Council, with a new global health emergency workforce, and recommends revision of the International Health Regulations. 2024: WHO has declared the spread of mpox (formerly monkeypox) in several African countries
10593-535: Was also a common practice. Child maltreatment began to garner mainstream attention with the publication of "The Battered Child Syndrome" by pediatric psychiatrist C. Henry Kempe in 1962. Prior to this, injuries to children – even repeated bone fractures – were not commonly recognized as the results of intentional trauma. Instead, physicians often looked for undiagnosed bone diseases or accepted parents' accounts of accidental mishaps, such as falls or assaults by neighborhood bullies. Not all domestic violence
10700-526: Was concerning the compilation of accurate statistics on the spread and morbidity of disease. The logo of the World Health Organization features the Rod of Asclepius as a symbol for healing. In 1959, the WHO signed Agreement WHA 12–40 with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which says: whenever either organization proposes to initiate a programme or activity on a subject in which
10807-469: Was difficult to reach. Seven of these international conferences, spanning 41 years, were convened before any resulted in a multi-state international agreement. The seventh conference, in Venice in 1892, finally resulted in a convention. It was concerned only with the sanitary control of shipping traversing the Suez Canal , and was an effort to guard against importation of cholera. Five years later, in 1897,
10914-416: Was drawn up to improve the resources available. 2005: The WHO revises International Health Regulations (IHR) in light of emerging health threats and the experience of the 2002/3 SARS epidemic , authorizing WHO, among other things, to declare a health threat a Public Health Emergency of International Concern . 2006: The WHO endorsed the world's first official HIV/AIDS Toolkit for Zimbabwe, which formed
11021-507: Was enacted in 2005, following years of advocacy and activism by the women's organizations. Crimes of passion in Latin America, a region which has a history of treating such killings with extreme leniency, have also come to international attention. In 2002, Widney Brown, advocacy director for Human Rights Watch, argued that there are similarities between the dynamics of crimes of passion and honor killings, stating that: "crimes of passion have
11128-410: Was entirely possible that Johanna may have been familiar with the story as she grew up in a literate household with many books. However, the professor's claims have been examined and afterwards described as "unscientific", due to 'superficial coincidences' he brings up in descriptions and the many actual differences in the story, that he doesn't, as well as the "Swiss disease" of homesickness already being
11235-698: Was formed. 1988: The Global Polio Eradication Initiative was established. 1995: The WHO established an independent International Commission for the Certification of Dracunculiasis Eradication (Guinea worm disease eradication; ICCDE). The ICCDE recommends to the WHO which countries fulfil requirements for certification. It also has role in advising on progress made towards elimination of transmission and processes for verification. 1998: The WHO's director-general highlighted gains in child survival, reduced infant mortality , increased life expectancy and reduced rates of "scourges" such as smallpox and polio on
11342-571: Was placed on a postage stamp in 1951 and on a 20 CHF commemorative coin in 2009. In April 2010 a professor searching for children's illustrations found a book written in 1830 by a German history teacher, Hermann Adam von Kamp , that Spyri may have used as a basis for Heidi . The 1830 story is titled Adelheide - das Mädchen vom Alpengebirge —translated, "Adelaide, the girl from the Alps". The two stories were alleged to share many similarities in plot line and imagery. Spyri biographer Regine Schindler said it
11449-413: Was the first international treaty to address child sexual abuse occurring within the home or family. Reproductive coercion (also called coerced reproduction ) are threats or acts of violence against a partner's reproductive rights, health and decision-making; and includes a collection of behaviors intended to pressure or coerce a partner into becoming pregnant or ending a pregnancy. Reproductive coercion
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