Others
110-502: The term jilbāb (also jilbaab , jubbah or jilaabah ) ( Arabic : جِلْبَاب ) refers to any long and loose-fit coat or outer garment worn by Muslim women. Wearers believe that this definition of jilbāb fulfills the Quranic choice for a hijab . The jilbāb is also known as chador by Persian speakers in Iran and Afghanistan . The modern jilbāb covers
220-446: A jilbab ?". He said, "Let her borrow the jilbab of her companion". Since there are no pictures of 7th-century jilbāb , nor any surviving garments, it is not at all clear if the modern jilbāb is the same garment as that referred to in the Qur'an . In general terms, jilbāb is a garment/sheet that is worn on the head, draped around the body and that totally covers the body of
330-519: A Medieval manual on Ẓāhirī jurisprudence, served in part as inspiration for the revolt and as a primary source of the school's positions. However, soon afterwards the school ceased to function and in the 14th century Ibn Khaldun considered it to be extinct. With the Reconquista and the loss of Iberia to Christian rule, most works of Ẓāhirī law and legal theory were lost as well, with the school only being carried on by individual scholars, once again on
440-562: A collection of related dialects that constitute the precursor of Arabic, first emerged during the Iron Age . Previously, the earliest attestation of Old Arabic was thought to be a single 1st century CE inscription in Sabaic script at Qaryat al-Faw , in southern present-day Saudi Arabia. However, this inscription does not participate in several of the key innovations of the Arabic language group, such as
550-435: A corpus of poetic texts, in addition to Qur'an usage and Bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ʿarabiyya . Arabic spread with the spread of Islam . Following the early Muslim conquests , Arabic gained vocabulary from Middle Persian and Turkish . In the early Abbasid period , many Classical Greek terms entered Arabic through translations carried out at Baghdad's House of Wisdom . By
660-1077: A dialect of Arabic and written in the Latin alphabet . The Balkan languages, including Albanian, Greek , Serbo-Croatian, and Bulgarian , have also acquired many words of Arabic origin, mainly through direct contact with Ottoman Turkish . Arabic has influenced languages across the globe throughout its history, especially languages where Islam is the predominant religion and in countries that were conquered by Muslims. The most markedly influenced languages are Persian , Turkish , Hindustani ( Hindi and Urdu ), Kashmiri , Kurdish , Bosnian , Kazakh , Bengali , Malay ( Indonesian and Malaysian ), Maldivian , Pashto , Punjabi , Albanian , Armenian , Azerbaijani , Sicilian, Spanish, Greek, Bulgarian, Tagalog , Sindhi , Odia , Hebrew and African languages such as Hausa , Amharic , Tigrinya , Somali , Tamazight , and Swahili . Conversely, Arabic has borrowed some words (mostly nouns) from other languages, including its sister-language Aramaic, Persian, Greek, and Latin and to
770-515: A few cases the Shafi‘is free rein to author works and run the judiciary. In the late 12th century, any religious material written by non-Ẓāhirīs was at first banned and later burned in the empire under the Almohad reforms . The Ẓāhirī school enjoyed its widest expansion and prestige in the fourth Islamic century, especially through the works of Ibn al-Mughallis , but in the fifth century it lost ground to
880-508: A former Ẓāhirī, excluded Dawud al-Ẓāhirī along with Ahmad ibn Hanbal from his book on Sunni Islam's greatest jurists, though Ignác Goldziher has suggested that Ibn Abdul-Barr remained Ẓāhirī privately and outwardly manifested Maliki ideas due to prevailing pressures at the time. At least with al-Ballūṭī, one example of a Ẓāhirī jurist applying Maliki law due to official enforcement is known. Ẓāhirīs such as Ibn Hazm were challenged and attacked by Maliki jurists after their deaths. Followers of
990-487: A fourth source of Islamic law. The school differs from the more prolific schools of Islamic thought in that it restricts valid consensus in jurisprudence to the consensus of the first generation of Muslims who lived alongside Muhammad only. While Abu Hanifa and Ahmad ibn Hanbal agreed with them in this, most followers of the Hanafi and Hanbali schools generally do not, nor do the other two Sunni schools. Additionally,
1100-483: A lesser extent and more recently from Turkish, English, French, and Italian. Arabic is spoken by as many as 380 million speakers, both native and non-native, in the Arab world, making it the fifth most spoken language in the world, and the fourth most used language on the internet in terms of users. It also serves as the liturgical language of more than 2 billion Muslims . In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked Arabic
1210-677: A millennium before the modern period . Early lexicographers ( لُغَوِيُّون lughawiyyūn ) sought to explain words in the Quran that were unfamiliar or had a particular contextual meaning, and to identify words of non-Arabic origin that appear in the Quran. They gathered shawāhid ( شَوَاهِد 'instances of attested usage') from poetry and the speech of the Arabs—particularly the Bedouin ʾaʿrāb [ ar ] ( أَعْراب ) who were perceived to speak
SECTION 10
#17328561949811320-506: A one-piece that covers the entire body and does not expose even a bit of it. This is also why past scholars, such as Ibn Hazm , the great Zahiri jurist, described the Jilbab as something that covers the entire body: ...The jilbab , in the Arabic language, with which the Messenger of God, may God bless him and grant him peace, addressed us [i.e., the same Arabic that was spoken by him and in which
1430-576: A result, many European languages have borrowed words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in European languages (mainly Spanish and to a lesser extent Portuguese , Catalan , and Sicilian ) owing to the proximity of Europe and the long-lasting Arabic cultural and linguistic presence, mainly in Southern Iberia, during the Al-Andalus era. Maltese is a Semitic language developed from
1540-462: A script derived from ASA attest to a language known as Hasaitic . On the northwestern frontier of Arabia, various languages known to scholars as Thamudic B , Thamudic D, Safaitic , and Hismaic are attested. The last two share important isoglosses with later forms of Arabic, leading scholars to theorize that Safaitic and Hismaic are early forms of Arabic and that they should be considered Old Arabic . Linguists generally believe that "Old Arabic",
1650-465: A single language, despite mutual incomprehensibility among differing spoken versions. From a linguistic standpoint, it is often said that the various spoken varieties of Arabic differ among each other collectively about as much as the Romance languages . This is an apt comparison in a number of ways. The period of divergence from a single spoken form is similar—perhaps 1500 years for Arabic, 2000 years for
1760-503: A type of Arabic. Cypriot Arabic is recognized as a minority language in Cyprus. The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia , which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. Tawleed is the process of giving a new shade of meaning to an old classical word. For example, al-hatif lexicographically means
1870-499: A variety of regional vernacular Arabic dialects , which are not necessarily mutually intelligible. Classical Arabic is the language found in the Quran , used from the period of Pre-Islamic Arabia to that of the Abbasid Caliphate . Classical Arabic is prescriptive, according to the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians (such as Sibawayh ) and the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries (such as
1980-470: A wider audience." In the wake of the industrial revolution and European hegemony and colonialism , pioneering Arabic presses, such as the Amiri Press established by Muhammad Ali (1819), dramatically changed the diffusion and consumption of Arabic literature and publications. Rifa'a al-Tahtawi proposed the establishment of Madrasat al-Alsun in 1836 and led a translation campaign that highlighted
2090-630: A woman is allowed to wear whatever she wants underneath, but she cannot show anything off to non-Mahrams . A type of athletic jilbāb was developed by Nike in 2006, allowing women to play volleyball while still respecting a traditional clothing style. In Indonesia , the term jilbāb refers to a headscarf rather than a long and loose overgarment. Arabic language Arabic (endonym: اَلْعَرَبِيَّةُ , romanized : al-ʿarabiyyah , pronounced [al ʕaraˈbijːa] , or عَرَبِيّ , ʿarabīy , pronounced [ˈʕarabiː] or [ʕaraˈbij] )
2200-472: A woman must cover everything except for one eye so that she can see, such as Ibn Abbas , Al-Jalalayn, 'Ubaydah As-Salmani, Abdullah ibn Salam , and others. However, there is no authentic report from the Prophet Muhammad proving this, and this led to the linguistic meaning being a legitimate interpretation the jilbab. Some modern Muslims insist that the contemporary jilbāb and the garment described in
2310-506: A woman needs to cover her face , it is not absolutely forbidden for her to cover it [during Ihram, when covering with the Niqab, or full-face veil, is forbidden for a woman], unlike the Awrah , but when she lets it hang down, the garment should be away from her face so that it does not touch her skin. This is what the followers of Imam Shafi'i and others said. The apparent [ Zahir/literal ] meaning of
SECTION 20
#17328561949812420-487: A Ẓāhirī because of a commentary on one of Ibn Hazm's works, despite having stated twice that he isn't a follower of the Ẓāhirī school of thought. Similarly, Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari would include Ẓāhirī opinions when comparing differing views of Sunni Muslims, yet he founded a distinct school of his own. The case of Muslim figures who have mixed between different schools have proven to be more problematic. Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani , for example, referred to himself as
2530-451: A Ẓāhirī when pressed on the matter. When Ibn Hazm listed the most important leaders of the school, he listed known Ẓāhiralh bin Qasim, al-Balluti, Ibn al-Mughallis, al-Dibaji and Ruwaym, but then also mentioned Abu Bakr al-Khallal , who despite his Ẓāhirī leanings is almost universally recognized as a Hanbalite. Scott Lucas states "The most controversial aspect of al-Bukhari's legal principles
2640-727: Is a Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world . The ISO assigns language codes to 32 varieties of Arabic , including its standard form of Literary Arabic, known as Modern Standard Arabic , which is derived from Classical Arabic . This distinction exists primarily among Western linguists; Arabic speakers themselves generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, but rather refer to both as al-ʿarabiyyatu l-fuṣḥā ( اَلعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْفُصْحَىٰ "the eloquent Arabic") or simply al-fuṣḥā ( اَلْفُصْحَىٰ ). Arabic
2750-685: Is a Sunnī school of Islamic jurisprudence founded in the 9th century by Dāwūd al-Ẓāhirī , a Muslim scholar , jurist , and theologian of the Islamic Golden Age . It is characterized by strict adherence to literalism and reliance on the outward ( ẓāhir ) meaning of expressions in the Quran and ḥadīth literature ; the consensus ( ijmāʿ ) of the first generation of Muhammad's closest companions ( ṣaḥāba ), for sources of Islamic law ( sharīʿa ); and rejection of analogical deduction ( qiyās ) and societal custom or knowledge ( urf ), used by other schools of Islamic jurisprudence, although
2860-585: Is a minimum level of comprehension between all Arabic dialects, this level can increase or decrease based on geographic proximity: for example, Levantine and Gulf speakers understand each other much better than they do speakers from the Maghreb. The issue of diglossia between spoken and written language is a complicating factor: A single written form, differing sharply from any of the spoken varieties learned natively, unites several sometimes divergent spoken forms. For political reasons, Arabs mostly assert that they all speak
2970-542: Is a sister language rather than their direct ancestor. Arabia had a wide variety of Semitic languages in antiquity. The term "Arab" was initially used to describe those living in the Arabian Peninsula , as perceived by geographers from ancient Greece . In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside the Ancient South Arabian family (e.g. Southern Thamudic) were spoken. It
3080-469: Is believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages (non-Central Semitic languages) were spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hejaz , Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages. In Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested. In eastern Arabia, inscriptions in
3190-408: Is credited with establishing the rules of Arabic prosody . Al-Jahiz (776–868) proposed to Al-Akhfash al-Akbar an overhaul of the grammar of Arabic, but it would not come to pass for two centuries. The standardization of Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century. The first comprehensive description of the ʿarabiyya "Arabic", Sībawayhi's al - Kitāb , is based first of all upon
3300-468: Is credited with standardizing Arabic grammar , or an-naḥw ( النَّحو "the way" ), and pioneering a system of diacritics to differentiate consonants ( نقط الإعجام nuqaṭu‿l-i'jām "pointing for non-Arabs") and indicate vocalization ( التشكيل at-tashkīl ). Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (718–786) compiled the first Arabic dictionary, Kitāb al-'Ayn ( كتاب العين "The Book of the Letter ع "), and
3410-444: Is necessary lies in the text. The second is that for man to seek the motive behind the commandments of God is not only a fruitless endeavor but a presumptuous one. Another major characteristic was their fierce condemnation of Qiyas (analogical reasoning) as a heresy and distortion of Sharia (Islamic law) but still accept religious inference. The Ẓāhirī school of thought generally recognizes three sources of Islamic law within
Jilbāb - Misplaced Pages Continue
3520-566: Is not present in the spoken varieties, but deletes Classical words that sound obsolete in MSA. In addition, MSA has borrowed or coined many terms for concepts that did not exist in Quranic times, and MSA continues to evolve. Some words have been borrowed from other languages—notice that transliteration mainly indicates spelling and not real pronunciation (e.g., فِلْم film 'film' or ديمقراطية dīmuqrāṭiyyah 'democracy'). The current preference
3630-836: Is official in Mali and recognized as a minority language in Morocco, while the Senegalese government adopted the Latin script to write it. Maltese is official in (predominantly Catholic ) Malta and written with the Latin script . Linguists agree that it is a variety of spoken Arabic, descended from Siculo-Arabic , though it has experienced extensive changes as a result of sustained and intensive contact with Italo-Romance varieties, and more recently also with English. Due to "a mix of social, cultural, historical, political, and indeed linguistic factors", many Maltese people today consider their language Semitic but not
3740-559: Is the third most widespread official language after English and French, one of six official languages of the United Nations , and the liturgical language of Islam . Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities around the world and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, governments and the media. During the Middle Ages , Arabic was a major vehicle of culture and learning, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As
3850-584: Is the variety used in most current, printed Arabic publications, spoken by some of the Arabic media across North Africa and the Middle East, and understood by most educated Arabic speakers. "Literary Arabic" and "Standard Arabic" ( فُصْحَى fuṣḥá ) are less strictly defined terms that may refer to Modern Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic. Some of the differences between Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) are as follows: MSA uses much Classical vocabulary (e.g., dhahaba 'to go') that
3960-413: Is to avoid direct borrowings, preferring to either use loan translations (e.g., فرع farʻ 'branch', also used for the branch of a company or organization; جناح janāḥ 'wing', is also used for the wing of an airplane, building, air force, etc.), or to coin new words using forms within existing roots ( استماتة istimātah ' apoptosis ', using the root موت m/w/t 'death' put into
4070-516: Is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the industrial and post-industrial era , especially in modern times. Due to its grounding in Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic is removed over a millennium from everyday speech, which is construed as a multitude of dialects of this language. These dialects and Modern Standard Arabic are described by some scholars as not mutually comprehensible. The former are usually acquired in families, while
4180-445: The Lisān al-ʻArab ). Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary
4290-516: The Amman Message recognized the Ẓāhirī school as legitimate, although it did not include it among Sunni madhhabs, and the school also received recognition from Sudan 's former Islamist Prime Minister, Sadiq al-Mahdi . The literalist school of thought represented by the Ẓāhirī madhhab remains prominent among many scholars and laymen associated with the Salafi movement, and traces of it can be found in
4400-561: The Xth form , or جامعة jāmiʻah 'university', based on جمع jamaʻa 'to gather, unite'; جمهورية jumhūriyyah 'republic', based on جمهور jumhūr 'multitude'). An earlier tendency was to redefine an older word although this has fallen into disuse (e.g., هاتف hātif 'telephone' < 'invisible caller (in Sufism)'; جريدة jarīdah 'newspaper' < 'palm-leaf stalk'). Colloquial or dialectal Arabic refers to
4510-494: The northern Hejaz . These features are evidence of common descent from a hypothetical ancestor , Proto-Arabic . The following features of Proto-Arabic can be reconstructed with confidence: On the other hand, several Arabic varieties are closer to other Semitic languages and maintain features not found in Classical Arabic, indicating that these varieties cannot have developed from Classical Arabic. Thus, Arabic vernaculars do not descend from Classical Arabic: Classical Arabic
Jilbāb - Misplaced Pages Continue
4620-592: The principles of Islamic jurisprudence . The first is the Qur'an, considered by Muslims to be the verbatim word of God (Arabic: الله Allah ); the second consists of the prophetic as given in historically verifiable reports , which consist of the sayings and actions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad ; the third is absolute consensus of the Muslim community. Certain followers of the Ẓāhirī school include religious inference as
4730-554: The Ḥanbalī school, but has also been revived in the mid-20th century in some regions of the Muslim world . Zahirism is characterized as a fifth school of thought ( madhhab ) within the Sunnī branch of Islam , and still retains a measure of influence and is recognized by contemporary Muslim scholars . In particular, members of the Ahl-i Hadith movement have identified themselves with
4840-419: The "learned" tradition (Classical Arabic). This variety and both its classicizing and "lay" iterations have been termed Middle Arabic in the past, but they are thought to continue an Old Higazi register. It is clear that the orthography of the Quran was not developed for the standardized form of Classical Arabic; rather, it shows the attempt on the part of writers to record an archaic form of Old Higazi. In
4950-822: The "purest," most eloquent form of Arabic—initiating a process of jamʿu‿l-luɣah ( جمع اللغة 'compiling the language') which took place over the 8th and early 9th centuries. Kitāb al-'Ayn ( c. 8th century ), attributed to Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi , is considered the first lexicon to include all Arabic roots ; it sought to exhaust all possible root permutations —later called taqālīb ( تقاليب ) — calling those that are actually used mustaʿmal ( مستعمَل ) and those that are not used muhmal ( مُهمَل ). Lisān al-ʿArab (1290) by Ibn Manzur gives 9,273 roots, while Tāj al-ʿArūs (1774) by Murtada az-Zabidi gives 11,978 roots. Zahiri school In terms of Ihsan : The Ẓāhirī school ( Arabic : ظاهرية , romanized : Ẓāhiryya ) or Zahirism
5060-454: The 11th and 12th centuries in al-Andalus , the zajal and muwashah poetry forms developed in the dialectical Arabic of Cordoba and the Maghreb. The Nahda was a cultural and especially literary renaissance of the 19th century in which writers sought "to fuse Arabic and European forms of expression." According to James L. Gelvin , " Nahda writers attempted to simplify the Arabic language and script so that it might be accessible to
5170-562: The 4th to the 6th centuries, the Nabataean script evolved into the Arabic script recognizable from the early Islamic era. There are inscriptions in an undotted, 17-letter Arabic script dating to the 6th century CE, found at four locations in Syria ( Zabad , Jebel Usays , Harran , Umm el-Jimal ). The oldest surviving papyrus in Arabic dates to 643 CE, and it uses dots to produce the modern 28-letter Arabic alphabet. The language of that papyrus and of
5280-812: The 8th century, knowledge of Classical Arabic had become an essential prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world, both for Muslims and non-Muslims. For example, Maimonides , the Andalusi Jewish philosopher, authored works in Judeo-Arabic —Arabic written in Hebrew script . Ibn Jinni of Mosul , a pioneer in phonology , wrote prolifically in the 10th century on Arabic morphology and phonology in works such as Kitāb Al-Munṣif , Kitāb Al-Muḥtasab , and Kitāb Al-Khaṣāʾiṣ [ ar ] . Ibn Mada' of Cordoba (1116–1196) realized
5390-450: The Hanafis, Shafi‘is and Malikis have warmed to each other over the centuries; this has not always been the case with the Ẓāhirīs. Not surprisingly given the conflict over al-Andalus, Maliki scholars have often expressed negative feelings regarding the Ẓāhirī school. Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi , whose father was a Ẓāhirī, nevertheless considered Ẓāhirī law to be absurd. Ibn 'Abd al-Barr , himself
5500-781: The Hanbalite school. Even after the Zahiri school became extinct in Baghdad, it continued to have some followers in Shiraz. Ẓāhirism maintained its prestige in Syria until 788 A.H. and had an even longer and deeper impact in Egypt . In the 14th century C.E., the Zahiri Revolt marked both a brief rekindling of interest in the school's ideas as well as affirmation of its status as a non-mainstream ideology. Al-Muhalla ,
5610-412: The Middle East and North Africa have become a badge of sophistication and modernity and ... feigning, or asserting, weakness or lack of facility in Arabic is sometimes paraded as a sign of status, class, and perversely, even education through a mélange of code-switching practises." Arabic has been taught worldwide in many elementary and secondary schools, especially Muslim schools. Universities around
SECTION 50
#17328561949815720-488: The Qur'an and Sunnah, or Muslim prophetic tradition, were Ẓāhirīs. Followers of other schools of thought may have adopted certain viewpoints of the Ẓāhirīs, holding Ẓāhirī leanings without actually adopting the Ẓāhirī school; often, these individuals were erroneously referred to as Ẓāhirīs despite contrary evidence. Additionally, historians would often refer to any individual who praised the Ẓāhirīs as being from them. Sufi mystic Ibn Arabi has most often been referred to as
5830-680: The Qur'an and the hadith are exactly the same, and that the Qur'an therefore requires the believer to wear these garments. Some scholars say that a veil is not compulsory in front of blind , asexual or gay men . The Encyclopedia of Islam identifies over a hundred terms for dress parts, many of which are used for "veiling". Some of these and related Arabic terms are burqu, 'abayah, tarhah, bumus, jilbab, jellabah, hayik, milayah, gallabiyyah, dishdasha, gargush, gins', mungub, lithma, yashmik, habarah, izar . A few terms refer to items used as face covers only. These are qina, burqu, niqab, lithma . Others refer to headcovers that are situationally held by
5940-626: The Qur'an is referred to by linguists as "Quranic Arabic", as distinct from its codification soon thereafter into " Classical Arabic ". In late pre-Islamic times, a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of Arabic emerged in the Hejaz , which continued living its parallel life after literary Arabic had been institutionally standardized in the 2nd and 3rd century of the Hijra , most strongly in Judeo-Christian texts, keeping alive ancient features eliminated from
6050-411: The Quran was revealed, namely Classical Arabic ], is what covers the entire body, not just some of it [or a part of it]... According to Al-Shawkani , another famous jurist that denied Qiyas and had Zahiri leanings, he relates in his book Fath Al-Qadeer on his commentary of Quran 33:59 the opinions of some scholars on the extent of the Jilbab. It is obvious that some pre-modern scholars don't take
6160-561: The Romance languages. Also, while it is comprehensible to people from the Maghreb , a linguistically innovative variety such as Moroccan Arabic is essentially incomprehensible to Arabs from the Mashriq , much as French is incomprehensible to Spanish or Italian speakers but relatively easily learned by them. This suggests that the spoken varieties may linguistically be considered separate languages. With
6270-681: The Shafi‘i school within Sunni Islam have historically been involved in intellectual conflict with Ẓāhirīs. This may be due to Al-Shafi'i being a major proponent of the principle of Qiyas; rejected by the Zahiris. Hanbali scholar Ibn al-Qayyim , while himself a critic of the Ẓāhirī outlook, defended the school's legitimacy in Islam, stating rhetorically that their only sin was "following the book of their Lord and example of their Prophet." The position adopted by
6380-644: The anti-Hazm wing of Zahiris usually accept religious inference. After a limited success and decline in the Middle East , the Ẓāhirī school flourished in the Caliphate of Córdoba and more broadly in Islamic Iberia , particularly under the leadership of the Andalusian Muslim jurist Ibn Hazm . The Ẓāhirī school is said to have lingered on in various locations under various manifestations before being superseded by
6490-452: The believing women, that they should cast their [ jalabib ] (Jilbabs) over their persons (when abroad): that is most convenient, that they should be known (as such) and not molested. And Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful. A number of hadith commenting on the above verse of the Qur'an (33:59) mention the jilbāb . Narrated Umm Salamah, Ummul Mu'minin: When the verse "That they should cast their outer garments over their persons"
6600-428: The category of jilbab. Most do not, including the following: According to Islamic law, the jilbab is nothing more than an outer garment to be worn specifically around non-Mahrams . An "outer garment" refers to a piece of clothing worn outside of someone's primary clothing [e.g., a jacket over a shirt]. There is nothing wrong in taking it off when alone, or when around other women, or when around her Mahrams . Generally,
6710-399: The cloth] from place [the head] to place [the feet]. It is also used to cover a woman, hence its secondary meaning. The etymology of the word "Jilbab" is exaggerated. The word's Maṣdar is "jalbeb" [جلْبَب], and there's a long vowel alif in the middle of the word to add emphasis to the meaning. Due to this emphasis from the vowel, the word then linguistically refers to a full-body cover, or
SECTION 60
#17328561949816820-567: The conversion of Semitic mimation to nunation in the singular. It is best reassessed as a separate language on the Central Semitic dialect continuum. It was also thought that Old Arabic coexisted alongside—and then gradually displaced— epigraphic Ancient North Arabian (ANA), which was theorized to have been the regional tongue for many centuries. ANA, despite its name, was considered a very distinct language, and mutually unintelligible, from "Arabic". Scholars named its variant dialects after
6930-577: The emergence of Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include: There are several features which Classical Arabic, the modern Arabic varieties, as well as the Safaitic and Hismaic inscriptions share which are unattested in any other Central Semitic language variety, including the Dadanitic and Taymanitic languages of
7040-564: The entire body except the face and hands. Some women will also cover the hands with gloves and the face along with a niqāb . A mention of the plural term of jilbāb , jalabib , is found in the Qur'an , verse 33:59 (Surah Al-Ahzab ). A popular translation by Yusuf Ali of the transliterated Arabic goes: Yā 'ay-yuha n-Nabiy-yu qul li'azwājika wabanātika wa nisā'i l-mu'minīna yudnīna 'alayhin-na min jalābībihin-na; dhālika adnā an yu'rafna falā yu'dhayn. Wakāna l-lāhu Ghafūra(n) r-Rahīmā(n) O Prophet! Tell thy wives and daughters, and
7150-728: The eve of the conquests: Northern and Central (Al-Jallad 2009). The modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced following the conquests. Instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines, the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of borrowed and areal features, which they absorbed at different points in their linguistic histories. According to Veersteegh and Bickerton, colloquial Arabic dialects arose from pidginized Arabic formed from contact between Arabs and conquered peoples. Pidginization and subsequent creolization among Arabs and arabized peoples could explain relative morphological and phonological simplicity of vernacular Arabic compared to Classical and MSA. In around
7260-417: The face and hands of the woman are not considered Awrah . However, when interpreting Quran 33:59, Al-Shawkani is of the view that, although a woman's face and hands aren't Awrah , they still have to be covered with the Jilbab. Ibn Hazm implies the same view with his interpretation of the jilbab, although he never fully and clearly explained if a woman's face and hands should be covered with it. Al-Shawkani
7370-593: The fact that they participate in the innovations common to all forms of Arabic. The earliest attestation of continuous Arabic text in an ancestor of the modern Arabic script are three lines of poetry by a man named Garm(')allāhe found in En Avdat, Israel , and dated to around 125 CE. This is followed by the Namara inscription , an epitaph of the Lakhmid king Imru' al-Qays bar 'Amro, dating to 328 CE, found at Namaraa, Syria. From
7480-501: The fourth most useful language for business, after English, Mandarin Chinese , and French. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet , an abjad script that is written from right to left . Arabic is usually classified as a Central Semitic language . Linguists still differ as to the best classification of Semitic language sub-groups. The Semitic languages changed between Proto-Semitic and
7590-473: The hadith contradicts this because the hanging garment is almost free from skin being touched. If avoidance was a condition, the Prophet - peace be upon him - would have clarified it... Elsewhere, when asked about when women should cover their faces, Al-Shawkani said: As for covering the face of a woman, they used to uncover their faces when it was not obligatory to cover them, and they would cover them when there
7700-529: The ideas of the Ẓāhirī school and identified themselves with it. Modernist revival of the general critique by Ibn Hazm – the school's most prominent representative – of Islamic legal theory among Muslim academics has seen several key moments in recent Arab intellectual history, including Ahmad Shakir 's republishing of Al-Muhalla, Muhammad Abu Zahra 's biography of Ibn Hazm, and the republishing of archived epistles on Ẓāhirī legal theory by Sa'id al-Afghani in 1960 and Ihsan Abbas between 1980 and 1983. In 2004
7810-579: The inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries. They also publish old and historical Arabic manuscripts. In 1997, a bureau of Arabization standardization was added to the Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization of the Arab League . These academies and organizations have worked toward the Arabization of the sciences, creating terms in Arabic to describe new concepts, toward
7920-424: The individual to cover part of the face. These are khimar, sitara, abayah or inrrah . It is incorrect to say that the jilbab is one particular style, and different cultures have developed their own variations and styles of the one-piece. However, in recent times, the jilbab has lost its original meaning and fewer women wear it. This has led to confusion about what popular modern styles are considered to fall under
8030-608: The language. Software and books with tapes are an important part of Arabic learning, as many of Arabic learners may live in places where there are no academic or Arabic language school classes available. Radio series of Arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations. A number of websites on the Internet provide online classes for all levels as a means of distance education; most teach Modern Standard Arabic, but some teach regional varieties from numerous countries. The tradition of Arabic lexicography extended for about
8140-599: The late 6th century AD, a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic koine" distinct from the spoken vernaculars developed based on the Bedouin dialects of Najd , probably in connection with the court of al-Ḥīra . During the first Islamic century, the majority of Arabic poets and Arabic-writing persons spoke Arabic as their mother tongue. Their texts, although mainly preserved in far later manuscripts, contain traces of non-standardized Classical Arabic elements in morphology and syntax. Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali ( c. 603 –689)
8250-420: The latter is taught in formal education settings. However, there have been studies reporting some degree of comprehension of stories told in the standard variety among preschool-aged children. The relation between Modern Standard Arabic and these dialects is sometimes compared to that of Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin vernaculars (which became Romance languages ) in medieval and early modern Europe. MSA
8360-535: The linguistic approach when defining the Jilbab: ...Al-Jawhari said: It [the Jilbab] is a Milhafa [a bed cover that is used to cover the body]. It is also said that it is a Qanna' [something that covers all or part of the face to hide it]. It is also said that it is a garment that covers a woman's body completely, as is affirmed in an authentic Hadith from Umm Atiyyah , that she said: "Oh, Messenger of God! One of us [from amongst
8470-883: The many national or regional varieties which constitute the everyday spoken language. Colloquial Arabic has many regional variants; geographically distant varieties usually differ enough to be mutually unintelligible , and some linguists consider them distinct languages. However, research indicates a high degree of mutual intelligibility between closely related Arabic variants for native speakers listening to words, sentences, and texts; and between more distantly related dialects in interactional situations. The varieties are typically unwritten. They are often used in informal spoken media, such as soap operas and talk shows , as well as occasionally in certain forms of written media such as poetry and printed advertising. Hassaniya Arabic , Maltese , and Cypriot Arabic are only varieties of modern Arabic to have acquired official recognition. Hassaniya
8580-578: The methods and rulings of the Ẓāhirī school, and therefore it can be regarded as "the school of the first generation." Parallel to the school's development in the east, Ẓāhirī ideas were introduced to North Africa by theologians of the Maliki school who were engaged in lively debates with the Hanafi school, and to the Iberian Peninsula by one of Dawud al-Ẓāhirī's direct students. Unlike Abbasid lands, where
8690-477: The modern era, the Ẓāhirī school has been described as "somewhat influential", though "not formally operating today". While the school does not comprise a majority of any part of the Muslim world , there are communities of Ẓāhirīs in existence, usually due to the presence of Ẓāhirī scholars of Islamic law. In particular, adherents of the modern-day Ahl-i Hadith movement in India and Pakistan have self-consciously emulated
8800-502: The modern-day Salafi movement. The school experienced a revival in the Islamic State . Of the utmost importance to the school is an underlying principle attributed to the founder Dawud ibn 'Ali ; who had robustly denounced the delicacies and ambiguities in Fiqh sciences. According to Dawud, the validity of religious issues is only upheld by certainty, and that speculation cannot lead to
8910-502: The most exacting of scholars is that those who deny analogy are not considered scholars of the Umma or conveyers of the Shari‘a, because they oppose out of mere obstinacy and exchange calumnies about things established by an overwhelming preponderance of the evidence, conveyed by whole groups from whole groups back to their prophetic origin (tawatur). For most of the Shari‘a proceeds from ijtihad, and
9020-768: The need for a lexical injection in Arabic, to suit concepts of the industrial and post-industrial age (such as sayyārah سَيَّارَة 'automobile' or bākhirah باخِرة 'steamship'). In response, a number of Arabic academies modeled after the Académie française were established with the aim of developing standardized additions to the Arabic lexicon to suit these transformations, first in Damascus (1919), then in Cairo (1932), Baghdad (1948), Rabat (1960), Amman (1977), Khartum [ ar ] (1993), and Tunis (1993). They review language development, monitor new words and approve
9130-424: The one whose sound is heard but whose person remains unseen. Now the term al-hatif is used for a telephone. Therefore, the process of tawleed can express the needs of modern civilization in a manner that would appear to be originally Arabic. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their school-taught Standard Arabic as well as their native dialects, which depending on
9240-549: The overhaul of Arabic grammar first proposed by Al-Jahiz 200 years prior. The Maghrebi lexicographer Ibn Manzur compiled Lisān al-ʿArab ( لسان العرب , "Tongue of Arabs"), a major reference dictionary of Arabic, in 1290. Charles Ferguson 's koine theory claims that the modern Arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during the Islamic conquests; this view has been challenged in recent times. Ahmad al-Jallad proposes that there were at least two considerably distinct types of Arabic on
9350-532: The periphery. Wael Hallaq has argued that the rejection of qiyas (analogical reasoning) in Ẓāhirī methodology led to exclusion of the school from the Sunni juridical consensus and ultimately its extinction in the pre-modern era. Christopher Melchert suggests that the association of the Ẓāhirī school with Mu'tazilite theology, its difficulty in attracting the right patronage, and its reliance on outmoded methods of teaching have all contributed to its decline. In
9460-476: The pilgrimage). When they came close to us, one of us would lower her jilbab from her head over her face, and when they passed by us, we would uncover it."... [Al-Shawkani comments:] Ahmad held on to this Hadith, and he said: "She should only let it hang down over her head", and he used this hadith as evidence that it is permissible for a woman, when she needs to cover her face from men passing closely by her, to hang her garment over her head onto her face. Because
9570-410: The region may be mutually unintelligible. Some of these dialects can be considered to constitute separate languages which may have "sub-dialects" of their own. When educated Arabs of different dialects engage in conversation (for example, a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), many speakers code-switch back and forth between the dialectal and standard varieties of the language, sometimes even within
9680-458: The same sentence. The issue of whether Arabic is one language or many languages is politically charged, in the same way it is for the varieties of Chinese , Hindi and Urdu , Serbian and Croatian , Scots and English, etc. In contrast to speakers of Hindi and Urdu who claim they cannot understand each other even when they can, speakers of the varieties of Arabic will claim they can all understand each other even when they cannot. While there
9790-498: The school's history, its adherents have always included both Sufis as well as harsh critics of Sufism. Many practitioners of Sufism, which often emphasizes detachment from the material world, have been attracted to the Ẓāhirī combination of strict ritualism and lack of emphasis on dogmatics. Discerning who exactly is an adherent to the Ẓāhirī school of thought can be difficult. Harbi has claimed that most Muslim scholars who practiced independent reasoning and based their judgment only on
9900-458: The sole example of Medieval linguist Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati – who, while a scholar of the Arabic language, was not ethnically Arab – Medieval scholars of the Arabic language made no efforts at studying comparative linguistics, considering all other languages inferior. In modern times, the educated upper classes in the Arab world have taken a nearly opposite view. Yasir Suleiman wrote in 2011 that "studying and knowing English or French in most of
10010-556: The standardization of these new terms throughout the Arabic-speaking world, and toward the development of Arabic as a world language . This gave rise to what Western scholars call Modern Standard Arabic. From the 1950s, Arabization became a postcolonial nationalist policy in countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Sudan. Arabic usually refers to Standard Arabic, which Western linguists divide into Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic. It could also refer to any of
10120-501: The towns where the inscriptions were discovered (Dadanitic, Taymanitic, Hismaic, Safaitic). However, most arguments for a single ANA language or language family were based on the shape of the definite article, a prefixed h-. It has been argued that the h- is an archaism and not a shared innovation, and thus unsuitable for language classification, rendering the hypothesis of an ANA language family untenable. Safaitic and Hismaic, previously considered ANA, should be considered Old Arabic due to
10230-538: The truth. This certainty is to be determined by the outward or literal ( Zahir ) meaning of the Qurʾān and Hadith . Most Ẓāhirī principles return to this overarching maxim. Japanese Islamic scholar Kojiro Nakamura defines the Ẓāhirī schools as resting on two presumptions. The first is that if it were possible to draw more general conclusions from the strict reading of the sources of Islamic law, then God certainly would have expressed these conclusions already; thus, all that
10340-502: The unequivocal statements from the Qur’an and hadith do not deal [n: in specific particulars by name] with even a tenth of the Shari‘a [n: as most of Islamic life is covered by general principles given by Allah to guide Muslims in every culture and time, and by analogy (qiyas) from established rulings], so these [Dhahiris] are considered like unlearned, common people.” The relationship between Ẓāhirism and Sufism has been complicated. Throughout
10450-461: The validity of logic ( ‘āql ) as an independent source of Islamic law. By the end of the 10th century, members of the madhhab were appointed as judges ( qāḍī ) in Baghdad , Shiraz , Isfahan , Firuzabad , Ramla , Damascus , Fustat , and Bukhara . Umm al-Qura University professor Abdul Aziz al-Harbi has argued that the first generation of Muhammad's closest companions ( ṣaḥāba ) followed
10560-489: The views of his father, who was a follower of the less orthodox Ḥanafī school. Indian Muslim reformist Chiragh Ali has suggested that Ẓāhirī's school was, like that of Ibn Ḥanbal , actually a direct reaction to the Ḥanafī system of jurisprudence. The Ẓāhirī school was initially called the Dāwūdi school after Dawud al-Ẓāhirī himself, and attracted many adherents, although they felt free to criticize his views, in line with
10670-431: The woman. The root of the word "Jilbab" itself is [جلب]. According to Mu'jam Maqayees Al-Lugha by Ibn Faris , the root has two meanings: [Two meanings]: One of them is the arrival with something from place to place, and the other is something that covers something... The word "Jilbab" expresses both of these meanings, as the outer garment itself is used to cover from head to toe, hence the arrival with something [i.e.,
10780-450: The women of the believers to draw close [ yudneena ] over themselves [' alayhinna ] some [ min ] of their outer garments [ jalaabibihinna ]. That is more suitable that they will be known and not be abused. And ever is Allah Forgiving and Merciful. Here is what the verse means according to the words bolded: The verse implies that women were wearing jilbabs before its revelation, but they were showing parts of themselves to men. Thus, whatever
10890-488: The women] do not have a jilbab", so he said, "Let her sister clothe her from her Jilbab."... Al-Wahidi said: "The commentators [in defining the Jilbab] said: 'The women must cover their faces and heads except for one eye'"... Al-Hasan said: "It [the Jilbab] covers half of the face"... What is interesting are the views of the Zahiri jurists, or at least those who were Zahiri -leaning. According to both Al-Shawkani and Ibn Hazm ,
11000-451: The world have classes that teach Arabic as part of their foreign languages , Middle Eastern studies , and religious studies courses. Arabic language schools exist to assist students to learn Arabic outside the academic world. There are many Arabic language schools in the Arab world and other Muslim countries. Because the Quran is written in Arabic and all Islamic terms are in Arabic, millions of Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) study
11110-560: The Ẓāhirī school developed in parallel and in opposition to other madhhabs (chiefly Hanafi, Shafi‘i , and Hanbali ), in the West it only had to contend with its Maliki counterpart, which enjoyed official support of the Umayyad rulers . Starting in the late 9th century CE, an increasing number of "hir" scholars emerged in various regions of the Iberian peninsula, but none of their works have survived. It
11220-471: The Ẓāhirī school does not accept analogical reasoning as a source of Islamic law, nor do they accept the practice of juristic discretion , pointing to a verse in the Qur'an which declares that nothing has been neglected in the Muslim scriptures. While al-Shafi‘i and followers of his school agree with the Ẓāhirīs in rejecting the juristic discretion, all other Sunni schools accept the analogical reasoning, though at varying levels. Like its founder Dawud,
11330-404: The Ẓāhirī school has been controversial since its inception. Due to their some so-called rejection of intellectual principles considered staples of other strains within Sunni Islam, adherents to the school have been described as displaying non-conformist attitudes. The Ẓāhirī school has often been criticized by other schools within Sunni Islam. While this is true of all schools, relations between
11440-405: The Ẓāhirī school of thought. During his formative years, al-Ẓāhirī relocated from Kufa to Baghdad and studied the prophetic traditions ( ḥadīth ) and Quranic exegesis ( tafsīr ) with a number of notable Muslim scholars of the time, including Abū Thawr , Yaḥyā ibn Maʿīn , and Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal . His study under renowned figures of traditionalist theology ( Atharī ) was in contrast to
11550-469: The Ẓāhirī school's rejection of legal conformity ( taqlīd ). Alongside the Ḥanbali jurists , Ẓāhiris constituted one of the major schools that originated from the Ahl al-Ḥadīth school, which advocated the superiority of the Quran , ḥadīth literature , and sunnah (accounts of the sayings and living habits attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad during his lifetime) in legal jurisdiction, and denied
11660-566: Was not until the rise of the Almohads that the Ẓāhirī school enjoyed official state sponsorship. While not all of the Almohad political leaders were Ẓāhirīs, a large plurality of them were not only adherents but were well-versed theologians in their own right. Additionally, all Almohad leaders – both the religiously learned and the laymen – were extremely hostile toward the Malikis, giving the Ẓāhirīs and in
11770-415: Was of the view that a woman must cover her face with a Jilbab in front of non-Mahram men, and he takes this from a Hadith about pilgrimage and comments about its meaning. He also provides the views of both Ahmad ibn Hanbal and Al-Shafi'i : ...[A'isha said:] "The caravan would pass by us while we were with the Messenger of God, may God bless him and grant him peace, in a state of consecration (i.e., during
11880-465: Was revealed, the women of Ansar came out as if they had crows over their heads by wearing outer garments. Narrated Umm Atiyya: We were ordered to bring out our menstruating women and screened women to the religious gatherings and invocation of the Muslims on the two Eid festivals. These menstruating women were to keep away from the musalla. A woman asked, "O Messenger of Allah! What about one who does not have
11990-419: Was shown was to be covered, and whatever was shown was from the head down. Whatever of the jilbaab was uncovering the woman was to be drawn close to what was uncovering them, so as to conceal their bodies fully. All of this refers to the face, and it is clear that the Islamic jilbaab has a face opening so that a woman can cover herself whenever a non-Mahram man passes by. Some scholars and commentators say that
12100-501: Was someone from whom it was obligatory to cover . Based on the Hadith provided by Al-Shawkani with Aisha and the oncoming caravan, it seems that the jilbab has an opening for both the hands and the face, as the women were able to bring down a portion of their jilbabs down over their faces, and their faces were exposed. This is also what is implied in the command in verse 59 of Surah Al-Ahzab : O Prophet! Tell your wives and your daughters and
#980019