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129-508: Jerome is a town in the Black Hills of Yavapai County in the U.S. state of Arizona . Founded in the late 19th century on Cleopatra Hill overlooking the Verde Valley , Jerome is more than 5,000 feet (1,500 m) above sea level. It is about 100 miles (160 km) north of Phoenix along State Route 89A between Sedona and Prescott . Supported in its heyday by rich copper mines , it

258-470: A bonanza . The UVX Mine, also known as the Little Daisy Mine , became spectacularly profitable: during 1916 alone, it produced $ 10   million worth of copper, silver and gold, of which $ 7.4   million was profit. This mine eventually produced more than $ 125   million worth of ore and paid more than $ 50   million in dividends. Total production amounted to four million tons, much less than

387-530: A ring fault in the caldera. About 50   million years after they were deposited, the tectonic plate of which they were a part collided with another small plate and then with the proto-North American continent. The collisions, which welded the plates to the continent, folded the Cleopatra tuff in such a way that the two ore bodies ended up on opposite sides of a fold called the Jerome anticline . No record exists for

516-479: A standard gauge railway, the Verde Tunnel and Smelter Railroad, to haul ore from its mine to the new smelter. After the new railway opened in 1915, the company dismantled the Jerome smelter and converted the mine to an open-pit operation by 1919. The switch from underground to open-pit mining stemmed from a series of fires, some burning for decades, in the mine's high-sulfur ores. Removing the overburden and pouring

645-460: A supercritical fluid at such temperatures. The critical point of (pure) water is 375 °C (707 °F) at a pressure of 218  atmospheres . However, introducing salinity into the fluid raises the critical point to higher temperatures and pressures. The critical point of seawater (3.2 wt. % NaCl) is 407 °C (765 °F) and 298.5 bars, corresponding to a depth of ~2,960 m (9,710 ft) below sea level. Accordingly, if

774-444: A brief post-war downturn, boom times returned to Jerome in the 1920s. Copper prices rose to 24 cents a pound in 1929, and United Verde and UVX operated at near capacity. Wages rose, consumers spent, and the town's businesses—including five automobile dealerships—prospered. United Verde, seeking stable labor relations, added disability and life insurance benefits for its workers and built a baseball field, tennis courts, swimming pools, and

903-399: A chemical highly toxic to most known organisms, to produce organic material through the process of chemosynthesis . The vents' impact on the living environment goes beyond the organisms that lives around them, as they act as a significant source of iron in the oceans, providing iron for the phytoplankton. The oldest confirmed record of a "modern" biological community related with a vent is

1032-575: A former church building that houses the society's offices and archives. Annual events include a home tour ("Paso de Casas") in May, a reunion for former mining families in October, and a Festival of Lights in December. Gulch Radio KZRJ broadcasts from Jerome at 100.5 FM and streams online. The Town of Jerome publishes a bimonthly newsletter, Point of View . Children from Jerome in kindergarten through eighth grade attend

1161-581: A fortune in mining and commercial ventures in Montana , bought the United Verde properties and, among other improvements, enlarged the smelter. He ordered construction of a narrow gauge railway , the United Verde & Pacific , to Jerome Junction , a railway transfer point 27 miles (43 km) to the west. As mining of the ore expanded, Jerome's population grew from 250 in 1890 to more than 2,500 by 1900. By then

1290-467: A host that contains methanotrophic endosymbionts; however, the latter mostly occur in cold seeps as opposed to hydrothermal vents. While chemosynthesis occurring at the deep ocean allows organisms to live without sunlight in the immediate sense, they technically still rely on the sun for survival, since oxygen in the ocean is a byproduct of photosynthesis. However, if the sun were to suddenly disappear and photosynthesis ceased to occur on our planet, life at

1419-417: A hydrothermal fluid with a salinity of 3.2 wt. % NaCl vents above 407 °C (765 °F) and 298.5 bars, it is supercritical. Furthermore, the salinity of vent fluids have been shown to vary widely due to phase separation in the crust. The critical point for lower salinity fluids is at lower temperature and pressure conditions than that for seawater, but higher than that for pure water. For example,

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1548-543: A light other than sunlight for photosynthesis. New and unusual species are constantly being discovered in the neighborhood of black smokers. The Pompeii worm Alvinella pompejana , which is capable of withstanding temperatures up to 80 °C (176 °F), was found in the 1980s, and a scaly-foot gastropod Chrysomallon squamiferum in 2001 during an expedition to the Indian Ocean 's Kairei hydrothermal vent field . The latter uses iron sulfides ( pyrite and greigite) for

1677-547: A mixture of water, waste ore, and sand into rock fissures helped control the fires. By 1918, UVX also had its own smelter in its own company town near Cottonwood; the company town was named Clemenceau in 1920. In 1929, a company named Verde Central opened what at first appeared to be another "great mine" about a mile southwest of Jerome. The labor situation in Jerome was complicated. Three separate labor unions—the International Union of Mine, Mill, and Smelter Workers (MMSW),

1806-650: A net source of metals such as Fe and Mn to the oceans, they can also scavenge other metals and non-metalliferous nutrients such as P from seawater, representing a net sink of these elements. Life has traditionally been seen as driven by energy from the sun, but deep-sea organisms have no access to sunlight, so biological communities around hydrothermal vents must depend on nutrients found in the dusty chemical deposits and hydrothermal fluids in which they live. Previously, benthic oceanographers assumed that vent organisms were dependent on marine snow , as deep-sea organisms are. This would leave them dependent on plant life and thus

1935-580: A pound, leading to layoffs, temporary shutdowns, and wage reductions in the Verde District. In 1935, the Clark family sold United Verde to Phelps Dodge , and in 1938 UVX went out of business. Meanwhile, a subsidence problem that had irreparably damaged at least 10 downtown buildings by 1928 worsened through the 1930s. Dozens of buildings, including the post office and jail, were lost as the earth beneath them sank away. Contributing causes were geologic faulting in

2064-580: A public park in Jerome. Both companies donated to the Jerome Public Library and helped finance projects for the town's schools, churches, and hospitals. In 1930, after the start of the Great Depression , the price of copper fell to 14   cents a pound. In response, United Verde began reducing its work force; UVX operated at a loss, and the third big mine, Verde Central, closed completely. The price of copper fell further in 1932 to 5   cents

2193-536: A railroad cattle car , and shipped them out of town in what has been called the Jerome Deportation. Nine IWW members, thought by the Prescott sheriff's department to be leaders, were arrested and jailed temporarily in Prescott though never charged with a crime; others were taken to Needles, California , then to Kingman, Arizona , where they were released after promising to desist from "further agitation". Following

2322-591: A strike against United Verde, regarded the rival IWW with animosity and would not recognize it as legitimate. In response, the IWW members threatened to break the strike. Under pressure, the MMSW voted 467 to 431 to settle for less than they wanted. In July, the IWW called for a strike against all the mines in the district. In this case, the MMSW voted 470 to 194 against striking. Three days later, about 250 armed vigilantes rounded up at least 60 suspected IWW members, loaded them onto

2451-618: A thick mat which attracts other organisms, such as amphipods and copepods , which graze upon the bacteria directly. Larger organisms, such as snails, shrimp, crabs, tube worms , fish (especially eelpout , cutthroat eel , Ophidiiformes and Symphurus thermophilus ), and octopuses (notably Vulcanoctopus hydrothermalis ), form a food chain of predator and prey relationships above the primary consumers. The main families of organisms found around seafloor vents are annelids , pogonophorans , gastropods , and crustaceans, with large bivalves , vestimentiferan worms, and "eyeless" shrimp making up

2580-871: A tracer of hydrothermal activity is radon . As all naturally occurring isotopes of Rn are radioactive, Rn concentrations in seawater can also provide information on hydrothermal plume ages when combined with He isotope data. The isotope radon-222 is utilized for this purpose as Rn has the longest half-life of all naturally occurring radon isotopes of roughly 3.82 days. Dissolved gases, such as H 2 , H 2 S, and CH 4 , and metals, such as Fe and Mn, present at high concentrations in hydrothermal vent fluids relative to seawater may also be diagnostic of hydrothermal plumes and thus active venting; however, these components are reactive and are thus less suitable as tracers of hydrothermal activity. Hydrothermal plumes represent an important mechanism through which hydrothermal systems influence marine biogeochemistry . Hydrothermal vents emit

2709-510: A type of chemosynthetic based ecosystems (CBE) where primary productivity is fuelled by chemical compounds as energy sources instead of light ( chemoautotrophy ). Hydrothermal vent communities are able to sustain such vast amounts of life because vent organisms depend on chemosynthetic bacteria for food. The water from the hydrothermal vent is rich in dissolved minerals and supports a large population of chemoautotrophic bacteria. These bacteria use sulfur compounds, particularly hydrogen sulfide ,

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2838-632: A vent fluid with a 2.24 wt. % NaCl salinity has the critical point at 400 °C (752 °F) and 280.5 bars. Thus, water emerging from the hottest parts of some hydrothermal vents can be a supercritical fluid , possessing physical properties between those of a gas and those of a liquid . Examples of supercritical venting are found at several sites. Sister Peak (Comfortless Cove Hydrothermal Field, 4°48′S 12°22′W  /  4.800°S 12.367°W  / -4.800; -12.367 , depth 2,996 m or 9,829 ft) vents low salinity phase-separated , vapor-type fluids. Sustained venting

2967-613: A wide range of elements to the world's oceans, thus contributing to global marine biogeochemistry . Relative to the majority of the deep sea, the areas around hydrothermal vents are biologically more productive, often hosting complex communities fueled by the chemicals dissolved in the vent fluids. Chemosynthetic bacteria and archaea found around hydrothermal vents form the base of the food chain , supporting diverse organisms including giant tube worms , clams, limpets , and shrimp. Active hydrothermal vents are thought to exist on Jupiter 's moon Europa and Saturn 's moon Enceladus , and it

3096-467: A wide variety of trace metals into the ocean, including Fe , Mn , Cr , Cu , Zn , Co , Ni , Mo , Cd , V , and W , many of which have biological functions. Numerous physical and chemical processes control the fate of these metals once they are expelled into the water column. Based on thermodynamic theory, Fe and Mn should oxidize in seawater to form insoluble metal (oxy)hydroxide precipitates; however, complexation with organic compounds and

3225-526: Is 1.75   billion years old. Created by a massive caldera eruption in Precambrian —elsewhere more narrowly identified as Proterozoic —seas south of what later became northern Arizona, the Cleopatra tuff was then part of a small tectonic plate that was moving toward the proto-North American continent. After the eruption, cold sea water entered Earth's crust through cracks caused by the eruption. Heated by rising magma to 660 °F (350 °C) or more,

3354-493: Is a particularly useful tracer of hydrothermal activity. This is because hydrothermal venting releases elevated concentrations of helium-3 relative to seawater, a rare, naturally occurring He isotope derived exclusively from the Earth's interior. Thus, the dispersal of He throughout the oceans via hydrothermal plumes creates anomalous seawater He isotope compositions that signify hydrothermal venting. Another noble gas that can serve as

3483-617: Is about 100 miles (160 km) north of Phoenix and 45 miles (72 km) southwest of Flagstaff along Arizona State Route 89A between Sedona to the east and Prescott to the west. The town is in Arizona's Black Hills , which trend north–south. The town lies within the Prescott National Forest at an elevation of more than 5,000 feet (1,500 m). Woodchute Wilderness is about 3 miles (5 km) west of Jerome, and Mingus Mountain , at 7,726 feet (2,355 m) above sea level,

3612-452: Is about 4 miles (6 km) south of town. Jerome State Historic Park is in the town itself. Bitter Creek, a tributary of the Verde River , flows intermittently through Jerome. East of Jerome at the base of the hills are the Verde Valley and the communities of Clarkdale and Cottonwood , site of the nearest airport. Most of Cleopatra Hill, the rock formation upon which Jerome was built,

3741-618: Is also served by the Eastern Area Command of the Yavapai County Sheriff's Office. About two dozen men and women comprise Jerome's volunteer fire department, which serves an area of more than 500 square miles (1,300 km) including nearby rural and mountainous terrain as well as the town itself. Firefighting, emergency medical service, and wilderness rescues are its specialties. Jerome is in the Verde Valley Precinct of

3870-505: Is available via DirecTV and the Dish Network . Mobile phone companies and Century Link offer telephone services. Informational notes Citations Bibliography Black Hills (Yavapai County) The Black Hills of Yavapai County (in Yavapai : Waulkayauayau – "pine tableland") are a large mountain range of central Arizona in southeast Yavapai County . It is bordered by

3999-841: Is known as the "nonbuoyant plume" phase. Once the plume is neutrally buoyant, it can no longer continue to rise through the water column and instead begins to spread laterally throughout the ocean, potentially over several thousands of kilometers. Chemical reactions occur concurrently with the physical evolution of hydrothermal plumes. While seawater is a relatively oxidizing fluid, hydrothermal vent fluids are typically reducing in nature. Consequently, reduced chemicals such as hydrogen gas , hydrogen sulfide , methane , Fe , and Mn that are common in many vent fluids will react upon mixing with seawater. In fluids with high concentrations of H 2 S, dissolved metal ions such as Fe and Mn readily precipitate as dark-colored metal sulfide minerals (see "black smokers"). Furthermore, Fe and Mn entrained within

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4128-466: Is located near Nafanua volcanic cone , American Samoa . In 1993, already more than 100 gastropod species were known to occur in hydrothermal vents. Over 300 new species have been discovered at hydrothermal vents, many of them "sister species" to others found in geographically separated vent areas. It has been proposed that before the North American Plate overrode the mid-ocean ridge , there

4257-417: Is not yet known what significance, if any, supercritical venting has in terms of hydrothermal circulation, mineral deposit formation, geochemical fluxes or biological activity. The initial stages of a vent chimney begin with the deposition of the mineral anhydrite . Sulfides of copper , iron , and zinc then precipitate in the chimney gaps, making it less porous over the course of time. Vent growths on

4386-416: Is rapid which then leads to halving of nucleotide concentration, weak nucleotide catalysis of CO 2 fixation promotes little to protocell growth and division. In biochemistry, reactions with CO 2 and H 2 produce precursors to biomolecules that are also produced from the acetyl-CoA pathway and Krebs cycle which would support an origin of life at deep sea alkaline vents. Acetyl phosphate produced from

4515-420: Is released by the magma. The proportion of each varies from location to location. In contrast to the approximately 2 °C (36 °F) ambient water temperature at these depths, water emerges from these vents at temperatures ranging from 60 °C (140 °F) up to as high as 464 °C (867 °F). Due to the high hydrostatic pressure at these depths, water may exist in either its liquid form or as

4644-462: Is speculated that ancient hydrothermal vents once existed on Mars . Hydrothermal vents have been hypothesized to have been a significant factor to starting abiogenesis and the survival of primitive life . The conditions of these vents have been shown to support the synthesis of molecules important to life. Some evidence suggests that certain vents such as alkaline hydrothermal vents or those containing supercritical CO 2 are more conducive to

4773-487: Is supported by mining company records showing that about 57 percent of the UVX workers were Mexican nationals in 1931 and that foreign-born and Spanish-surnamed workers accounted for about 77   percent of the UVX work force. The ratio of females to males also varied greatly over time in Jerome. Census data from 1900 through 1950 show a gradual rise in the percentage of female residents, who accounted for only 22   percent of

4902-476: Is the vice mayor. Yavapai County typically elects Republicans to state and federal offices. About 64   percent of its participating voters chose Republican Mitt Romney for president in 2012, and about 63   percent chose Republican Donald Trump in 2016. At the state level, Walter Blackman and Bob Thorpe , both Republicans, represent Jerome as part of the Sixth Legislative District of

5031-447: Is underlain by 88 miles (142 km) of mine shafts. These may have contributed to the subsidence that destroyed some of Jerome's buildings, which slid slowly downhill during the first half of the 20th century. The United Verde open pit, about 300 feet (91 m) deep, is on the edge of town next to Cleopatra Hill. The side of the pit consists of Precambrian gabbro . Mine shafts beneath the pit extend to 4,200 feet (1,300 m) below

5160-424: Is where they deal with nutrition and where their endosymbionts are found. They also have a bright red plume, which they use to uptake compounds such as O, H 2 S, and CO 2 , which feed the endosymbionts in their trophosome. Remarkably, the tubeworms hemoglobin (which incidentally is the reason for the bright red color of the plume) is capable of carrying oxygen without interference or inhibition from sulfide, despite

5289-734: The Arizona Legislature . Republican Sylvia Allen represents the Sixth District in the Arizona Senate . At the federal level, Republican Paul Gosar represents Jerome and the rest of Arizona's Fourth Congressional District in the United States House of Representatives . Democrat Mark Kelly and Independent Kyrsten Sinema represent Arizona in the United States Senate . The town is patrolled by its own police department and

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5418-710: The Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, at an average depth of 2,100 m (6,900 ft). The most northerly black smokers are a cluster of five named Loki's Castle , discovered in 2008 by scientists from the University of Bergen at 73°N , on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge between Greenland and Norway . These black smokers are of interest as they are in a more stable area of the Earth's crust, where tectonic forces are less and consequently fields of hydrothermal vents are less common. The world's deepest known black smokers are located in

5547-512: The Cayman Trough , 5,000 m (3.1 miles) below the ocean's surface. White smoker vents emit lighter-hued minerals, such as those containing barium , calcium and silicon . These vents also tend to have lower-temperature plumes probably because they are generally distant from their heat source. Black and white smokers may coexist in the same hydrothermal field, but they generally represent proximal (close) and distal (distant) vents to

5676-642: The Figueroa Sulfide , from the Early Jurassic of California. The ecosystem so formed is reliant upon the continued existence of the hydrothermal vent field as the primary source of energy, which differs from most surface life on Earth, which is based on solar energy . However, although it is often said that these communities exist independently of the sun, some of the organisms are actually dependent upon oxygen produced by photosynthetic organisms, while others are anaerobic . The chemosynthetic bacteria grow into

5805-704: The Industrial Workers of the World or IWW, and the Liga Protectora Latina, which represented about 500 Mexican miners—had members in Jerome. In 1917, two miners' strikes involving the IWW, which had been organizing strikes elsewhere in Arizona and other states, took place in Jerome. Seen as a threat by business interests as well as other labor unions, the Wobblies, as they were called, were subject nationally to sometimes violent harassment. The MMSW, which in May called

5934-631: The Mid-Atlantic Ridge are extremely rich in metal content, such as Rainbow with 24,000  μM concentrations of iron . Black smokers were first discovered in 1979 on the East Pacific Rise by scientists from Scripps Institution of Oceanography during the RISE Project . They were observed using the deep submergence vehicle ALVIN from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution . Now, black smokers are known to exist in

6063-707: The Tapeats Sandstone was deposited over the Cleopatra tuff. Limestones and other sediments accumulated above the sandstone until about 70   million years ago when the Laramide Orogeny created new mountains and new faults in the region. One of these faults, the Verde Fault, runs directly under Jerome along the Jerome anticline. Crustal stretching beginning about 15   million years ago created Basin and Range topography in central and southern Arizona, caused volcanic activity near Jerome, and induced movement along

6192-467: The Verde Valley to the east. The northwest section of the range is bisected from the southeast section by Interstate 17 , which is the main route connecting Phoenix to Sedona , Oak Creek Canyon , and Flagstaff . This bisection point is the approximate center of the mostly northwest by southeast trending range. The northwest section contains a steep escarpment on the northeast with the Verde Valley,

6321-528: The average depth of snow on the ground between 1897 and 2005 was so close to zero that it is reported as zero. Jerome is often windy, especially in spring and fall. Summer thunderstorms can be violent. According to the Köppen climate classification , Jerome has a Mediterranean climate ( Csa ). The makeup of early Jerome differed greatly from the 21st-century version of the town. The original mining claims were filed by North American ranchers and prospectors, but as

6450-533: The iron-sulfur world theory and suggested that life might have originated at hydrothermal vents. Wächtershäuser proposed that an early form of metabolism predated genetics. By metabolism he meant a cycle of chemical reactions that release energy in a form that can be harnessed by other processes. It has been proposed that amino acid synthesis could have occurred deep in the Earth's crust and that these amino acids were subsequently shot up along with hydrothermal fluids into cooler waters, where lower temperatures and

6579-509: The oldest forms of life on Earth . Putative fossilized microorganisms were discovered in hydrothermal vent precipitates in the Nuvvuagittuq Belt of Quebec, Canada , that may have lived as early as 4.280 billion years ago , not long after the oceans formed 4.4 billion years ago , and not long after the formation of the Earth 4.54 billion years ago. Hydrothermal vent ecosystems have enormous biomass and productivity, but this rests on

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6708-506: The seabed , typically in the bathyal zone (with largest frequency in depths from 2,500 to 3,000 m (8,200 to 9,800 ft)), but also in lesser depths as well as deeper in the abyssal zone . They appear as black, chimney-like structures that emit a cloud of black material. Black smokers typically emit particles with high levels of sulfur-bearing minerals, or sulfides. Black smokers are formed in fields hundreds of meters wide when superheated water from below Earth's crust comes through

6837-658: The Clarkdale–Jerome School in Clarkdale. Older students attend Mingus Union High School in Cottonwood. Each of these communities had its own schools during the first half of the 20th century, but declining populations and shrinking tax revenues led to consolidation. The former Jerome High School complex is home in the 21st century to many artists' galleries. In March 2017, the Jerome Historical Society acquired

6966-470: The Jerome Fire Department hosted workshops on how to control the trees, which are difficult to eradicate. The Hohokam were the first people known to have lived and farmed near Jerome from 700 to 1125 CE . Later, long before the arrival of Europeans, it is likely that other native peoples mined the United Verde ore body for the colorful copper-bearing minerals malachite and azurite . The top of

7095-560: The Jerome Historical Society in 1953 and opened a museum and gift shop. To encourage tourism, the town's leaders sought National Historic Landmark status for Jerome; it was granted by the federal government in 1967. In 1962, James Douglas's heirs donated the Douglas mansion, above the UVX mine site, to the State of Arizona, which used it to create Jerome State Historic Park . By sponsoring music festivals, historic-homes tours, celebrations, and races,

7224-578: The United States by terms of the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo , which concluded the Mexican–American War . The war's major consequence was the Mexican Cession of the northern territories of Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México to the United States. Angus McKinnon and Morris A. Ruffner filed the first copper mining claims at this location in 1876. In 1880, Frederick A. Tritle ,

7353-586: The United Verde Mine had become the leading copper producer in the Arizona Territory, employing about 800 men, and was one of the largest mines in the world. Over its 77-year life (1876 to 1953), this mine produced nearly 33   million tons of copper, gold, silver, lead and zinc ore. The metals produced by United Verde and UVX, the other big mine in Jerome, were said to be worth more than $ 1   billion. According to geologists Lon Abbott and Terri Cook,

7482-449: The United Verde total but from uncommonly rich ore averaging more than 10   percent copper and in places rising to 45   percent. Starting in 1914, World War I greatly increased demand for copper, and by 1916 the number of companies involved in mining near Jerome reached 22. These companies employed about 3,000 miners in the district. Meanwhile, United Verde was building a large smelter complex and company town, Clarkdale, and

7611-559: The Verde Fault. This movement exposed the tip of the United Verde ore body at one place on Cleopatra Hill and moved the UVX ore body to 1,000 feet (300 m) below the surface. Basalt , laid down between 15 and 10   million years ago, covers the surface beneath the UVX headframes and Jerome State Historic Park. The basalt, the top layer of the Hickey Formation , caps layers of sedimentary rock . The natural rock features in and around Jerome were greatly altered by mining. The town

7740-539: The West". Jerome, which was legally separate from United Verde and supported many independent businesses, did not meet the definition of a company town even though it depended for decades largely on a single company. In 1914, a separate company, the United Verde Extension Mining Company (UVX), led by James S. Douglas, Jr. (nicknamed Rawhide Jimmy), discovered a second ore body near Jerome that produced

7869-542: The Yavapai County Justice Court system. In 2013, Jerome was the third municipality in Arizona to recognize civil unions between same-sex partners, after Bisbee and Tucson . Jerome's economy centers mainly on recreation and tourism. Figures published in 2015 showed that over half the labor force worked in arts, entertainment, retail, food and recreation services, while manufacturing and construction employed just over 10   percent. Between 1990 and 2006

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7998-631: The animal as opposed to inside the animal. Shrimp found at vents in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge were once thought of as an exception to the necessity of symbiosis for macroinvertebrate survival at vents. That changed in 1988 when they were discovered to carry episymbionts. Since then, other organisms at vents have been found to carry episymbionts as well, such as Lepetodrilis fucensis. Furthermore, while some symbionts reduce sulfur compounds, others are known as " methanotrophs " and reduce carbon compounds, namely methane. Bathmodiolid mussels are an example of

8127-442: The area, blast vibrations from the mines, and erosion that may have been exacerbated by vegetation-killing smelter smoke. Mining continued at a reduced level in the Verde District until 1953, when Phelps Dodge shut down the United Verde Mine and related operations. Jerome's population subsequently fell below 100. To prevent the town from disappearing completely, its remaining residents turned to tourism and retail sales. They organized

8256-416: The author describes as the unlikelihood of the formation of machinery which produces energy from the pH gradients found in hydrothermal vents without/before the existence of genetic information. This counterpoint has been responded to by Nick Lane , one of the researchers whose work it focuses on. He argues that the counterpoint largely misinterprets both his work and the work of others. Another reason that

8385-402: The bacteria living inside the worm. In return, the bacteria nourish the worm with carbon compounds. Two of the species that inhabit a hydrothermal vent are Tevnia jerichonana , and Riftia pachyptila . One discovered community, dubbed " Eel City ", consists predominantly of the eel Dysommina rugosa . Though eels are not uncommon, invertebrates typically dominate hydrothermal vents. Eel City

8514-511: The base of the black smoker, therefore completing the life cycle . A species of phototrophic bacterium has been found living near a black smoker off the coast of Mexico at a depth of 2,500 m (8,200 ft). No sunlight penetrates that far into the waters. Instead, the bacteria, part of the Chlorobiaceae family, use the faint glow from the black smoker for photosynthesis . This is the first organism discovered in nature to exclusively use

8643-520: The bulk of nonmicrobial organisms. Siboglinid tube worms , which may grow to over 2 m (6.6 ft) tall in the largest species, often form an important part of the community around a hydrothermal vent. They have no mouth or digestive tract, and like parasitic worms, absorb nutrients produced by the bacteria in their tissues. About 285 billion bacteria are found per ounce of tubeworm tissue. Tubeworms have red plumes which contain hemoglobin . Hemoglobin combines with hydrogen sulfide and transfers it to

8772-407: The centers of entire ecosystems . Sunlight is nonexistent, so many organisms, such as archaea and extremophiles , convert the heat, methane , and sulfur compounds provided by black smokers into energy through a process called chemosynthesis . More complex life forms, such as clams and tubeworms , feed on these organisms. The organisms at the base of the food chain also deposit minerals into

8901-451: The chemoautotrophic bacteria at hydrothermal vents might be responsible for contributing to the diet of suspension-feeding bivalves. Finally, in 1981, it was understood that giant tubeworm nutrition acquisition occurred as a result of chemoautotrophic bacterial endosymbionts. As scientists continued to study life at hydrothermal vents, it was understood that symbiotic relationships between chemoautotrophs and macrofauna invertebrate species

9030-506: The combined copper deposits of Jerome were among the richest ever found. Jerome had a post office by 1883. It added a schoolhouse in 1884 and a public library in 1889. After four major fires between 1894 and 1898 destroyed much of the business district and half of the community's homes, Jerome was incorporated as a town in 1899. Incorporation made it possible to collect taxes to build a formal fire-fighting system and to establish building codes that prohibited tents and other fire hazards within

9159-460: The community attracted visitors and new businesses, which in the 21st century include art galleries, craft stores, wineries, coffeehouses, and restaurants. July is typically the warmest month in Jerome, when highs average 90 °F (32 °C) and lows average 67 °F (19 °C). January is coldest, when the high temperatures average 50 °F (10 °C) and the lows average 33 °F (1 °C). The highest recorded temperature through 2005

9288-416: The company secretary. United Verde built a small smelter at Jerome and constructed wagon roads from it to Prescott, the Verde Valley, and the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad depot at Ash Fork . However, transport by wagon was expensive, and in late 1884 after the price of copper had fallen by 50   percent, the company ceased all operations at the site. Four years later, William A. Clark , who had made

9417-449: The deep-sea hydrothermal vents could continue for millennia (until the oxygen was depleted). The chemical and thermal dynamics in hydrothermal vents makes such environments highly suitable thermodynamically for chemical evolution processes to take place. Therefore, thermal energy flux is a permanent agent and is hypothesized to have contributed to the evolution of the planet, including prebiotic chemistry. Günter Wächtershäuser proposed

9546-399: The dissolved CO 2 in the water. Additionally, the discovery of supercritical CO 2 at some sites has been used to further support the theory of hydrothermal origin of life given that it can increase organic reaction rates. Its high solvation power and diffusion rate allow it to promote amino and formic acid synthesis, as well as the synthesis of other organic compounds, polymers, and

9675-592: The east by the Verde Fault zone, and to the west by the Coyote Fault zone. The range is at the northwest-center of the Arizona transition zone which extends diagonally across central Arizona. The highest point of the Black Hills (Arizona) is Woodchute Mountain at 7,844 feet (2,391 m). Mingus Mountain lies 4.0 miles (6.4 km) south of Woodchute Mountain with historic Cherry 8.7 miles (14.0 km) further to

9804-463: The environment. Organisms living at the edge of hydrothermal vent fields, such as pectinid scallops, also carry endosymbionts in their gills, and as a result their bacterial density is low relative to organisms living nearer to the vent. However, the scallop's dependence on the microbial endosymbiont for obtaining their nutrition is therefore also lessened. Furthermore, not all host animals have endosymbionts; some have episymbionts—symbionts living on

9933-532: The escarpment being the location of the fault -block that created the historic mining district at Jerome . The United Verde Mine was one of the largest copper mines in the United States, producing large quantities of copper, gold, silver and zinc. The range is also the first major fault-blocked range west of the Mogollon Rim on the southwest margin of the Colorado Plateau in Arizona. They are bordered to

10062-504: The fact that oxygen and sulfide are typically very reactive. In 2005, it was discovered that this is possible due to zinc ions that bind the hydrogen sulfide in the tubeworms hemoglobin, therefore preventing the sulfide from reacting with the oxygen. It also reduces the tubeworms tissue from exposure to the sulfide and provides the bacteria with the sulfide to perform chemoautotrophy. It has also been discovered that tubeworms can metabolize CO 2 in two different ways, and can alternate between

10191-601: The formation of colloids and nanoparticles can keep these redox-sensitive elements suspended in solution far from the vent site. Fe and Mn often have the highest concentrations among metals in acidic hydrothermal vent fluids, and both have biological significance, particularly Fe, which is often a limiting nutrient in marine environments. Therefore, far-field transport of Fe and Mn via organic complexation may constitute an important mechanism of ocean metal cycling. Additionally, hydrothermal vents deliver significant concentrations of other biologically important trace metals to

10320-541: The formation of early cells. Meanwhile, proponents of the deep sea hydrothermal vent hypothesis suggest thermophoresis in mineral cavities to be an alternative compartment for polymerization of biopolymers. How thermophoresis within mineral cavities could promote coding and metabolism is unknown. Nick Lane suggests that nucleotide polymerization at high concentrations of nucleotides within self-replicating protocells, where "Molecular crowding and phosphorylation in such confined, high-energy protocells could potentially promote

10449-479: The formation of these organic molecules . However, the origin of life is a widely debated topic, and there are many conflicting viewpoints. Hydrothermal vents in the deep ocean typically form along the mid-ocean ridges , such as the East Pacific Rise and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge . These are locations where two tectonic plates are diverging and new crust is being formed. The water that issues from seafloor hydrothermal vents consists mostly of seawater drawn into

10578-586: The former jail, now known as the Sliding Jail , from the Town of Jerome. Rendered unusable but not completely destroyed by earth movements since the 1930s, the structure is about 200 feet (60 m) downhill from where it was originally built. It has become a popular tourist attraction. Jerome manages its own water system, sourced by ten mountain springs . The town's annual water report for 2016 assured residents that Jerome's water met all state and federal requirements and

10707-403: The four amino acids: alanine, arginine, aspartic acid, and glycine. In situ experiments have revealed the convergence of high N 2 content and supercritical CO 2 at some sites, as well as evidence for complex organic material (amino acids) within supercritical CO 2 bubbles. Proponents of this theory for the origin of life also propose the presence of supercritical CO 2 as a solution to

10836-544: The governor of the Arizona Territory , and Frederick F. Thomas, a mining engineer from San Francisco , bought these claims from the original owners. In 1883, with the aid of eastern financiers including James A. MacDonald and Eugene Jerome of New York City , they created the United Verde Copper Company . The small adjacent mining camp on Cleopatra Hill was named Jerome in honor of Eugene Jerome, who became

10965-414: The host provides the symbiont with chemicals required for chemosynthesis, such as carbon, sulfide, and oxygen. In the early stages of studying life at hydrothermal vents, there were differing theories regarding the mechanisms by which multicellular organisms were able to acquire nutrients from these environments, and how they were able to survive in such extreme conditions. In 1977, it was hypothesized that

11094-461: The hydrothermal plume and surrounding seawater generate turbulent flow that facilitates mixing between the two types of fluids, which progressively dilutes the hydrothermal plume with seawater. Eventually, the coupled effects of dilution and rising into progressively warmer (less dense) overlying seawater will cause the hydrothermal plume to become neutrally buoyant at some height above the seafloor; therefore, this stage of hydrothermal plume evolution

11223-695: The hydrothermal plume will eventually oxidize to form insoluble Fe and Mn (oxy)hydroxide minerals . For this reason, the hydrothermal "near field" has been proposed to refer to the hydrothermal plume region undergoing active oxidation of metals while the term "far field" refers to the plume region within which complete metal oxidation has occurred. Several chemical tracers found in hydrothermal plumes are used to locate deep-sea hydrothermal vents during discovery cruises. Useful tracers of hydrothermal activity should be chemically unreactive so that changes in tracer concentration subsequent to venting are due solely to dilution. The noble gas helium fits this criterion and

11352-515: The hydrothermal system close to the volcanic edifice through faults and porous sediments or volcanic strata, plus some magmatic water released by the upwelling magma . In terrestrial hydrothermal systems, the majority of water circulated within the fumarole and geyser systems, is meteoric water plus ground water that has percolated down into the thermal system from the surface, but also commonly contains some portion of metamorphic water , magmatic water , and sedimentary formational brine that

11481-418: The lack of phospholipid bilayer membranes and proton pumps in early organisms, allowing ion gradients to form despite the lack of cellular machinery and components present in modern cells. There is some discourse around this topic. It has been argued that the natural pH gradients of these vents playing a role in the origin of life is actually implausible. The counter argument relies, among other points, on what

11610-572: The main upflow zone, respectively. However, white smokers correspond mostly to waning stages of such hydrothermal fields, as magmatic heat sources become progressively more distant from the source (due to magma crystallization) and hydrothermal fluids become dominated by seawater instead of magmatic water. Mineralizing fluids from this type of vent are rich in calcium and they form dominantly sulfate -rich (i.e., barite and anhydrite ) and carbonate deposits. Hydrothermal plumes are fluid entities that manifest where hydrothermal fluids are expelled into

11739-406: The median income for a household in the town was about $ 35,000. About 19 percent of the population was Hispanic or Latino of any race. Jerome has a mayor–council government. The five seats on the council are filled by public election every two years, and the council member receiving the most votes in that election becomes the mayor. Christina "Alex" Barber is the mayor in 2024, and Jane Moore

11868-474: The minerals precipitate out to form particles which add to the height of the stacks. Some of these chimney structures can reach heights of 60 m (200 ft). An example of such a towering vent was "Godzilla", a structure on the Pacific Ocean deep seafloor near Oregon that rose to 40 m (130 ft) before it fell over in 1996. A black smoker or deep-sea vent is a type of hydrothermal vent found on

11997-401: The mines were developed, workers of varied ethnic groups and nationalities arrived. Among them were people of Irish, Chinese, Italian, and Slavic origin who came to Jerome in the late 19th century. By the time of World War   I, Mexican nationals were arriving in large numbers, and census figures suggest that in 1930 about 60   percent of the town's residents were Latino . This statistic

12126-540: The next 1.2   billion years of Jerome's geologic history. Evidence from the Grand Canyon , further north in Arizona, suggests that thick layers of sediment may have been laid down atop the ore bodies and later eroded away. The gap in the rock record has been called the Great Unconformity . About 525   million years ago, when northern Arizona was at the bottom of a shallow sea, a thin layer of sediment called

12255-470: The ocean floor (water may attain temperatures above 400 °C (752 °F)). This water is rich in dissolved minerals from the crust, most notably sulfides . When it comes in contact with cold ocean water, many minerals precipitate, forming a black, chimney-like structure around each vent. The deposited metal sulfides can become massive sulfide ore deposits in time. Some black smokers on the Azores portion of

12384-524: The ocean such as Mo, which may have been important in the early chemical evolution of the Earth's oceans and to the origin of life (see "theory of hydrothermal origin of life"). However, Fe and Mn precipitates can also influence ocean biogeochemistry by removing trace metals from the water column. The charged surfaces of iron (oxy)hydroxide minerals effectively adsorb elements such as phosphorus , vanadium , arsenic , and rare earth metals from seawater; therefore, although hydrothermal plumes may represent

12513-466: The ocean. Hydrothermal vent fluids harbor temperatures (~40 to >400 °C) well above that of ocean floor seawater (~4 °C), meaning that hydrothermal fluid is less dense than the surrounding seawater and will rise through the water column due to buoyancy , forming a hydrothermal plume; therefore, the phase during which hydrothermal plumes rise through the water column is known as the "buoyant plume" phase. During this phase, shear forces between

12642-422: The order of 30 cm (1 ft) per day have been recorded. An April 2007 exploration of the deep-sea vents off the coast of Fiji found those vents to be a significant source of dissolved iron (see iron cycle ). Some hydrothermal vents form roughly cylindrical chimney structures. These form from minerals that are dissolved in the vent fluid. When the superheated water contacts the near-freezing sea water,

12771-485: The ore bodies and pushed the other close to the surface, both near Jerome. In the late 19th century, the United Verde Mine , developed by William A. Clark , extracted ore bearing copper, gold, silver, and other metals from the larger of the two. The United Verde Extension UVX Mine, owned by James Douglas Jr. , depended on the other huge deposit. In total, the copper deposits discovered in Jerome's vicinity were among

12900-627: The ore body was accessible because it was visible on the surface. The first Europeans to arrive in the area were the Spanish conquistadors . At the time the area was part of "New Mexico", and the Spaniards often organized silver and gold prospecting expeditions in the area. In 1585, Spanish explorers made note of the ore but did not mine it because their government had sent them to find gold and silver, not copper. The area became part of Mexico when Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821, and part of

13029-406: The ore deposits ran out, the mines closed for good in 1953, and the population dwindled to fewer than 100. Efforts to save the town from oblivion succeeded when residents turned to tourism and retail sales. Jerome became a National Historic Landmark in 1967. By the early 21st century, it had art galleries, coffeehouses, restaurants, a state park, and a local museum devoted to mining history. Jerome

13158-557: The overlying water column at active hydrothermal vent sites. As hydrothermal fluids typically harbor physical (e.g., temperature , density ) and chemical (e.g., pH , Eh , major ions) properties distinct from seawater , hydrothermal plumes embody physical and chemical gradients that promote several types of chemical reactions, including oxidation-reduction reactions and precipitation reactions . Because of these reactions, hydrothermal plumes are dynamic entities whose physical and chemical properties evolve over both space and time within

13287-489: The polymerization of nucleotides to form RNA". Acetyl phosphate could possibly promote polymerization at mineral surfaces or at low water activity. A computational simulation shows that nucleotide concentration of nucleotide catalysis of "the energy currency pathway is favored, as energy is limiting; favoring this pathway feeds forward into a greater nucleotide synthesis". Fast nucleotide catalysis of CO 2 fixation lowers nucleotide concentration as protocell growth and division

13416-416: The population at the turn of the century but about 50   percent by mid-century. As of the census of 2010, Jerome was home to 444 people comprising 253 households, 93 of which were families made up of a householder and one or more people related to the householder by birth, marriage, or adoption. The other 160 were non-family. The residents had a racial makeup that was nearly 94   percent White, and

13545-481: The presence of clay minerals would have fostered the formation of peptides and protocells . This is an attractive hypothesis because of the abundance of CH 4 ( methane ) and NH 3 ( ammonia ) present in hydrothermal vent regions, a condition that was not provided by the Earth's primitive atmosphere. A major limitation to this hypothesis is the lack of stability of organic molecules at high temperatures, but some have suggested that life would have originated outside of

13674-458: The presence of supercritical CO 2 in Hadean hydrothermal vents played an important role in the origin of life. There is some evidence that links the origin of life to alkaline hydrothermal vents in particular. The pH conditions of these vents may have made them more suitable for emerging life. One current theory is that the naturally occurring proton gradients at these deep sea vents supplemented

13803-683: The reactions are capable of phosphorylating ADP to ATP, with maximum synthesis occurring at high water activity and low concentrations of ions, the Hadean ocean likely had lower concentrations of ions than modern oceans. The concentrations of Mg and Ca at alkaline hydrothermal systems are lower than the at the ocean. The high concentration of potassium within most life forms could be readily explained that protocells might have evolved sodium-hydrogen antiporters to pump out Na as prebiotic lipid membranes are less permeable to Na than H . If cells originated at these environments, they would have been autotrophs with

13932-408: The remainder were listed in the census as Black or African American, Native American, Asian, other, or combinations thereof. About 6   percent of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. The population, nearly evenly split along gender lines, consisted of 226 women with a median age of 54 and 218 men with a median age of 55. As of the census of 2020, the population had grown to 464, and

14061-410: The richest ever found. Jerome made news in 1917 when labor unrest involving the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) led to the expulsion at gunpoint of about 60 IWW members, who were loaded on a cattle car and shipped west. Production at the mines, always subject to fluctuations, boomed during World War I , fell thereafter, rose again, then fell again during and after the Great Depression . As

14190-616: The southeast. Three wilderness areas are located in the range, the Woodchute Wilderness in the northwest, and the Cedar Bench , and Pine Mountain Wildernesses in the southeast. Hydrothermal vent Hydrothermal vents exist because the Earth is both geologically active and has large amounts of water on its surface and within its crust. Under the sea, they may form features called black smokers or white smokers, which deliver

14319-471: The structure of its dermal sclerites (hardened body parts), instead of calcium carbonate . The extreme pressure of 2,500 m of water (approximately 25  megapascals or 250  atmospheres ) is thought to play a role in stabilizing iron sulfide for biological purposes. This armor plating probably serves as a defense against the venomous radula (teeth) of predatory snails in that community. In March 2017, researchers reported evidence of possibly

14448-541: The sun to perform photosynthesis. Instead, the microbial life found at hydrothermal vents is chemosynthetic; they fix carbon by using energy from chemicals such as sulfide, as opposed to light energy from the sun. In other words, the symbiont converts inorganic molecules (H 2 S, CO 2 , O) to organic molecules that the host then uses as nutrition. However, sulfide is an extremely toxic substance to most life on Earth. For this reason, scientists were astounded when they first found hydrothermal vents teeming with life in 1977. What

14577-420: The sun. Some hydrothermal vent organisms do consume this "rain", but with only such a system, life forms would be sparse. Compared to the surrounding sea floor, however, hydrothermal vent zones have a density of organisms 10,000 to 100,000 times greater. These organisms include yeti crabs , which have long hairy arms that they reach out over the vent to collect food with. The hydrothermal vents are recognized as

14706-402: The surface. Attempts to control erosion on Jerome's steep hillsides by planting Ailanthus altissima has caused new problems. This invasive species, commonly known as "tree of heaven" or "paradise tree", has roots that emit poisons that kill native trees and shrubs. The roots can damage sewer lines and septic tanks, and the tree can sprout through asphalt, sidewalks and into structures. In 2015,

14835-415: The symbiotic relationships that have evolved at vents. Deep-sea hydrothermal vent ecosystems differ from their shallow-water and terrestrial hydrothermal counterparts due to the symbiosis that occurs between macroinvertebrate hosts and chemoautotrophic microbial symbionts in the former. Since sunlight does not reach deep-sea hydrothermal vents, organisms in deep-sea hydrothermal vents cannot obtain energy from

14964-434: The town limits. Local merchant and rancher William Munds was the first mayor. By 1900, Jerome had churches, fraternal organizations, and a downtown with brick buildings, telephone service, and electric lights. Among the thriving businesses were those associated with alcohol, gambling, and prostitution serving a population that was 78   percent male. In 1903, New York's The Sun proclaimed Jerome "the wickedest town in

15093-513: The two as needed as environmental conditions change. In 1988, research confirmed thiotrophic (sulfide-oxidizing) bacteria in Alviniconcha hessleri , a large vent mollusk. In order to circumvent the toxicity of sulfide, mussels first convert it to thiosulfate before carrying it over to the symbionts. In the case of motile organisms such as alvinocarid shrimp, they must track oxic (oxygen-rich) / anoxic (oxygen-poor) environments as they fluctuate in

15222-460: The value of taxable sales increased from $ 4.8   million to $ 15.5   million, and between 1990 and 2014 the unemployment rate fell from 4.2   to 1.4   percent. Formerly vacant buildings house boutiques, gift shops, antique and craft shops; the town also has five art galleries, a library, three parks and two museums, including the Mine Museum run by the Jerome Historical Society, and

15351-489: The view of deep sea hydrothermal vents as an ideal environment for the origin of life remains controversial is the absence of wet-dry cycles and exposure to UV light, which promote the formation of membranous vesicles and synthesis of many biomolecules. The ionic concentrations of hydrothermal vents differs from the intracellular fluid within the majority of life. It has instead been suggested that terrestrial freshwater environments are more likely to be an ideal environment for

15480-487: The water was forced upward again, chemically altering the rocks it encountered and becoming rich in dissolved minerals. When the hot solution emerged from a hydrothermal vent at the bottom of the ocean, its dissolved minerals solidified and fell to the sea floor. The accumulating sulfide deposits from two such vents formed the ore bodies, the United Verde and the UVX, most important to Jerome 1.75   billion years later. These ore bodies formed in different places along

15609-488: The zones of highest temperature. There are numerous species of extremophiles and other organisms currently living immediately around deep-sea vents, suggesting that this is indeed a possible scenario. Experimental research and computer modeling indicate that the surfaces of mineral particles inside hydrothermal vents have similar catalytic properties to enzymes and are able to create simple organic molecules, such as methanol (CH 3 OH) and formic acid (HCO 2 H), out of

15738-472: The “water paradox” that pervades theories on the origin of life in aquatic settings. This paradox encompasses the fact that water is both required for life and will, in abundance, hydrolyze organic molecules and prevent dehydration synthesis reactions necessary to chemical and biological evolution. Supercritical CO 2 , being hydrophobic, acts as a solvent that facilitates an environment conducive to dehydration synthesis. Therefore, it has been hypothesized that

15867-585: Was 108 °F (42 °C) in 2003, and the lowest was 5 °F (−15 °C) in 1963. August, averaging about 3 inches (76 mm) of rain, is the wettest month, while the spring months of April to June generally do not have significant rainfall. Although most precipitation arrives in the town as rain, snow and fog sometimes occur. On average, about 5 inches (13 cm) of snow falls in January and lesser amounts in February, March, April, November, and December. Even so,

15996-405: Was a single biogeographic vent region found in the eastern Pacific. The subsequent barrier to travel began the evolutionary divergence of species in different locations. The examples of convergent evolution seen between distinct hydrothermal vents is seen as major support for the theory of natural selection and of evolution as a whole. Although life is very sparse at these depths, black smokers are

16125-548: Was discovered was the ubiquitous symbiosis of chemoautotrophs living in ( endosymbiosis ) the vent animals' gills; the reason why multicellular life is capable to survive the toxicity of vent systems. Scientists are therefore now studying how the microbial symbionts aid in sulfide detoxification (therefore allowing the host to survive the otherwise toxic conditions). Work on microbiome function shows that host-associated microbiomes are also important in host development, nutrition, defense against predators, and detoxification. In return,

16254-408: Was home to more than 10,000 people in the 1920s. As of the 2020 census , its population was 464. The town owes its existence mainly to two ore bodies that formed about 1.75   billion years ago along a ring fault in the caldera of an undersea volcano. Tectonic plate movements, plate collisions, uplift , deposition, erosion, and other geologic processes eventually exposed the tip of one of

16383-605: Was not found to be supercritical but a brief injection of 464 °C (867 °F) was well above supercritical conditions. A nearby site, Turtle Pits, was found to vent low salinity fluid at 407 °C (765 °F), which is above the critical point of the fluid at that salinity. A vent site in the Cayman Trough named Beebe , which is the world's deepest known hydrothermal site at ~5,000 m (16,000 ft) below sea level, has shown sustained supercritical venting at 401 °C (754 °F) and 2.3 wt% NaCl. Although supercritical conditions have been observed at several sites, it

16512-545: Was safe to drink. Jerome administers its own sewer system, trash collection, and recycling services. Its public works department maintains the equipment and infrastructure associated with these systems as well the water system, streets, parks, and other city property. Arizona Public Service provides electricity to Jerome, and UniSource Energy Services is the supplier of natural gas. Century Link ( DSL ), HughesNet (satellite), Speed Connect (fixed wireless), and mobile Web providers offer Internet access. Satellite television

16641-409: Was ubiquitous. For instance, in 1983, clam gill tissue was confirmed to contain bacterial endosymbionts; in 1984 vent bathymodiolid mussels and vesicomyid clams were also found to carry endosymbionts. However, the mechanisms by which organisms acquire their symbionts differ, as do the metabolic relationships. For instance, tubeworms have no mouth and no gut, but they do have a "trophosome", which

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