Franco-Austrian War
64-773: French intervention in Mexico Jean Danjou (15 April 1828 – 30 April 1863) was a decorated captain of the Foreign Legion in the French Army . He commanded the two lieutenants and 62 legionnaires who fought the Battle of Camarón during the French intervention in Mexico , in which he was killed. Jean Danjou was born in Chalabre , he enrolled in the École Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr ,
128-765: A monarchy in Mexico , a plan that meshed with Napoleon III's plans to re-establish the presence of the French Empire in the Americas. Although the French invasion displaced Juárez's Republican government from the Mexican capital and the monarchy of Archduke Maximilian was established, the Second Mexican Empire collapsed within a few years. Material aid from the United States, whose four-year civil war ended in 1865, invigorated
192-557: A French squadron bombarded the Mexican Pacific port of Acapulco and on 3 February, Forey finally set out for Puebla. González Ortega had meanwhile been building up the town's fortifications, and on 10 March he declared martial law. The French arrived on the 16 March and began the siege . On 8 May 1863 at Battle of San Lorenzo , Bazaine and Márquez defeated Ignacio Comonfort who intended to provide reinforcements to Puebla. Having run out of ammunition and food, González Ortega held
256-501: A bullet-riddled carriage. The triumphant Vidaurri then headed towards the capital where he was made a councilor of Emperor Maximilian. By the end of the year the imperialists controlled Nuevo León and the greater part of Coahuila to the banks of the Rio Grande. On 28 October 1864, imperialist Generals Leonardo Márquez and Douay attacked the army of Republican General Arteaga in the ravine of Atenquique, routing them. A few days later,
320-433: A conference while requesting that the rest of the tripartite forces disembark from Veracruz. The proposal to disembark most of the troops was rejected, but negotiations then resulted in an agreement, ratified on 23 January, to move the forces inland and hold a conference at Orizaba. The agreement also officially recognized the government of Juárez along with Mexican sovereignty. On 9 April 1862, agreements at Orizaba between
384-402: A council of war, and it was agreed, with the republican situation hopeless, to surrender on 17 May, after destroying the remaining armaments. All of the officers were taken prisoner and were intended to be transported to France. González Ortega and Porfirio Díaz escaped before being sent out of the country as prisoners. Upon hearing of the fall of Puebla, President Juárez prepared to evacuate
448-476: A formidable hold. The Imperialists now focused on capturing the rest of the north, with troops under General Mejía campaigning along the northern Gulf Coast, supported by Charles Dupin 's anti-guerrilla corps at Tampico , and Aymard's brigade at San Luis Potosí . Castagny supported the rear, and the entire operation was headquartered at Querétaro . On the Pacific Coast, a naval squadron under de Kergrist
512-518: A major victory against the French at the Battle of Puebla while the latter were trying to ascend the hill towards the fortified positions of the city. The French retreated to Orizaba to await reinforcements. Mexico's victory was a pause in the French push to capture the capital of Mexico City, delaying the French for a year. In Mexican history, Cinco de Mayo is a day to commemorate Mexican nationalism. Conservative Mexican Generals Florentino López , Leonardo Márquez , and Juan Vicario sought to join
576-471: A manifesto disavowing rumors that the allies had come to conquer or to impose a new government. It was emphasized that the three powers merely wanted to open negotiations regarding their claims of damages. On 14 January 1862, a bill of claims was presented to the government in Mexico City. Foreign Minister Manuel Doblado invited the commissioners to travel to Orizaba with two thousand of their own troops for
640-404: A multinational coalition of Spain, Great Britain, and France, sought to enforce debt collection on the republican government of Benito Juárez, following his suspension of payments on Mexican government bonds. On 14 December 1861, Spanish ships took possession of Mexico's main port, Veracruz . French and British forces arrived on 7 January 1862. On 10 January 1862 Spanish General Juan Prim issued
704-576: A wooden prosthetic hand, which he used for the rest of his life. Danjou was promoted to 1st lieutenant on 24 December 1853. As a 1st lieutenant, Danjou was part of the French army that fought in the Crimean War , and served during the Siege of Sevastopol . He was promoted to captain on 9 June 1855. His next campaign during the Austro-Sardinian War , where in 1859 he fought in the Battle of Magenta and
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#1732852570309768-662: Is a neurodivergent author, actor, stuntman and Historian originally from Craigshill in Livingston in Scotland . He lost his legs and was almost killed in an unprovoked assault and arson attack whilst living in the Republic of Ireland in 2002 and now wears prosthetic legs. He gives lectures to physiotherapy students at an Edinburgh University about his conditions. Colquhoun appeared on Tiger Aspect Productions Men in White shown in
832-599: Is brought out for display. Captain Danjou appears in Ian Colquhoun 's 2014 historical novel 'Le Boudin – The Demons of Camerone' – Colquhoun, like Danjou, is an amputee. Second French intervention in Mexico 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 The second French intervention in Mexico ( Spanish : segunda intervención francesa en México ), also known as the Second Franco-Mexican War (1861–1867),
896-577: The Battle of Solférino . After serving in Morocco for some time, Danjou was part of the French expeditionary corps sent to Mexico in 1862. He was the quartermaster of Colonel Jeanningros, who was in charge of the Foreign Legion regiment in Mexico. It was the duty of the Legion to ensure the movement and safety of French supply convoys. On 29 April, Colonel Jeanningros was informed that an important convoy
960-571: The UK in October 2006 on Channel 4 , as well as playing a badly wounded sailor in the film Ocean of Fear , which is about the sinking of USS Indianapolis in 1945. Colquhoun appeared on Channel 4's Richard & Judy in August 2007 promoting his book and talking about his life. In October 2007 he played 'MacHendry' in episode 92 of the long running SMG drama ' Taggart '. 2007 Also saw Colquhoun appear in
1024-696: The United States due to the Monroe Doctrine , a concern that would be rendered null with the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861. Juárez's debt moratorium finally provided a pretext for intervention. Napoleon III would also claim that the military adventure was a foreign policy commitment to free trade and that the establishment of a European-derived monarchy in Mexico would ensure European access to Mexican resources, particularly French access to Mexican silver. However, Emperor Maximilian disagreed with
1088-400: The 3rd company was on its way, with three officers and 62 men. At 7 a.m., after a 15 miles (24 km) march, it stopped at Palo Verde to rest. Soon after, a Mexican force of 3,000 soldiers (800 cavalry and 2,200 infantry ) was spotted. Danjou had the company take up a square formation and, even though retreating, he drove back several cavalry charges, inflicting the first heavy losses on
1152-514: The British that France's aim was to seize Mexico, the United Kingdom separately negotiated an agreement with Mexico to settle the debt issues and withdrew from the country. Spain subsequently left as well. The resulting French invasion established the Second Mexican Empire (1864–1867). France, Britain, Belgium, Austria, and Spain recognized the political legitimacy of the newly created monarchy, but
1216-541: The Conservative opposition against the liberal social and economic reforms of President Juárez to take up their cause once again. The Mexican Catholic Church, Mexican conservatives , much of the upper-class and Mexican nobility , and some Native Mexican communities invited, welcomed and collaborated with the French empire's help to install Maximilian of Habsburg as Emperor of Mexico . The emperor himself however proved to be of liberal inclination and continued some of
1280-403: The French emperor on Mexican resources going to anyone but Mexicans. More importantly, Napoleon III wanted to establish Mexico as a monarchist ally in the Americas in order to restrain the growing power of the United States. To realize his ambitions without interference from other European states, Napoleon III entered into a coalition with the United Kingdom and Spain. The Tripartite Expedition,
1344-782: The French invaders and republican Mexican defenders, the start of a protracted warfare. The French defeated a small Mexican force at Escamela, and then captured Orizaba. Mexican Generals Porfirio Díaz and Ignacio Zaragoza retreated to El Ingenio , and then headed towards Puebla. Almonte now attempted to consolidate the Mexican pro-French movement. The town of Orizaba joined him and so did the port of Veracruz and Isla del Carmen. Colonel Gonzáles, Manuel Castellanos, Desiderio Samaniego, Padre Miranda , Haro Tamariz , and General Taboada arrived in Orizaba to support Almonte. On 28 April 1862, French forces headed towards Puebla . On 5 May 1862, Mexican forces commanded by Ignacio Zaragoza and Porfirio Díaz won
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#17328525703091408-535: The French since the beginning of the intervention. On 16 April 1862, the French issued a proclamation inviting Mexicans to join them in establishing a new government. On 17 April 1862, Mexican general Juan Almonte , who had been a foreign minister of the conservative government defeated in the Reform War , and who was brought back to Mexico by the French, issued his own manifesto, assuring the Mexican people of benevolent French intentions. Armed conflict broke out between
1472-548: The French, and Mexican republican forces suffered defeats at Barranca Seca and Cerro del Borrego in the vicinity of Orizaba. With the defeat of the small French force at Puebla in May 1862, in July Napoleon III sent reinforcements of 30,000 troops under the command of General Forey . The French Emperor gave Forey instructions laying out France's occupation policy, directing the French commander to work with Mexican supporters in
1536-673: The Imperialist commander Jesús María Visoso defeated Republican guerrillas at Puebla. Franco-Mexican forces under Leonardo Márquez and de Berthier entered Morelia , Michoacan unopposed on 30 November, after Republican forces had evacuated the city. After reinforcements arrived, the Republican forces led by José López Uraga attempted to recapture Morelia but were defeated by Márquez. General Mejía captured Querétaro on 17 November, while Republican forces there retreated further north to Guanajuato . Imperialist forces pursued them and Guanajuato
1600-641: The Imperialists. Santiago Vidaurri , the governor of Nuevo León and Coahuila , had broken with Juárez as early as March 1864 over the administration and finances of his state, and had even held a referendum on joining the Empire. Republican troops drove him into Texas, but troops loyal to Viduarri remained active in the region. As Republican forces in the north were diverted by Imperial advances, Vidaurrist troops captured Monterrey on 15 August 1864, with President Juárez barely escaping, and pursued as far as Parras in
1664-534: The Juárez government's most notable liberal measures. Some liberal generals defected to the Empire, including the powerful, northern governor Santiago Vidaurri , who had fought on the side of Juárez during the Reform War. The French army landed in 1861, aiming to rapidly take the capital of Mexico City, but Mexican republican forces defeated them in the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862, Cinco de Mayo , delaying their taking
1728-614: The Mexican Empire. Although Republican guerrilla forces in the countryside around the capital counted no victories against the French, they maintained a presence. Cuernavaca was captured by imperial forces on 29 July 1863. Republican guerrilla commanders Catarino Fragoso , León Ugalde , and others continued to wage warfare against towns occupied by the French. Franco-Mexican forces captured Pachuca and Tulancingo in July to serve as bases for expanding operations. Imperialist Juan Chávez under
1792-480: The Mexican army. The last five survivors were all down to their very last bullet. Instead of dishonoring themselves, they decided to charge with fixed bayonets. When they did, the Mexican commander ordered his troops to cease fire. Out of admiration for their courage, he spared the surviving men and allowed them to form an honour guard for the body of Captaine Danjou. They were released to return to France. This story has become legendary in French military history. Danjou
1856-414: The Republican fight against the regime of Maximilian, and the 1866 decision of Napoleon III to withdraw military support for Maximilian's regime accelerated the monarchy's collapse. Maximilian and two Mexican generals were executed by firing squad on 19 June 1867, ending this period of Mexican history. The intervention came as a civil war, the Reform War , had just concluded, and the intervention allowed
1920-514: The Republican guerrilla chiefs Simón Gutiérrez and Antonio Rojas , routing the former, and destroying two factories for arms and powder near Cocula . In March, Douay entered Colima. Republican General Ortega and several guerrilla bands were driven back into the Sierra Hermosa after Manuel Doblado was repulsed by Mejía in Doblado's attempted assault on Monterrey . Doblado fled the country for
1984-529: The Republicans, Simón Gutiérrez and Antonio Rojas were defeated near the U.S. border by the Imperialist Carlos Rivas , with French reinforcements. Márquez occupied Colima and by 18 November 1864, Márquez had captured the port of Manzanillo . On 12 November 1864, a French squadron under de Kergrist arrived at Mazatlán and demanded a surrender under the threat of bombardment. At the same time,
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2048-607: The United States and died a year later. Mejía was subsequently granted the cross of the Legion of Honour by Napoleon III. The Emperor and Empress of Mexico arrived in Veracruz in the summer of 1864 and were later crowned in the Cathedral of Mexico City . Republican General Porfirio Díaz , with three thousand troops defeated the imperialists commander Marcos Toledo at the silver mining town of Taxco on 26 October 1864. Díaz then besieged
2112-504: The United States refused to do so, since it was a violation of the Monroe Doctrine , prohibiting European powers' interference in the Americas. The French intervention in Mexico, initially supported by the United Kingdom and Spain, was a consequence of Mexican President Benito Juárez 's imposition of a two-year moratorium of loan-interest payments from July 1861 to French, British, and Spanish creditors. Napoleon III's France sought not just debt collection, but rather regime change. Through
2176-505: The administration of Mexican president Benito Juárez placed a moratorium on foreign debt payments in 1861, France, the United Kingdom, and Spain agreed to the Convention of London , a joint effort to ensure that debt repayments from Mexico would be forthcoming. On 8 December 1861, the three navies disembarked their troops at the port city of Veracruz , on the Gulf of Mexico. When it became clear to
2240-537: The aid of French emperor Napoleon III. With the United States embroiled in its Civil War (1861–65) against secessionist southern states, its focus was on domestic turmoil rather than exerting its power against the intervention of the French in violation of the Monroe Doctrine . A Mexican monarchy backed by France would, in Napoleon III's estimation, lead to the exertion of French power in Mexico and Latin America . After
2304-485: The allies broke down, as France made it increasingly clear that it intended to invade Mexico and interfere in its government in violation of previous treaties. The British informed the Mexican government that they now intended to exit the country, and an arrangement was made with the British government to settle its claims. Minister Doblado on 11 April made it known to the French government that its intentions would lead to war. Certain Mexican officers had been sympathetic to
2368-450: The brigade of Juan Vicario in the town of Iguala until imperialist reinforcements forced him to abandon the siege. Díaz headed south to his home state of Oaxaca and increased his troops to eight thousand. The Imperialists now controlled the central Mexican states, containing its major cities, two thirds of the population, rich mines and agricultural lands, and the main centers of manufacturing and trade. The Republicans still controlled
2432-510: The capital and move the republican government to San Luis Potosí . Congress closed its session on 31 May after granting Juárez emergency powers. The French entered the capital on 10 June 1863. On 16 June the French government nominated 35 Mexican citizens to constitute a Junta Superior de Gobierno who were then tasked with electing a triumvirate that was to serve as the executive of the new government. The three elected were Juan Almonte , Archbishop Labastida , and José Mariano Salas . The Junta
2496-479: The capital for a year. The French and Mexican Imperial Army captured much of Mexican territory, including major cities, but guerrilla warfare by supporters of the republic remained a significant factor and Juárez himself never left the national territory. The intervention was increasingly using up troops and money at a time when the recent Prussian victory over Austria was inclining France to give greater military priority to European affairs. The liberals also never lost
2560-465: The command of Tómas Mejía defeated the Republican forces of Tomás O'Horán on the road to Guanajuato. O'Horan would then switch sides and join the imperialists. Imperialist colonel José Antonio Rodríguez then captured San Juan de los Llanos in Puebla . The Gulf Coast port of Tampico was captured by French vessels on 11 August 1863. French control of the country still centered on Veracruz and Mexico City but
2624-402: The enemy. Looking for a more defensible position, Danjou decided to make a stand at the nearby Hacienda Camarón, an inn protected by a 10-foot (3.0-meter) high wall. His plan was to tie up the enemy forces to prevent any attacks on the nearby convoy. While the legionnaires prepared a defense of the inn, the Mexican commander, Colonel Milan, demanded that Danjou and his men surrender, pointing out
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2688-468: The fact that the Mexican Army was greatly superior in number. Danjou went around to each of his men with a bottle of wine and made them all take a solemn oath not to surrender. At noon, Danjou was shot in the chest and died. His soldiers continued to fight until 6 p.m. despite overwhelming odds and extreme heat. The 60 men, who had had nothing to eat or drink since the day before, resisted many charges of
2752-467: The foremost French military academy, and graduated from the academy at the age of 20. He was assigned to the 51st Regiment of the Line. In 1852, he transferred to the 2e Régiment Étranger d'Infanterie . He was transferred to Algeria , to assist French colonization efforts, including the campaigns of Kabylie . He lost his left hand during a mapping assignment, on 1 May 1853, when his musket exploded. He designed
2816-478: The headquarters of the Legion is located. After the battle, a Mexican named Ramirez discovered and took Danjou's wooden hand. Ramirez was soon arrested and the hand retrieved by Lieutenant Karl Grübert of the Austrian army, which replaced the Foreign Legion in this conflict on 17 July 1865. Today, Danjou's wooden hand is paraded annually on April 30, Camerone Day . When the Legion moved to France, Danjou's wooden hand
2880-569: The imperialist Manuel Lozada besieged the town on land leading to a successful capture. The imperialist Juan Vicario was repulsed at Chilapa de Álvarez , while on the way to replace the French garrison in the southern Pacific port of Acapulco, and subsequently the port had to be evacuated and left to the Republicans in December. French vessels succeeded in recapturing Acapulco on 11 September 1864. The Imperialists however hoped to soon begin operations to dislodge Porfirio Díaz from his stronghold in
2944-402: The influence of the emperor's wife, Eugénie de Montijo , the emperor had come into contact with Mexican monarchist exiles, José María Gutiérrez de Estrada and José Manuel Hidalgo who exposed Napoleon to the decades long effort to import a European prince to ascend a Mexican throne. He was initially not interested in the project due to the inevitable opposition that the effort would invite from
3008-635: The mounting pressure both at home and abroad, the French army began to redeploy to Europe in 1866, and the Second Mexican Empire collapsed in 1867. Mexican monarchists long had hopes of restoring Mexico to a monarchical form of government, as it had been pre- independence and at its inception as an independent nation-state from the Spanish Empire in 1821, in the First Mexican Empire ruled by Emperor Agustín I . Mexican conservatives sought
3072-516: The official recognition of the United States of America in spite of their ongoing civil war, and following the defeat and surrender of the Confederate States of America in April 1865 the reunited country began providing materiel support to the republican forces. Invoking the Monroe Doctrine , the U.S. government asserted that it would not tolerate a lasting French presence on the continent. Facing
3136-482: The pursuit of both military and political goals. The aim was to establish a new government friendly to French interests, and the geopolitical aim of preventing the United States from becoming too powerful in the Americas was also emphasized. Forey reached Orizaba on 24 October 1862, and began planning another siege of Puebla, the defense of which had now passed on to Jesús González Ortega after General Zaragoza had died of typhoid fever on 8 September. On 10 January 1863,
3200-480: The siege of Oaxaca City in person and by the end of January 1865, the besieging forces numbered seven thousand men. The use of artillery began on 4 February, and an assault was ordered for February 9th. The massing of forces produced a panic in Díaz' men. Díaz was not willing to engage in a hopeless last stand and surrendered. Díaz was sent to Puebla and imprisoned, however he escaped seven months later and raised an army in
3264-587: The south, and began to survey the land and build roads. Towards the end of 1864, General Courtois d'Hurbal entered Oaxaca by way of Yanhuitlan and other columns followed from Orizaba and Mexico City . Díaz was based in Oaxaca City with three thousand regulars, three thousand troops in the mountains, and had converted the city into a fortified camp. Commander in Chief of the French Forces, Bazaine decided to lead
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#17328525703093328-483: The southern state of Chiapas . The nearby state capital of Tabasco , San Juan Bautista was recaptured by the Republicans on 27 February. The success inspired a republican incursion into Veracruz, succeeding in capturing Minatitlán on 28 March. On 19 March 1864, the western Mexican commander Manuel Lozada , at the head of indigenous troops of the Tepic district sided with the imperialists. Douay headed south, pursuing
3392-545: The southern state of Guerrero . This prompted Élie Frédéric Forey , the former Commander of French forces in Mexico, to criticize Bazaine for not executing Díaz. The former Republican General José López Uraga sent a letter to Díaz hoping to win him over to the imperialist cause, arguing that guerrilla warfare was devastating the country and assuring Díaz that Mexican independence was secure under Maximilian. Díaz rejected this offer. Ian Colquhoun (author) Ian Colquhoun ( / k ə ˈ h uː n / kə- HOON )
3456-560: The sparsely populated frontier states of the north, where President Juárez still led his government-in-exile in the city of Monterrey . These northern states granted them the considerable revenue coming into the Pacific ports of Manzanillo , Mazatlán , and Guaymas . Arms also flowed in from the U.S. states California and Texas along with mercenaries. The Republicans also still held the southern states of Guerrero , Oaxaca , Tabasco , and Chiapas , where troops led by Porfirio Díaz maintained
3520-488: The vicinity but carried out no attacks. After French assaults led by General Abel Douay , González Ortega retreated towards Fresnillo , and Uraga westward. Mexican General Felipe Navarrete of Yucatán proclaimed his support of the Empire, and invaded the state capital of Mérida with the support of French forces, capturing it on 22 January 1864. Douay, with General Castagny headed north, succeeding in capturing Aguascalientes and Zacatecas by 7 February 1864. Castagny
3584-504: Was a military invasion of the Republic of Mexico by the French Empire of Napoleon III , purportedly to force the collection of Mexican debts in conjunction with Great Britain and Spain. Mexican conservatives supported the invasion, since they had been defeated by the liberal government of Benito Juárez in a three-year civil war . Defeated on the battlefield, conservatives sought the aid of France to effect regime change and establish
3648-567: Was also to choose 215 Mexican citizens who together with the Junta Superio r were to constitute an Assembly of Notables that was to decide upon the form of government. On 11 July, the Assembly published its resolutions, that Mexico was to be a constitutional monarchy and that Ferdinand Maximilian was to be invited to accept the Mexican throne. The executive was then officially changed into the Regency of
3712-727: Was buried on 3 May 1863 in Camarón. A commemorative marble plaque is affixed to the facade of the birthplace of Captain Danjou, in Chalabre (Aude, France). Every year, as close as possible to April 30, a squad of the Regiment of the French Foreign Legion at Castelnaudary comes to pay him military honors and the colonel of the regiment lays a wreath at the foot of the facade. Other commemorations also take place in Aubagne (Bouches-du-Rhone, France) where
3776-525: Was gradually expanding. By October, advancing combined forces were spreading across the central regions of Mexico from Jalisco to San Luis Potosí to Oaxaca . In August 1863, Imperialist Mejía captured the town of Actopan, Hidalgo in the state of Mexico in September, and more Imperialist victories in that state followed. Imperialist commander Gavito, managed to disperse republican guerrillas in Cuayuca , and
3840-453: Was left in charge of Zacatecas, while Douay went to the relief of Colonel Garnier at Guadalajara. On 16 February, Castagny won a victory at Colotlán in which he took eighty prisoners and Republican General Luis Ghilardi was executed. Republican General and governor of Aguascalientes José María Chávez Alonso was also executed after being captured in Jerez . Imperialists struggled to hold on to
3904-520: Was on its way to Puebla with three million francs and material and munitions for the siege. Danjou decided to send a company to escort the convoy. The 3rd company of the Foreign Regiment was assigned to this mission, but had no officers available. Danjou himself took command. Two other officers volunteered for this mission: 2nd Lt. Jean Vilain, Regimental Financial Officer, and 2nd Lt. Clément Maudet, Regimental Colours-Bearer. At 1 a.m. on 30 April,
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#17328525703093968-548: Was ready to cooperate with Douay's troops in Jalisco and sweep north towards Sinaloa . They were aided by quarrels within the Republican military leadership that resulted in José López Uraga being demoted and subsequently joining the Imperialists. On 26 September 1864, the Imperialists captured the port of Bagdad and now controlled every major port in the Gulf. The commander of troops at Bagdad, Juan Cortina , then defected to
4032-466: Was taken on 9 December. On 22 December, the Republican government evacuated the city of San Luis Potosí and intended to relocate north to the state of Coahuila . Imperialist forces led by Mejía captured the city on 25 December, only to face an assault by Republican forces on the 27 December, which was ultimately defeated. French general Bazaine occupied the city of Guadalajara on 5 January 1864. The liberal generals Uraga and Ortega remained in
4096-521: Was taken to Aubagne, where it remains in the Legion Museum of Memory. The hand is the most cherished artifact in Legion history, and the prestige and honor granted to a Legionnaire to carry it on parade in its protective case is among the greatest bestowed on a Legionnaire. 30 April is celebrated as "Camerone Day", an important day for the Legionnaires, when the wooden prosthetic hand of Capitaine Danjou
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