96-519: " Paradisus Judaeorum " ( Latin : Jewish paradise ) is a Latin phrase which became one of four components of a 19th-century Polish-language proverb that described the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795) as "heaven for the nobility , purgatory for townspeople, hell for peasants, paradise for Jews." The proverb's earliest attestation is an anonymous 1606 Latin pasquinade that begins, " Regnum Polonorum est " ("The Kingdom of Poland is"). Stanisław Kot surmised that its author may have been
192-541: A Catholic townsman, perhaps a cleric, who criticized what he regarded as defects of the realm; the pasquinade excoriates virtually every group and class of society. The phrase " Paradisus Iudaeorum " appears as the epigram to a gallery at Warsaw 's POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews that ends in a "Corridor of Fire symbolis[ing] the Khmelnytsky Uprising " (1648-1657). Mikołaj Gliński writes that Jews consider
288-505: A National Jewish Book Award ; The Art of Being Jewish in Modern Times (co-edited with Jonathan Karp) (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007); Museum Frictions: Public Cultures/Global Transformations (co-edited with Ivan Karp and Corinne Kratz et al.) (Duke University Press, 2006); Art from Start to Finish (co-edited with Howard Becker and Robert Faulkner, University of Chicago Press, 2005), They Called Me Mayer July: Painted Memories of
384-774: A 2010 MUSE award from the American Association of Museums in recognition of outstanding achievement in the use of digital media "to enhance the museum experience and engage audiences." A print version of the exhibition was shown in Opatów and at the Galicia Jewish Museum in Kazimierz/Kraków. Awakening Lives: Autobiographies of Jewish Youth in Poland before the Holocaust , to which Kirshenblatt-Gimblett contributed, coincides with
480-501: A Jewish Childhood in Poland Before the Holocaust (co-authored with Mayer Kirshenblatt, her father) (University of California Press, 2007), and Anne Frank Unbound: Media, Imagination, Memory (co-edited with Jeffrey Shandler) (Indiana University Press, 2012), among others. Her earlier books include Image before My Eyes: A Photographic History of Jewish Life in Poland, 1864–1939 , with Lucjan Dobroszycki (Schocken, reissued 1995), which
576-634: A broader context it is representative of a much more complex, nuanced relationship between Jews and non-Jewish Poles. Regnum Polonorum est paradisus Judaeorum infernus rusticorum purgatorium Plebeiorum Dominatus famulorum confusio personarum luxus foeminarum frequentia nundinarum aurifodinae advenarum Cleri lenta praessura Evangelicorum impostura libertas prodigorum prostitutio morum pincerna potatorum perpetua peregrinatio assidua hospitatio juris inquietatio consiliorum manifestatio aquisitorum injuriatio Legum variatio quam videt omnis natio The Kingdom of Poland
672-710: A decade. She was also Affiliated Professor of Hebrew and Judaic Studies in the Graduate School of Arts and Science. From 2000 to 2001, she held a fellowship at the Katz Center for Advanced Judaic Studies . Kirshenblatt-Gimblett served as President of the American Folklore Society from 1988 to 1992 and as the AFS delegate to the American Council of Learned Societies. She has been on boards and advisory committees for
768-526: A faster pace. It is characterised by greater use of prepositions, and word order that is closer to modern Romance languages, for example, while grammatically retaining more or less the same formal rules as Classical Latin. Ultimately, Latin diverged into a distinct written form, where the commonly spoken form was perceived as a separate language, for instance early French or Italian dialects, that could be transcribed differently. It took some time for these to be viewed as wholly different from Latin however. After
864-718: A few in German , Dutch , Norwegian , Danish and Swedish . Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church . The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology . They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics . Their works were published in manuscript form before
960-404: A few. Famous and well regarded writers included Petrarch, Erasmus, Salutati , Celtis , George Buchanan and Thomas More . Non fiction works were long produced in many subjects, including the sciences, law, philosophy, historiography and theology. Famous examples include Isaac Newton 's Principia . Latin was also used as a convenient medium for translations of important works first written in
1056-548: A native language, Medieval Latin was used across Western and Catholic Europe during the Middle Ages as a working and literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance , which then developed a classicizing form, called Renaissance Latin . This was the basis for Neo-Latin which evolved during the early modern period . In these periods Latin was used productively and generally taught to be written and spoken, at least until
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#17328528397371152-551: A result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from late antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars. The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, also called Archaic or Early Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom , traditionally founded in 753 BC, through
1248-407: A separate language, existing more or less in parallel with the literary or educated Latin, but this is now widely dismissed. The term 'Vulgar Latin' remains difficult to define, referring both to informal speech at any time within the history of Latin, and the kind of informal Latin that had begun to move away from the written language significantly in the post-Imperial period, that led ultimately to
1344-695: A small number of Latin services held in the Anglican church. These include an annual service in Oxford, delivered with a Latin sermon; a relic from the period when Latin was the normal spoken language of the university. In the Western world, many organizations, governments and schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with formality, tradition, and the roots of Western culture . Canada's motto A mari usque ad mare ("from sea to sea") and most provincial mottos are also in Latin. The Canadian Victoria Cross
1440-429: A sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech. Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus , which contain fragments of everyday speech, gives evidence of an informal register of the language, Vulgar Latin (termed sermo vulgi , "the speech of the masses", by Cicero ). Some linguists, particularly in the nineteenth century, believed this to be
1536-565: A spoken and written language by the scholarship by the Renaissance humanists . Petrarch and others began to change their usage of Latin as they explored the texts of the Classical Latin world. Skills of textual criticism evolved to create much more accurate versions of extant texts through the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and some important texts were rediscovered. Comprehensive versions of authors' works were published by Isaac Casaubon , Joseph Scaliger and others. Nevertheless, despite
1632-432: A strictly left-to-right script. During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, from about 75 BC to AD 200, a new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature , which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools , which served as
1728-541: A subject of discussion when in 2016 Joanna Tokarska-Bakir argued that its use for the gallery was disrespectful. Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Program Director of the Core Exhibition of the POLIN Museum, says that the intention is to engage the reader in a complex debate going beyond a binary black-and-white oversimplification. In 2017 Kamil Kijek wrote that, out of context, the phrase can indeed be confusing, but within
1824-689: A vernacular, such as those of Descartes . Latin education underwent a process of reform to classicise written and spoken Latin. Schooling remained largely Latin medium until approximately 1700. Until the end of the 17th century, the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin. Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a Romance language ) and later native or other languages. Education methods gradually shifted towards written Latin, and eventually concentrating solely on reading skills. The decline of Latin education took several centuries and proceeded much more slowly than
1920-411: Is Veritas ("truth"). Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue. Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name Helvetia on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's four official languages . For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code CH , which stands for Confoederatio Helvetica ,
2016-733: Is heaven for the nobility, hell for peasants, paradise for Jews, goldmine for foreigners, cause of looseness of women. Much productive of wool, always nevertheless in need of clothes; though it produces copious linen, yet it loves the foreign; it prizes what is bought dear, disdaining what is bought cheap. Clarum regnum Polonorum est coelum nobiliorum, paradisus Judaeorum, purgatorium plebeiorum et infernus rusticorum, causa luxus foeminarum, multis quidem dives lanis, semper tamen egens pannis, et copiam lini serit, sed externam telam quaerit, merces externas diligit, domi paratas negligit, caro emptis gloriatur, empta parvo adspernatur. The illustrious Kingdom of Poland
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#17328528397372112-472: Is paradise for Jews hell for peasants purgatory for townspeople ascendance of courtiers confusion of roles looseness of women loitering at markets goldmine for foreigners oppression of clergy Protestant impostures freedom for wastrels prostitution of morals cupbearer to drunkards perpetual peregrination constant entertaining law-breaking disclosure of counsels disregard for acquisitions variance of laws as all
2208-857: Is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages . Latin was originally spoken by the Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio ), the lower Tiber area around Rome , Italy. Through the expansion of the Roman Republic it became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and subsequently throughout the Roman Empire . By the late Roman Republic , Old Latin had evolved into standardized Classical Latin . Vulgar Latin refers to
2304-665: Is a member of the International Council of Museums , UNESCO's International Council of Museums, Vice-chair of the International Committee of Memorial and Human Rights Museums , a member of the Council of American Jewish Museums , and Association of European Jewish Museums , which has honored her with lifetime membership. In 2006, after consulting for the Museum of the History of Polish Jews for several years, she agreed to lead
2400-626: Is a reversal of the original phrase Non terrae plus ultra ("No land further beyond", "No further!"). According to legend , this phrase was inscribed as a warning on the Pillars of Hercules , the rocks on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar and the western end of the known, Mediterranean world. Charles adopted the motto following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of taking risks and striving for excellence. In
2496-504: Is a scholar of Performance and Jewish Studies and a museum professional. Professor Emerita of Performance Studies at New York University , she is best known for her interdisciplinary contributions to Jewish studies and to the theory and history of museums, tourism, and heritage. She is currently the Ronald S. Lauder Chief Curator of the Core Exhibition and Advisor to the Director at POLIN Museum of
2592-489: Is closest to the 1606 original, which latter differs only in the order of the phrases and in not including "heaven for the nobility". The origin of the phrase " paradisus Judaeorum " ("paradise of the Jews") has been described as antisemitic , and the 1606 pasquinade's author as having viewed Poland as being run by overprivileged Jews. In the centuries since, the phrase has lost its negative connotations and has been used to refer to
2688-548: Is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy have retained a remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Muslim conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously. The spoken Latin that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from
2784-540: Is heaven for the nobility, paradise for Jews, purgatory for townspeople, and hell for peasants, cause of looseness of women, much productive of wool, always nevertheless in need of clothes, though it produces copious linen, yet it seeks foreign fabric, it loves foreign goods, it neglects domestic products, it prizes what is bought dear, disdaining what is bought cheap. "The term Paradisus Judaeorum [Paradise for Jews] has been present in Polish culture since
2880-536: Is heaven for the nobility, hell for the peasants and paradise for Jews'." The process of transformation of this phrase from antisemitic to philosemitic has been described by Piotr Konieczny as an example of linguistic reclamation . The comparison of Jewish and noble classes has generally been described as exaggerated (Hundert himself writes that it was hyperbole ), as the Jewish situation in early modern Poland, while comparatively privileged compared to many other classes in
2976-661: Is modelled after the British Victoria Cross which has the inscription "For Valour". Because Canada is officially bilingual, the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the Latin Pro Valore . Spain's motto Plus ultra , meaning "even further", or figuratively "Further!", is also Latin in origin. It is taken from the personal motto of Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I), and
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3072-958: Is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas. It is most common in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian liceo classico and liceo scientifico , the German Humanistisches Gymnasium and the Dutch gymnasium . Occasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast in Latin. Notable examples include Radio Bremen in Germany, YLE radio in Finland (the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until it
3168-531: The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy . About 270,000 inscriptions are known. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. In
3264-562: The Holy See , the primary language of its public journal , the Acta Apostolicae Sedis , and the working language of the Roman Rota . Vatican City is also home to the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions in Latin. In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language. There are
3360-561: The Middle Ages , borrowing from Latin occurred from ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century or indirectly after the Norman Conquest , through the Anglo-Norman language . From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed " inkhorn terms ", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by
3456-559: The Roman Rite of the Catholic Church at the Vatican City . The church continues to adapt concepts from modern languages to Ecclesiastical Latin of the Latin language. Contemporary Latin is more often studied to be read rather than spoken or actively used. Latin has greatly influenced the English language , along with a large number of others, and historically contributed many words to
3552-553: The Romance languages . During the Classical period, informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors, inscriptions such as Curse tablets and those found as graffiti . In the Late Latin period, language changes reflecting spoken (non-classical) norms tend to be found in greater quantities in texts. As it
3648-624: The University of Texas at Austin (English Literature and Anthropology), Columbia University (Linguistics and Yiddish Studies), University of Pennsylvania (Folklore and Folklife), and New York University (Performance Studies) since 1981. She is Professor Emerita of Performance Studies and distinguished University Professor Emerita (an honor conferred in 2002) at the Tisch School of the Arts, New York University, where she chaired her department for more than
3744-622: The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses. While the written form of Latin was increasingly standardized into a fixed form, the spoken forms began to diverge more greatly. Currently, the five most widely spoken Romance languages by number of native speakers are Spanish , Portuguese , French , Italian , and Romanian . Despite dialectal variation, which
3840-411: The golden age of Jewish life in Poland . For example, John Klier titled a chapter in his book about Eastern European Jewish history "Poland–Lithuania: 'Paradise for Jews ' ", and Gershon Hundert writes: "The Polish Jewish community was vibrant, creative, proud and self-confident [...]. Their neighbours knew this as well, referring to Poland as Paradisus Judaeorum [...]. The full expression went: 'Poland
3936-614: The 1606 pasquinade appeared in shorter Latin versions, by the Croat Juraj Križanić (1664), the Italian Giovan Battista Pacichelli (1685), and the Slovak Daniel Krman [ sk ] (1708-9). Kot thinks that the anonymous author of the 1606 pasquinade may have been inspired by examples of proverbs from other European countries. Sixteenth-century England was depicted as "the paradise of women,
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4032-464: The 1606 text as a satire on all of Polish society. Some 17th- and 18th-century Polish authors, themselves either nobles or clients of the nobility, saw it as an attack on the nobility's Golden Freedoms and ascribed it to a foreign author, refusing to accept that a scathing criticism of Polish society could come from a Polish author. Kot writes that the pasquinades are some of the most pointed examples of self-criticism originating in Polish society and that
4128-1263: The 17th century. It comes from an anonymous text expressing anti-gentry and anti-Jewish sentiments, which was published in Latin in 1606 and titled Paskwiliusze na królewskim weselu podrzucone [Lampoons planted at the royal wedding party]. The anonymous writer uses the phrase Paradisus Judaeorum to express his conviction that Poland is ruled by Jews and that they enjoy excessive privileges (Kot, 1937; Tokarska-Bakir, 2004, p. 54)" (square brackets in original). "Omawiane powyżej satyry ... nie były u szlachty popularne. ... kierowały całe swoje ostrze przeciwko szlachcie. Sa one jednym z najdosadniejszych wyrazów autokrytki życia społecznego i gospodarczego, moralnego i politycznego w Polsce. Ale po [Starowolskim] nikt już nie podejmie ani gospodarczo-społecznej krytki ani sprawy polskiej. Jedynie tylko dyskusja żydowska jako najmniej obrażająca szlachtę, będzie odtąd nawiązywać do naszych satyr. I to jeszcze z zastrzeżeniem, iż podaje się je wyłącznie jako produkt cudzoziemski, jako złośliwe uwagi obcych o stosunkach polskich; uznać ich za wytwór samokrytyki polskiej już nie wypadało." Latin language Latin ( lingua Latina , pronounced [ˈlɪŋɡʷa ɫaˈtiːna] , or Latinum [ɫaˈtiːnʊ̃] )
4224-689: The Arts; Social Science Research Council; and International Center for Advanced Studies, New York University. She was admitted, by invitation, to the American Academy for Jewish Research and the Society of American Historians. She is on the Academic Advisory Council of the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research. Kirshenblatt-Gimblett has worked as a consultant for many museums, exhibition projects, and cultural festivals. These include ANU : Museum of
4320-617: The British Crown. The motto is featured on all presently minted coinage and has been featured in most coinage throughout the nation's history. Several states of the United States have Latin mottos , such as: Many military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as: Some law governing bodies in the Philippines have Latin mottos, such as: Some colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example Harvard University 's motto
4416-566: The Commonwealth's Jews, while similar to that of the townspeople, was fairly secure and prosperous, particularly compared to the situation of Jews in most other European countries . Due to its criticism of the nobility, the proverb was most popular among townspeople; much less so among the nobility, whose writers, if they referred to it, used it mainly in the context of Polish Jewry. The proverb has been described as still (as of 2004) very popular in Poland, and as often influencing people's views about
4512-564: The Commonwealth, and to the Jewish position in many other contemporary countries, was hardly idyllic. Norman Davies says Jews "were widely denounced as the chosen instrument of 'the Polish lords'" in Ukraine. In the POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews that opened in Warsaw in 2013, a gallery covering the "Golden Age of Polish Jewry" was named, " Paradisus Iudaeorum ". The gallery's name became
4608-599: The English lexicon , particularly after the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman Conquest . Latin and Ancient Greek roots are heavily used in English vocabulary in theology , the sciences , medicine , and law . A number of phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As
4704-835: The Farband Shule, Peretz Shule, and D'Arcy Talmud Torah. At Northview Heights she took the leading role in George Bernard Shaw's Saint Joan, which was showcased at the Sears Drama Festival. She lived in Israel during 1961-1962 and studied at an ulpan , worked on Kibbutz Revivim , taught manual training to boys with learning disabilities in Tel Aviv , and conducted research on textiles in Jerusalem . Upon her return to Toronto, she began her university studies and academic career. She married
4800-456: The Foodish program at ANU – Museum of the Jewish People (Tel Aviv). She has curated exhibitions for the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research , The Jewish Museum (New York), and the Smithsonian Institution , and published extensively on museums, including in Nowa (2011), and since then in catalogues for the Core Exhibition and temporary exhibition at POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews (Warsaw), and in academic journals and books. She
4896-416: The Grinch Stole Christmas! , The Cat in the Hat , and a book of fairy tales, " fabulae mirabiles ", are intended to garner popular interest in the language. Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook . Some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series,
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#17328528397374992-475: The History of Polish Jews in Warsaw. Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett was born in Toronto, Ontario, during the Second World War , and raised in Toronto's downtown immigrant neighborhood during the immediate postwar years. Both of her parents were Jewish and were born and raised in Poland . Her mother came to Canada from Brześć nad Bugiem in 1929 and her father from Opatów in 1934. She attended Orde Street Public School and Northview Heights Collegiate, as well as
5088-513: The Jewish People (Tel Aviv), Jewish Museum Berlin , the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (Washington, D.C.), Yeshiva University Museum (New York), The Jewish Museum (New York), Skirball Museum (Los Angeles), Weitzman National Museum of American Jewish History (Philadelphia), Spertus Institute for Jewish Learning and Leadership (Chicago), Smithsonian Institution (Washington, D.C.), National September 11 Memorial & Museum (New York), Museum of Jurassic Technology (Los Angeles), and
5184-417: The Los Angeles Festival. She has been on the advisory boards for the Jewish Museum Vienna , Jewish Museum Berlin and the Jewish Museum and Tolerance Center (Moscow). She is an advisor for The Lost Shtetl Museum (Šeduva, Lithuania) , the Belarusian-Jewish Cultural Heritage Center (Minsk), which aims to create a Belarusian Jewish museum, the Armenian Jewish Museum (Vlora) and Besa Museum (Tirana), and
5280-409: The Polish Jesuit Walenty Pęski [ pl ] , who omits mention of the townspeople, instead adding "purgatory for royalty" and " limbo for clergy". Another five-part 1861 German variant (" Polen ist der Bauern Hölle, der Juden Paradies, der Burger Fegefeuer, der Edelleute Himmel, und der Fremden Goldgrube " – "Poland is hell for peasants, paradise for Jews, purgatory for townspeople, heaven for
5376-409: The United States the unofficial national motto until 1956 was E pluribus unum meaning "Out of many, one". The motto continues to be featured on the Great Seal . It also appears on the flags and seals of both houses of congress and the flags of the states of Michigan, North Dakota, New York, and Wisconsin. The motto's 13 letters symbolically represent the original Thirteen Colonies which revolted from
5472-447: The University of Kentucky, the University of Oxford and also Princeton University. There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The Latin Misplaced Pages has more than 130,000 articles. Italian , French , Portuguese , Spanish , Romanian , Catalan , Romansh , Sardinian and other Romance languages are direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin borrowings in English and Albanian , as well as
5568-572: The artist Max Gimblett in 1964. They have lived and worked in the United States since 1965. An honors English major at the University of Toronto from 1962 to 1965, Kirshenblatt-Gimblett graduated from the University of California, Berkeley , with an A.B. and M.A. in English literature in 1966 and 1967 respectively. She received her PhD in 1972 from Indiana University Bloomington , where she studied folklore, anthropology, ethnomusicology , sociolinguistics , and material culture under folklorist Richard Dorson . She has held faculty appointments at
5664-516: The author and then forgotten, but some useful ones survived, such as 'imbibe' and 'extrapolate'. Many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French . Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and Dutch vocabularies. Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett (born September 30, 1942, in Toronto, Ontario)
5760-425: The benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics . The libretto for the opera-oratorio Oedipus rex by Igor Stravinsky is in Latin. Parts of Carl Orff 's Carmina Burana are written in Latin. Enya has recorded several tracks with Latin lyrics. The continued instruction of Latin is seen by some as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts education. Latin
5856-409: The careful work of Petrarch, Politian and others, first the demand for manuscripts, and then the rush to bring works into print, led to the circulation of inaccurate copies for several centuries following. Neo-Latin literature was extensive and prolific, but less well known or understood today. Works covered poetry, prose stories and early novels, occasional pieces and collections of letters, to name
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#17328528397375952-415: The classicised Latin that followed through to the present are often grouped together as Neo-Latin , or New Latin, which have in recent decades become a focus of renewed study , given their importance for the development of European culture, religion and science. The vast majority of written Latin belongs to this period, but its full extent is unknown. The Renaissance reinforced the position of Latin as
6048-412: The country's full Latin name. Some film and television in ancient settings, such as Sebastiane , The Passion of the Christ and Barbarians (2020 TV series) , have been made with dialogue in Latin. Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as The Exorcist and Lost (" Jughead "). Subtitles are usually shown for
6144-742: The courtiers' constant entertaining, the people's perpetual disquiet, domination by foreigners. Which disturbs all the people. Clarum Regnum Polonorum est coelum nobiliorum, paradisus Judaeorum, purgatorium plebejorum, et infernum rusticorum... The illustrious Kingdom of Poland is heaven for the nobility, paradise for Jews, purgatory for townspeople, hell for peasants... Clarum regnum Polonorum Est coelum nobiliorum, Infernus rusticorum, Paradisus Judaeorum, Aurifodina advenarum, Causa luxus foeminarum. Multo quidem dives lanis, Semper tamen egens pannis; Et copiam in lino serit, Sed externas diligit; Caro emptis gloriatur, Empta parvo aspernatur. The illustrious Kingdom of Poland
6240-429: The decline in written Latin output. Despite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary world. The largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church . The Catholic Church required that Mass be carried out in Latin until the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965 , which permitted the use of the vernacular . Latin remains
6336-489: The disparate situations of four social classes in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The privileged nobility ( szlachta ) is at the top ("heaven for the nobility"), and the impoverished, usually enserfed peasantry are at the bottom ("hell for peasants"). The other two commonly named classes are the townspeople (or burghers) and the Jews. By the 16th century, the position of townspeople in the Commonwealth had been in decline (hence, "purgatory for townspeople"). The situation of
6432-405: The educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Without the institutions of the Roman Empire that had supported its uniformity, Medieval Latin
6528-412: The following institutions: Getty Institute for the History of Art and the Humanities; Center for Folklife Programs and Cultural Studies, Smithsonian Institution; Stanford Humanities Center; Association for Museum History; the Schlesinger Library on the History of Women in America, Radcliffe College; Association for Jewish Studies Executive Board and AJS Women's Caucus; the American Center for Wine, Food, and
6624-592: The hell of horses, and the purgatory of servants". Variants of this described France and Italy. The first translation of the 1606 Polish pasquinade from Latin into Polish appeared in the 1630s. Kot translated it in 1937. The identity of the author is unknown. Kot wrote that he may have been a Catholic townsman, perhaps a priest jealous of the influence of Jews and others, such as Protestants and nobility, who competed with Catholic townspeople. Konrad Matyjaszek describes it as "expressing anti-gentry and anti-Jewish sentiments". According to Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett , it
6720-504: The invention of printing and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library , published by Harvard University Press , or the Oxford Classical Texts , published by Oxford University Press . Latin translations of modern literature such as: The Hobbit , Treasure Island , Robinson Crusoe , Paddington Bear , Winnie the Pooh , The Adventures of Tintin , Asterix , Harry Potter , Le Petit Prince , Max and Moritz , How
6816-412: The language of the Roman Rite . The Tridentine Mass (also known as the Extraordinary Form or Traditional Latin Mass) is celebrated in Latin. Although the Mass of Paul VI (also known as the Ordinary Form or the Novus Ordo) is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings. It is the official language of
6912-440: The large areas where it had come to be natively spoken. However, even after the fall of Western Rome , Latin remained the common language of international communication , science, scholarship and academia in Europe until well into the early 19th century, by which time modern languages had supplanted it in common academic and political usage. Late Latin is the literary language from the 3rd century AD onward. No longer spoken as
7008-462: The late seventeenth century, when spoken skills began to erode. It then became increasingly taught only to be read. Latin grammar is highly fusional , with classes of inflections for case , number , person , gender , tense , mood , voice , and aspect . The Latin alphabet is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets . Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and
7104-431: The later part of the Roman Republic , up to 75 BC, i.e. before the age of Classical Latin . It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence . The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet . The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon script to what ultimately became
7200-582: The latter event "the biggest national catastrophe since the destruction of Solomon's Temple." Some authors have read the phrase " Paradisus Iudaeorum " as a comment on the favorable situation of Jews in the Kingdom of Poland (and subsequently in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ), a polity that was notable for granting Jews special privileges in the 1264 Statute of Kalisz while Jews faced persecution and murder in western Europe. Others have read
7296-421: The less prestigious colloquial registers , attested in inscriptions and some literary works such as those of the comic playwrights Plautus and Terence and the author Petronius . While often called a "dead language", Latin did not undergo language death . By the 6th to 9th centuries, natural language change eventually resulted in Latin as a vernacular language evolving into distinct Romance languages in
7392-458: The nobility's refusal to accept that such criticism could come from within that society reflects sadly on the deterioration of Polish discourse in the 18th and 19th centuries. Over time, the 1606 pasquinade lapsed into obscurity, reduced to the popular proverb, that described the historical Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795) as "heaven for the nobility , purgatory for townspeople, hell for peasants, paradise for Jews." The proverb contrasts
7488-486: The nobility, and goldmine for foreigners") includes the 1606 pasquinade's "goldmine for foreigners", which did not make it into the final modern proverb that lists the nobility, townspeople, peasants, and Jews. Samuel Adalberg 's 1887 paremiology records a four-part version ("Polska niebem dla szlachty, czyśćcem dla mieszczan, piekłem dla chłopów, a rajem dla Żydów" – "Poland is heaven for the nobility, purgatory for townspeople, hell for peasants, and paradise for Jews") that
7584-425: The nobles, purgatory for townspeople, hell for peasants, and paradise for Jews" — in an anonymous 1606 Latin text, one of two that are jointly known by the Polish title, Paskwiliusze na królewskim weselu podrzucone ("Pasquinades Planted at Royal Wedding Celebration"), referring to the wedding of Sigismund III Vasa and Constance of Austria that had taken place on 11 December 1605. Of the two texts attributed to
7680-462: The other varieties, as it was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire. Spoken Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing. For many Italians using Latin, though, there
7776-504: The people see. Polonia est Nova Babylonia, Tsiganorum, Germanorum, Armenorum et Scotorum colonia; Paradisus Hebraeorum, infernus rusticorum; aurifodina advenarum, sedes gentium vagabundarum; comitiatorum assidua hospitatio, populi perpetua inquietatio, alienigenarum dominatio. Quam despuit omnis natio. Poland is the new Babylon, a colony of Gypsies, Germans, Armenians, and Scots; paradise for Hebrews, hell for peasants; goldmine for foreigners, seat of vagabonds;
7872-620: The period of Kirshenblatt's youth in Poland. Kirshenblatt-Gimblett is the author of Destination Culture: Tourism, Museums, and Heritage (University of California Press, 1998). She co-authored The Israel Experience: Studies in Youth Travel and Jewish Identity with Harvey Goldberg and Samuel Heilman (Jerusalem: Studio Kavgraph, Andrea and Charles Bronfman Philanthropies, 2002). Her edited books include Writing Modern Jewish History: Essays in Honor of Salo W. Baron (Yale University Press, 2006), which won
7968-476: The phrase as antisemitic – as suggesting that the Jews of the Polish Kingdom and Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were overprivileged. Most present-day usage relates to the first interpretation. While the saying has sometimes been attributed to the 16th-century Polish rabbi Moses Isserles , the Polish literary historian Stanisław Kot provided the earliest printed attestation of part of the saying — "Heaven for
8064-733: The same anonymous author, the part that became the proverb appeared in the " Regnum Polonorum est" ("The Kingdom of Poland Is"). Parts of the text were quoted in Bishop Stanisław Zremba 's 1623 work, " Okulary na rozchody w Koronie..." and were included in a 1636 work by Szymon Starowolski . The phrase, "heaven for the nobility ", which became a regular part of the proverb, was added by the German Jesuit priest Michael Radau in his 1672 work, Orator extemporeneus ; Polish-literature scholar Julian Krzyżanowski suggests that Radau had coined this phrase as early as 1641. Several variants of
8160-440: The situation of the social classes, particularly the Jews, in the Commonwealth. In various versions of the proverb, phrases appear in varying order and sometimes do not appear at all; there are also some minor changes in wording. Križanić, for example, writes "paradisus Hebraeorum" ("paradise for Hebrews ") rather than "paradise for Jews". A five-part proverb variant appears in a treatise, Palatinum Reginae Liberatis (c. 1670), by
8256-463: The team developing the Core Exhibition, a multimedia narrative experience dedicated to the 1000-year history of Polish Jews. They Called Me Mayer July: Painted Memories of a Jewish Childhood in Poland Before the Holocaust , which she coauthored with her father Mayer Kirshenblatt , was accompanied by an exhibition of the paintings and a documentary film, Paint What You Remember . The book won three awards, two of them Canadian Jewish Book Awards , and
8352-631: Was a finalist in three categories for the National Jewish Book Award . The film records Mayer Kirshenblatt's return to his hometown, Opatów , with his family and the warm reception he and his memories received from those living there today. The exhibition, which opened at the Magnes Museum (Berkeley, California) in 2007, traveled to The Jewish Museum (New York) and the Jewish Historical Museum (Amsterdam). The audio guide received
8448-565: Was accompanied by a landmark exhibition for the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research at The Jewish Museum and feature documentary film (recently reissued on DVD). Her other publications include Speech Play: Research and Resources for Linguistic Creativity (editor and contributor); Fabric of Jewish Life: Textiles from the Jewish Museum Collection (in collaboration with Cissy Grossman); Authoring Lives ; and numerous articles. She
8544-802: Was awarded the Officer's Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland from the President of Poland, an honorary doctorate from the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, and the Marshall Sklare award for her contributions to the social scientific study of Jewry. In 2017, she received an honorary doctorate from the University of Haifa and was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 2020 she
8640-717: Was designated Distinguished Humanist for 2003 by the Melton Center for Jewish Studies at Ohio State University. In 2008, she was honored with the Foundation for Jewish Culture award for lifetime achievement and the Mlotek Prize for Yiddish and Yiddish Culture, and was selected for the Forward 50, which celebrates leadership, creativity, and impact. In 2010 she received the Shofar Award of the 25th Annual Jewish Music Festival and in 2015 she
8736-413: Was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, Romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages . Late Latin is a kind of written Latin used in the 3rd to 6th centuries. This began to diverge from Classical forms at
8832-776: Was honored with the Dan David Prize . Previous awards include the Guggenheim Fellowship and grants from the American Council of Learned Societies , National Endowment for the Arts , and National Endowment for the Humanities . She was a Getty Scholar at the Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities in 1991–1992, in residence at the Rockefeller Foundation's Bellagio Conference and Study Center in 1991,
8928-496: Was much more liberal in its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use fui and fueram instead. Furthermore, the meanings of many words were changed and new words were introduced, often under influence from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail. Renaissance Latin, 1300 to 1500, and
9024-441: Was no complete separation between Italian and Latin, even into the beginning of the Renaissance . Petrarch for example saw Latin as a literary version of the spoken language. Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the post-classical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed, that is from around 700 to 1500 AD. The spoken language had developed into the various Romance languages; however, in
9120-520: Was political satire, "a pasquinade critical of everything in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth—foreigners, immigrants , ' heretics ,' peasants , burghers , and servants , and also Jews." Kot writes that other versions in the 17th and 18th centuries criticized the clergy, Gypsies, Italians, Germans, Armenians, and Scots: groups were added or removed from the list, depending on the authors' allegiances. Krzyżanowski sees
9216-478: Was shut down in June 2019), and Vatican Radio & Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other material in Latin. A variety of organisations, as well as informal Latin 'circuli' ('circles'), have been founded in more recent times to support the use of spoken Latin. Moreover, a number of university classics departments have begun incorporating communicative pedagogies in their Latin courses. These include
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