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103-459: With the increasing introduction of western medicine, medical research and peer support among doctors developed during the Meiji period of the late 1800s. In 1879, medical practitioners who subscribed to the practice of kampo medicine ( traditional Chinese medicine ) began to organise themselves in response to Western medicine's growing presence in post- Meiji restoration Japan. Those physicians formed

206-693: A constitution which was patterned after the American Medical Association, with voluntary membership, executive offices elected by popular vote, and association business to be conducted through democratic procedures. These activities led to the JMA being admitted to the World Medical Association in 1951. The JMA, in advocating for its members, has come into conflict with the Ministry of Welfare over amounts for medical fees. The main activities of

309-566: A public bill committee ; after that it became House of Lords Bill 33. Then it became House of Lords Bill 77, returned to the House of Commons as Bill 160, before finally being passed as Act 29. Parliament recommences numbering from one at the beginning of each session. This means that two different bills may have the same number. Sessions of parliament usually last a year. They begin with the State Opening of Parliament , and end with prorogation . In

412-508: A representative democracy . The samurai lost their status as the only class with military privileges. However, during the Meiji period, most leaders in Japanese society (politics, business and military) were ex-samurai or descendants of samurai. The 1889 Meiji Constitution made relatively small concessions to civil rights and parliamentary mechanisms. Party participation was recognized as part of

515-498: A Chōshū native who has been credited with the founding of the modern Japanese army and was to become the first constitutional Prime Minister . The Supreme War Council developed a German-style general staff system with a chief of staff who had direct access to the Emperor and who could operate independently of the army minister and civilian officials. The Constitution of the Empire of Japan

618-416: A cabinet composed mostly of genrō who wanted to establish a government party to control the House of Representatives. Although not fully realized, the trend toward party politics was well established. On its return, one of the first acts of the government was to establish new ranks for the nobility. Five hundred people from the old court nobility, former daimyo, and samurai who had provided valuable service to

721-456: A constitutional form of government since before 1874, and several proposals for constitutional guarantees had been drafted. While acknowledging the realities of political pressure, however, the oligarchy was determined to keep control. Thus, modest steps were taken. The Osaka Conference in 1875 resulted in the reorganization of government with an independent judiciary and an appointed Chamber of Elders (genrōin) tasked with reviewing proposals for

824-454: A general statement of the aims of the Meiji leaders to boost morale and win financial support for the new government . Its five provisions consisted of: Implicit in the Charter Oath was an end to exclusive political rule by the bakufu (a shōgun ' s direct administration including officers), and a move toward more democratic participation in government. To implement the Charter Oath,

927-503: A law to be made it starts off as a bill and has to go through various stages: In the United Kingdom, a proposed new law starts off as a bill that goes through seven stages of the legislative process: first reading, second reading, committee stage, report stage, third reading, opposite house, and royal assent. A bill is introduced by a member of Parliament (MP) in the House of Commons or by

1030-638: A legislature. The Emperor declared that "constitutional government shall be established in gradual stages" as he ordered the Council of Elders to draft a constitution. Three years later, the Conference of Prefectural Governors established elected prefectural assemblies. Although limited in their authority, these assemblies represented a move in the direction of representative government at the national level, and by 1880 assemblies also had been formed in villages and towns. In 1880 delegates from twenty-four prefectures held

1133-493: A member of the House of Lords . There will be a first reading of the bill, in which the proposition in the bill is read out, but there is minimal discussion and no voting. A second reading of the bill follows, in which the bill is presented in more detail and it is discussed between the MPs or Lords. The third stage is the committee stage , in which a committee is gathered. This may include MPs, Lords, professionals and experts in

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1236-555: A national convention to establish the Kokkai Kisei Dōmei . Although the government was not opposed to parliamentary rule, confronted with the drive for "people's rights", it continued to try to control the political situation. New laws in 1875 prohibited press criticism of the government or discussion of national laws. The Public Assembly Law (1880) severely limited public gatherings by disallowing attendance by civil servants and requiring police permission for all meetings. Within

1339-531: A national level was made under the name Japan Allied Medical Association ( 日本連合医師会 , Nippon Rengō Ishikai ) in 1914, but the association failed to enlist a sufficient number of prefectural-level medical associations. On November 10, 1916, the Greater Japan Medical Association ( 大日本医師会 , Dainippon Ishikai ) was established by the Minister for Interior Affairs , and then later renamed

1442-425: A new law, or a proposal to substantially alter an existing law. A bill does not become law until it has been passed by the legislature and, in most cases, approved by the executive . Bills are introduced in the legislature and are there discussed, debated on, and voted upon. Once a bill has been enacted into law by the legislature, it is called an act of the legislature , or a statute . The word bill

1545-416: A number of public national public health systems, including the following: As of 2015, there were approximately 167,000 members of the JMA organised under one of the forty-seven prefectural medical associations. Self-employed physicians make up the largest number of members, followed by hospital or small clinic-based physicians, and hospital residents. Shinya Yamanaka was co-awarded (with John B. Gurdon )

1648-614: A powerful Tosa leader who had resigned from the Council of State over the Korean affair in 1873. Itagaki sought peaceful, rather than rebellious, means to gain a voice in government. He started a school and a movement aimed at establishing a constitutional monarchy and a legislative assembly . Such movements were called The Freedom and People's Rights Movement . Itagaki and others wrote the Tosa Memorial  [ ja ] in 1874, criticizing

1751-543: A proposed law is known as a "law project" (Fr. projet de loi ) if introduced by the government, or a "law proposition" (Fr. proposition de loi ) if a private member's bill . Some legislatures do not make this terminological distinction (for example the Dutch parliament uses wetsontwerp and wetsvoorstel interchangeably). Bills generally include titles , enacting provisions , statements of intent , definitions , substantive provisions , transitional clauses , and dates which

1854-460: A rather short-lived constitution with eleven articles was drawn up in June 1868. Besides providing for a new Council of State , legislative bodies, and systems of ranks for nobles and officials, it limited office tenure to four years, allowed public balloting, provided for a new taxation system, and ordered new local administrative rules. The Meiji government assured the foreign powers that it would follow

1957-492: A result of such wholesale adoption of radically different ideas, the changes to Japan were profound, and affected its social structure, internal politics, economy, military, and foreign relations. The period corresponded to the reign of Emperor Meiji . It was preceded by the Keiō era and was succeeded by the Taishō era , upon the accession of Emperor Taishō . The rapid modernization during

2060-742: A role in establishing the Thai National Cancer Centre in Bangkok. In 2000, King Birendra of Nepal , decorated Tsuboi for his long term contributions to Nepal. JMA members have also served the WMA in many other executive roles including Chair of the WMA Council and vice-president. The JMA produces a variety of medical related programming for the public and allied medical persons including but not limited to: Meiji period The Meiji era ( 明治時代 , Meiji jidai , [meꜜː(d)ʑi] )

2163-470: A sequential number and are prefixed with "Republic Act" or "R.A." for short. They are also given a secondary sequential number by the chamber they are introduced in. Aforementioned numberings restart every three years after the formation of a new Congress. In the United Kingdom, for example, the Coroners and Justice Act in 2009 started as Bill 9 in the House of Commons. Then it became Bill 72 on consideration by

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2266-490: Is also a regular area for advocacy. Clinical malpractice has become a focus of the association, particularly how best to protect medical physicians in legal proceedings. As Kodate notes, while there has not yet been "the emergence of a new accountability regime, increased pressure is now placed on healthcare providers in terms of monitoring performances, collecting information and making decisions on how to act when serious incidents occur." The Japan Medical Association maintains

2369-474: Is called the Battle of Tabaruzuka. During this eight-day-battle, Saigō's nearly ten thousand strong army battled hand-to-hand the equally matched national army. Both sides suffered nearly four thousand casualties during this engagement. Due to conscription, however, the Japanese army was able to reconstitute its forces, while Saigō's was not. Later, forces loyal to the emperor broke through rebel lines and managed to end

2472-676: Is mainly used in English-speaking nations formerly part of the British Empire whose legal systems originated in the common law of the United Kingdom , including the United States . The parts of a bill are known as clauses , until it has become an act of parliament, from which time the parts of the law are known as sections . In nations that have civil law systems (including France , Belgium , Luxembourg , Spain and Portugal ),

2575-456: Is the third reading of the bill, in which the full bill is read out in the house along with all amendments and is given final approval by the House. The next stage is where the bill is handed over to the opposite house for approval. (If it started in the House of Commons it will be handed to the House of Lords and vice versa.) Here the bill will go through the same process as before, with amendments able to be brought. If amendments are brought,

2678-665: Is typically promulgated by being published in an official gazette . This may be required on enactment, coming into force, or both. Legislatures may give bills numbers as they progress. Bills are not given numbers in Australia and are typically cited by their short titles . They are only given an act number upon royal assent . In Brazil, bills originating in both the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies are numbered sequentially, prefixed with "PL" ( Projeto de Lei ) and optionally suffixed with

2781-615: The Federal Constitutional Court has discretion to rule on bills. Some bills may require approval by referendum . In Ireland this is obligatory for bills to amend the constitution ; it is possible for other bills via a process that has never been used . A bill may come into force as soon as it becomes law, or it may specify a later date to come into force, or it may specify by whom and how it may be brought into force; for example, by ministerial order . Different parts of an act may come into force at different times. An act

2884-586: The GHQ of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers . The most notable reform involved persons who had contributed to the war effort and who would no longer be permitted to accept executive appointments in the ongoing business of the association. Following this directive, Toshihiko Nakayama, the chairman of the association at the time, announced that he and others with similar positions would no longer hold offices in

2987-404: The House of Commons of Canada , the pro forma bill is numbered C-1, Government Bills are numbered C-2 to C-200, numbered sequentially from the start of each parliamentary session , and Private member's bills are numbered C-201 to C-1000, numbered sequentially from the start of each Parliament. The numbering system is identical in the Senate of Canada , except that bills first introduced in

3090-520: The Oireachtas and Knesset respectively became/become law immediately (though, in Israel's case, the laws are ceremonially signed after their passage by the president). In parliamentary systems , approval of the head of state is normally a formality since the head of state is a ceremonial figurehead. The exercise of the veto is considered a reserve power and is typically only used in rare circumstances, and

3193-530: The Privy Council of Ireland and Privy Council of England , so in practice each bill was substantively debated as "heads of a bill", then submitted to the privy councils for approval, and finally formally introduced as a bill and rejected or passed unamended. In the Westminster system , where the executive is drawn from the legislature and usually holds a majority in the lower house, most bills are introduced by

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3296-547: The Rikken Kaishintō (Constitutional Progressive Party), which called for a British-style constitutional democracy. In response, government bureaucrats, local government officials, and other conservatives established the Rikken Teiseitō (Imperial Rule Party), a pro-government party, in 1882. Numerous political demonstrations followed, some of them violent, resulting in further government restrictions. The restrictions hindered

3399-646: The United States Constitution as "too liberal", and the British system as too unwieldy, and having a parliament with too much control over the monarchy; the French and Spanish models were rejected as tending toward despotism. Ito was put in charge of the new Bureau for Investigation of Constitutional Systems in 1884, and the Council of State was replaced in 1885 with a cabinet headed by Ito as prime minister. The positions of chancellor (or chief-minister), minister of

3502-550: The "civilized countries of the West", leaving behind the "hopelessly backward" Asian neighbors, namely Korea and China . This essay certainly encouraged the economic and technological rise of Japan in the Meiji era, but it also may have laid the intellectual foundations for later Japanese colonialism in the region. The Meiji era saw a flowering of public discourse on the direction of Japan. Works like Nakae Chōmin 's A Discourse by Three Drunkards on Government debated how best to blend

3605-520: The 14-year-old Prince Mutsuhito succeeded his father, Emperor Kōmei , to the Chrysanthemum Throne as the 122nd emperor. This coincided with pressure on the ruling shogunate to modernize Japan, combining modern advances with traditional values. Mutsuhito was sympathetic to these ideas, leading to a call for the restoration of the governing power to the emperor. On November 9, 1867, then- shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu tendered his resignation to

3708-613: The 2012 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for their work in proving that mature cells could be converted into stem cells . The result of the work of Yamanaka and Gurdon is considered to be a scientific milestone in human regenerative medicine . Two past presidents of the JMA, Taro Takemi and Eitaka Tsuboi , have served as president of the World Medical Association . Tsuboi pioneered cancer research and treatment in Japan and Asia, self-funded school and community health programs in Nepal, and had

3811-590: The Asian mainland and construction of railroads, shipyards, munitions factories, mines, textile manufacturing facilities, factories, and experimental agriculture stations. Greatly concerned about national security, the leaders made significant efforts at military modernization, which included establishing a small standing army, a large reserve system, and compulsory militia service for all men. Foreign military systems were studied, foreign advisers, especially French ones, were brought in, and Japanese cadets sent abroad to Europe and

3914-553: The Conscription Law of 1873, and all the reforms and progress, the new Japanese army was still untested. That all changed in 1877, when Saigō Takamori led the last rebellion of the samurai in Kyūshū. In February 1877, Saigō left Kagoshima with a small contingent of soldiers on a journey to Tokyo. Kumamoto castle was the site of the first major engagement when garrisoned forces fired on Saigō's army as they attempted to force their way into

4017-571: The Emperor were organized into a new peerage, the Kazoku , consisting of five ranks: prince, marquis , count , viscount , and baron . In the transition between the Edo period and the Meiji era, the Ee ja nai ka movement, a spontaneous outbreak of ecstatic behavior, took place. In 1885, noted public intellectual Yukichi Fukuzawa wrote the influential essay " Leaving Asia ", arguing that Japan should orient itself at

4120-577: The Emperor, and "put his prerogatives at the Emperor’s disposal", formally stepping down ten days later. Imperial restoration occurred the next year on January 3, 1868, with the formation of the new government . The fall of Edo in the summer of 1868 marked the end of the Tokugawa shogunate , and a new era, Meiji , was proclaimed. The first reform was the promulgation of the Five Charter Oath in 1868,

4223-548: The Imperial Medical Association ( 帝国医会 , Teikoku ikai ) in 1890 to advocate for the practice of Chinese ( kampo ) medicine, but the IMA was dissolved in 1898. As the medical profession continued to develop in line with Western scientific advances of the time, the public wanted to legally regulate medical organisations. In 1906, statutory procedures were implemented to organise professional association activities at

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4326-539: The JMA are to improve university medical education programs, promote and support medical research, provide professional development through continuing education to members, and collaborate with national and international governments on special clinical public healthcare projects such as disaster relief medicine . The JMA has been involved in political lobbying since its inception. The main areas of advocacy include protecting physicians' interests in clinical practice, public health related policy, clinical fee adjustments set by

4429-520: The Japan Medical Association in 1923. The JMA required by law that all Japanese physicians practicing in clinics and hospitals outside the national and Imperial armed forces hospital system to join. During World War II , the JMA served as the sole national association responsible to maintain and improve clinical health for the Japanese public. During the post-war period the Japan Medical Association underwent reforms with direct intervention from

4532-473: The Meiji era adapted many aspects of Victorian taste, as seen in the construction of Western-style pavilions and reception rooms called yōkan or yōma in their homes. These parts of Meiji homes were displayed in popular magazines of the time, such as Ladies' Graphic, which portrayed the often empty rooms of the homes of the aristocracy of all levels, including the imperial palaces. Integrating Western cultural forms with an assumed, untouched native Japanese spirit

4635-495: The Meiji era was not without its opponents, as the rapid changes to society caused many disaffected traditionalists from the former samurai class to rebel against the Meiji government during the 1870s, most famously Saigō Takamori , who led the Satsuma Rebellion . However, there were also former samurai who remained loyal while serving in the Meiji government, such as Itō Hirobumi and Itagaki Taisuke . On February 3, 1867,

4738-581: The Senate of Canada begin with "S" instead of "C". In the Irish Oireachtas , bills are numbered sequentially from the start of each calendar year. Bills originating in the Dáil and Seanad share a common sequence. There are separate sequences for public and private bills, the latter prefixed with "P". Although acts to amend the constitution are outside the annual sequence used for other public acts, bills to amend

4841-639: The United States and Europe, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan (O-yatoi gaikokujin). In 1871, a group of Japanese politicians known as the Iwakura Mission toured Europe and the US to learn western ways. The result was a deliberate state-led industrialization policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up. Modern industry first appeared in textiles, including cotton and especially silk, which

4944-801: The United States to attend military and naval schools. In 1854, after US Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry forced the signing of the Treaty of Kanagawa , Japanese elites took the position that they needed to modernize the state's military capacities, or risk further coercion from Western powers. In 1868, the Japanese government established the Tokyo Arsenal. The same year, Ōmura Masujirō established Japan's first military academy in Kyoto. Ōmura further proposed military billets be filled by all classes of people including farmers and merchants. The shōgun class, not happy with Ōmura's views on conscription, assassinated him

5047-453: The United States, all bills originating in the House of Representatives are numbered sequentially and prefixed with "H.R." and all bills originating from the Senate begin with an "S.". Every two years, at the start of odd-numbered years, the Congress recommences numbering from 1, though for bills the House has an order reserving the first 20 bill numbers and the Senate has similar measures for

5150-418: The West. The Industrial Revolution in Japan occurred during the Meiji era. The industrial revolution began around 1870 as Meiji era leaders decided to catch up with the West. The government built railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform program to prepare the country for further development. It inaugurated a new Western-based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to

5253-516: The approval of the head of state such as the monarch, president, or governor to become law. The refusal of such an approval is typically known as a veto . Exceptions are the Irish Free State from the abolition of the governor-general in December 1936 to the creation of the office of president in December 1937, and Israel from its formation until today, during which period bills approved by

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5356-548: The association. Without the demands of World War II on the medical fraternity, the association was able to refocus efforts on school, occupation, and community health in addition to standard clinical healthcare. On November 1, 1947, toward the end of the Allied occupation of Japan , the association recommenced operation under the name "Japan Medical Association" as a non-governmental organization , which previously had been under direct Imperial government control. The newly founded JMA had

5459-402: The bill will again be handed to the opposite house, going through the same process, which repeats until both houses arrive at an agreement on the bill. (In the rare circumstance that the two houses cannot agree, the House of Commons has the final say since it is an elected body, whereas the House of Lords is not). Once the bill is finalised, it will move to the final stage, royal assent , when

5562-492: The bill will be put into effect. The preparation of a bill may involve the production of a draft bill prior to the introduction of the bill into the legislature. In the United Kingdom, draft bills are frequently considered to be confidential. Pre-legislative scrutiny is a formal process carried out by a parliamentary committee on a draft bill. In the Parliament of India , the draft bill is sent to individual ministry relating to

5665-411: The castle. Rather than leave an enemy behind him, Saigō laid siege to the castle. Two days later, Saigō's rebels, while attempting to block a mountain pass, encountered advanced elements of the national army en route to reinforce Kumamoto castle. After a short battle, both sides withdrew to reconstitute their forces. A few weeks later the national army engaged Saigō's rebels in a frontal assault at what now

5768-511: The constitution are within the annual sequence of public bills. In the Philippines , all bills passed into law, regardless of whether they were introduced in the House of Representatives or the Senate , are numbered sequentially beginning with the first Republic Act that became law on July 15, 1946. There have been 11,646 Republic Acts as of January 21, 2022. All laws passed by Congress, once given presidential assent, become law and are given

5871-556: The establishment of a national assembly in 1890 and dismissing Okuma. Rejecting the British model, Iwakura and other conservatives borrowed heavily from the Prussian constitutional system . One of the Meiji oligarchy, Itō Hirobumi (1841–1909), a Chōshū native long involved in government affairs, was charged with drafting Japan's constitution. He led a constitutional study mission abroad in 1882, spending most of his time in Germany. He rejected

5974-457: The executive ( government bill ). In principle, the legislature meets to consider the demands of the executive, as set out in the King's Speech or speech from the throne . Mechanisms exist to allow other members of the legislature to introduce bills, but they are subject to strict timetables and usually fail unless a consensus is reached. In the US system, where the executive is formally separated from

6077-458: The field, and other people who the bill may affect. The purpose of this stage is to go into more detail on the bill and gather expert opinions on it (e.g. teachers may be present in a committee about a bill that would affect the education system) and amendments may be brought. After this is the report stage , in which the entire house reviews any and all changes made to the bill since its conception and may bring further amendments. The fifth stage

6180-408: The final engagement with Imperial forces which resulted in the deaths of the remaining forty samurai including Saigō, who, having suffered a fatal bullet wound in the abdomen, was honorably beheaded by his retainer. The national army's victory validated the current course of the modernization of the Japanese army as well as ended the era of the samurai. Bill (law) A bill is a proposal for

6283-430: The first 10 bills. Joint resolutions also have the same effect as bills, and are titled as "H. J. Res." or "S. J. Res." depending on whether they originated in the House or Senate, respectively. This means that two different bills can have the same number. Each two-year span is called a congress , tracking the terms of Representatives elected in the nationwide biennial House of Representatives elections, and each congress

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6386-580: The following year. In 1870, Japan expanded its military production base by opening another arsenal in Osaka. The Osaka Arsenal was responsible for the production of machine guns and ammunition. Also, four gunpowder facilities were opened at this site. Japan's production capacity gradually expanded. In 1872, Yamagata Aritomo and Saigō Jūdō , both new field marshals, founded the Corps of the Imperial Guards. Also, in

6489-412: The genrō made decisions reserved for the Emperor, and the genrō, not the Emperor, controlled the government politically. Throughout the period, however, political problems usually were solved through compromise, and political parties gradually increased their power over the government and held an ever-larger role in the political process as a result. Between 1891 and 1895, Ito served as Prime Minister with

6592-464: The government included the creation of a unified modern currency based on the yen, banking, commercial and tax laws, stock exchanges, and a communications network. Establishment of a modern institutional framework conductive to an advanced capitalist economy took time, but was completed by the 1890s, by which time the government had largely relinquished direct control of the modernization process, primarily for budgetary reasons. The Land Tax Reform of 1873

6695-527: The left , and minister of the right , which had existed since the seventh century as advisory positions to the Emperor, were all abolished. In their place, the Privy Council was established in 1888 to evaluate the forthcoming constitution and to advise the Emperor. To further strengthen the authority of the State, the Supreme War Council was established under the leadership of Yamagata Aritomo (1838–1922),

6798-403: The legislature can usually override the veto by a simple majority vote. However, in most cases, the executive – a cabinet of ministers responsible to parliament – takes a veto by the head of state into account. In presidential systems , the head of state is also the chief executive, and the need to receive approval can be used as a political tool by them. The legislature is only able to override

6901-420: The legislature, all bills must originate from the legislature. Bills can be introduced using the following procedures: Bills are generally considered through a number of readings. This refers to the historic practice of the clerical officers of the legislature reading the contents of a bill to the legislature. While the bill is no longer read, the motions on the bill still refer to this practice. In India , for

7004-642: The matter. From there the bill goes to the Ministry of Law and Justice and then is passed on to the Cabinet committee which the prime minister heads. Pre-legislative scrutiny is required in much of Scandinavia, occurs in Ireland at the discretion of the Oireachtas (parliament) and occurs in the UK at the government's discretion. In the Parliament of Ireland under Poynings' Law (1494–1782) legislation had to be pre-approved by

7107-409: The monarch signs or otherwise signifies approval for the bill to become law. Theoretically, the monarch could refuse assent to a bill, but no monarch has done so since Queen Anne in 1708, and the royal veto has fallen into disuse. Once the assent is granted, the law comes into effect at the date and time specified within the act; if this is not specified within the act, it comes into effect at midnight on

7210-491: The national government. Officials from the favored former han, such as Satsuma , Chōshū , Tosa , and Hizen staffed the new ministries. Formerly old court nobles , and lower-ranking samurai, replaced bakufu appointees and daimyo as a new ruling class appeared. Inasmuch as the Meiji Restoration had sought to return the Emperor to a preeminent position, efforts were made to establish a Shinto -oriented state much like it

7313-428: The national health insurance body, and legal procedures related to malpractice. For a period of almost ten years, from 1947 to 1956, the association defended physicians' rights to prescribe, formulate, and sell medicine, which the government proposed to prevent through a parliamentary bill . The JMA argued that income for physicians under the health insurance system alone was not economically sustainable, and therefore

7416-401: The new business environment. The industrial economy continued to expand rapidly, until about 1920, due to inputs of advanced Western technology and large private investments. By World War I, Japan had become a major industrial nation. Undeterred by opposition, the Meiji leaders continued to modernize the nation through government-sponsored telegraph cable links to all major Japanese cities and

7519-490: The new influences coming from the West with local Japanese culture. Grassroots movements like the Freedom and People's Rights Movement called for the establishment of a formal legislature, civil rights, and greater pluralism in the Japanese political system. Journalists, politicians, and writers actively participated in the movement, which attracted an array of interest groups, including women's rights activists. The elite class of

7622-580: The new name for Edo . In a move critical for the consolidation of the new regime, most daimyōs voluntarily surrendered their land and census records to the Emperor in the abolition of the Han system , symbolizing that the land and people were under the Emperor's jurisdiction. Confirmed in their hereditary positions, the daimyo became governors, and the central government assumed their administrative expenses and paid samurai stipends. The han were replaced with prefectures in 1871, and authority continued to flow to

7725-407: The old treaties negotiated by the bakufu and announced that it would act in accordance with international law. Mutsuhito, who was to reign until 1912, selected a new reign title— Meiji , or Enlightened Rule—to mark the beginning of a new era in Japanese history. To further dramatize the new order, the capital was relocated from Kyoto , where it had been situated since 794, to Tokyo (Eastern Capital),

7828-466: The pace of reform after having rejoined the Council of State in 1875, Itagaki organized his followers and other democratic proponents into the nationwide Aikokusha (Society of Patriots) to push for representative government in 1878. In 1881, in an action for which he is best known, Itagaki helped found the Jiyūtō (Liberal Party), which favored French political doctrines. In 1882, Ōkuma Shigenobu established

7931-536: The political parties and led to divisions within and among them. The Jiyūtō, which had opposed the Kaishinto, was disbanded in 1884 and Ōkuma resigned as Kaishintō president. Government leaders, long preoccupied with violent threats to stability and the serious leadership split over the Korean affair, generally agreed that constitutional government should someday be established. The Chōshū leader Kido Takayoshi had favored

8034-512: The political process. The Emperor shared his authority and gave rights and liberties to his subjects. It provided for the Imperial Diet (Teikoku Gikai), composed of a popularly elected House of Representatives with a very limited franchise of male citizens who were over twenty-five years of age and paid fifteen yen in national taxes (approximately 1% of the population). The House of Peers was composed of nobility and imperial appointees. A cabinet

8137-499: The prefectural and local municipality levels, and to require physicians practicing medical services outside of the public hospitals system to join the member association branch in the locality where they practice medicine. Regional medical associations had emerged during the period after 1906, but no national organisation existed to regulate the 30,000 medical doctors practicing outside the national university and Imperial armed forces hospital systems. An attempt to organise physicians on

8240-808: The purpose. In 1871, the Office of Shinto Worship ( ja:神祇省 ) was established, ranking even above the Council of State in importance. The kokutai ideas of the Mito school were embraced, and the divine ancestry of the Imperial House was emphasized. The government supported Shinto teachers, a small but important move. Although the Office of Shinto Worship was demoted in 1872, by 1877 the Home Ministry controlled all Shinto shrines and certain Shinto sects were given state recognition. Shinto

8343-463: The ruling circle, however, and despite the conservative approach of the leadership, Okuma continued as a lone advocate of British-style government, a government with political parties and a cabinet organized by the majority party, answerable to the national assembly. He called for elections to be held by 1882 and for a national assembly to be convened by 1883; in doing so, he precipitated a political crisis that ended with an 1881 imperial rescript declaring

8446-413: The same day it is granted royal assent. Where a piece of primary legislation is termed an act , the process of a bill becoming law may be termed enactment . Once a bill is passed by the legislature, it may automatically become law, or it may need further approval, in which case enactment may be effected by the approver's signature or proclamation . Bills passed by the legislature usually require

8549-508: The same design. Another trend in the Meiji era was for women's under-kimono made by combining pieces of different fabric, sometimes of radically different colors and designs. For men, the trend was for highly decorative under-kimono that would be covered by outer kimono that were plain or very simply designed. Even the clothing of infants and young children used bold colors, intricate designs, and materials common to adult fashions. Japanese exports led to kimono becoming an object of fascination in

8652-451: The same year, the hyobusho (war office) was replaced with a War Department and a Naval Department. The samurai class suffered great disappointment the following years, when in January the Conscription Law of 1873 was passed. This monumental law, signifying the beginning of the end for the samurai class, initially met resistance from both the peasant and warrior alike. The peasant class interpreted

8755-406: The siege on Kumamoto Castle after fifty-four days. Saigō's troops fled north and were pursued by the national army. The national army caught up with Saigō at Mt. Enodake . Saigō's army was outnumbered seven-to-one, prompting a mass surrender of many samurai. The remaining five hundred samurai loyal to Saigō escaped, travelling south to Kagoshima. The rebellion ended on September 24, 1877, following

8858-442: The speed of Japan's modernization: the employment of more than 3,000 foreign experts (called o-yatoi gaikokujin or 'hired foreigners') in a variety of specialist fields such as teaching foreign languages, science, engineering, the army and navy, among others; and the dispatch of many Japanese students overseas to Europe and America, based on the fifth and last article of the Charter Oath of 1868: 'Knowledge shall be sought throughout

8961-773: The term for military service, ketsu-eki (blood tax) literally, and attempted to avoid service by any means necessary. Avoidance methods included maiming, self-mutilation, and local uprisings. In conjunction with the new conscription law, the Japanese government began modeling their ground forces after the French military. Indeed, the new Japanese army used the same rank structure as the French. The enlisted corps ranks were: private, noncommissioned officers, and officers. The private classes were: jōtō-hei or upper soldier, ittō-sotsu or first-class soldier, and nitō-sotsu or second-class soldier. The noncommissioned officer class ranks were: gochō or corporal, gunsō or sergeant, sōchō or sergeant major, and tokumu-sōchō or special sergeant major. Despite

9064-430: The unbridled power of the oligarchy and calling for the immediate establishment of representative government. Between 1871 and 1873, a series of land and tax laws were enacted as the basis for modern fiscal policy. Private ownership was legalized, deeds were issued, and lands were assessed at fair market value with taxes paid in cash rather than in kind as in pre-Meiji days and at slightly lower rates. Dissatisfied with

9167-526: The veto by means of a supermajority vote. In some jurisdictions, a bill passed by the legislature may also require approval by a constitutional court . If the court finds the bill would violate the constitution it may annul it or send it back to the legislature for correction. In Ireland, the president has discretion under Article 26 of the Constitution to refer bills to the Supreme Court . In Germany,

9270-443: The wealthy elite, could be owned by anyone. Faster and cheaper manufacture allowed more people to afford silk kimono, and enabled designers to create new patterns. The Emperor issued a proclamation promoting Western dress over the allegedly effeminate Japanese dress. Fukuzawa Yukichi 's descriptions of Western clothing and customs were influential. Western dress became popular in the public sphere: many men adopted Western dress in

9373-421: The workplace, although kimono were still the norm for men at home and for women. In the 1890s the kimono reasserted itself, with people wearing bolder and brighter styles. A new type called the hōmongi bridged the gap between formal dress and everyday dress. The technology of the time allowed for subtle color gradients rather than abrupt changes of color. Another trend was for outer and inner garments of

9476-706: The world so as to strengthen the foundations of Imperial rule.' The process of modernization was closely monitored and heavily subsidized by the Meiji government, enhancing the power of the great zaibatsu firms such as Mitsui and Mitsubishi . Hand in hand, the zaibatsu and government led Japan through the process of industrialization, borrowing technology and economic policy from the West. Japan gradually took control of much of Asia's market for manufactured goods, beginning with textiles. The economic structure became very mercantilistic , importing raw materials and exporting finished products—a reflection of Japan's relative poverty in raw materials. Other economic reforms passed by

9579-549: The year they were proposed, separated by a slash, as in PL 1234/1988. Until 2019, each house used a different numbering and naming system, but the system was unified by a 2018 joint act by the secretaries of both houses. Before the 2019 unification, the Senate numbered bills starting at the beginning of each year, while the lower house numbered bills starting at the beginning of each legislature. This meant that bills sent from one house to another could adopt two or more different names. In

9682-409: Was 1,000 years earlier. Since Shinto and Buddhism had molded into a syncretic belief in the prior thousand years and Buddhism had been closely connected with the shogunate, this involved the separation of Shinto and Buddhism ( shinbutsu bunri ) and the associated destruction of various Buddhist temples and related violence ( haibutsu kishaku ). Furthermore, a new State Shinto had to be constructed for

9785-511: Was an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868, to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan , when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonization by Western powers to the new paradigm of a modern, industrialized nation state and emergent great power , influenced by Western scientific, technological, philosophical, political, legal, and aesthetic ideas. As

9888-471: Was another significant fiscal reform by the Meiji government, establishing the right of private land ownership for the first time in Japan's history. Many of the former daimyo, whose pensions had been paid in a lump sum, benefited greatly through investments they made in emerging industries. Those who had been informally involved in foreign trade before the Meiji Restoration also flourished. Old bakufu -serving firms that clung to their traditional ways failed in

9991-450: Was based in home workshops in rural areas. Due to the importing of new textile manufacturing technology from Europe, between 1886 and 1897, Japan's total value of yarn output rose from 12 million to 176 million yen. In 1886, 62% of yarn in Japan was imported; by 1902, most yarn was produced locally. By 1913, Japan was producing 672 million pounds of yarn per year, becoming the world's fourth-largest exporter of cotton yarn. The first railway

10094-524: Was characteristic of Meiji society, especially at the top levels, and represented Japan's search for a place within a new world power system in which European colonial empires dominated. The production of kimono started to use Western technologies such as synthetic dye , and decoration was sometimes influenced by Western motifs. The textile industry modernized rapidly and silk from Tokyo's factories became Japan's principal export. Cheap synthetic dyes meant that bold purples and reds, previously restricted to

10197-534: Was enacted on November 29, 1890. It was a form of mixed constitutional and absolute monarchy . The Emperor of Japan was legally the supreme leader, and the Cabinet were his followers. The Prime Minister would be elected by a Privy Council . In reality, the Emperor was head of state but the Prime Minister was the actual head of government. Class distinctions were mostly eliminated during modernization to create

10300-524: Was opened between Tokyo and Yokohama in 1872. The rail system was rapidly developed throughout Japan well into the twentieth century. The introduction of railway transportation led to more efficient production due to the decrease in transport costs, allowing manufacturing firms to move into more populated interior regions of Japan in search for labor input. The railway also enabled newfound access to raw materials that had previously been too difficult or too costly to transport. There were at least two reasons for

10403-419: Was released from Buddhist administration and its properties restored. Although Buddhism suffered from state sponsorship of Shinto, it had its own resurgence. Christianity also was legalized, and Confucianism remained an important ethical doctrine. Increasingly, however, Japanese thinkers identified with Western ideology and methods. A major proponent of representative government was Itagaki Taisuke (1837–1919),

10506-630: Was responsible to the Emperor and independent of the legislature. The Diet could approve government legislation and initiate laws, make representations to the government, and submit petitions to the Emperor. The Meiji Constitution lasted as the fundamental law until 1947. In the early years of constitutional government, the strengths and weaknesses of the Meiji Constitution were revealed. A small clique of Satsuma and Chōshū elite continued to rule Japan, becoming institutionalized as an extra-constitutional body of genrō (elder statesmen). Collectively,

10609-400: Was the need for physicians to compound and sell their own formulated medications. The JMA was successful in protecting this practice. The JMA continues to lobby the government to adjust clinical fees derived from the national health insurance system, to be adjusted in line with the cost of living . Lobbying for financial accommodations related to administrating the universal health care system

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