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102-741: Ali Janbulad Pasha (transliterated in Turkish as Canbolatoğlu Ali Paşa ; died 1 March 1610) was a Kurdish tribal chief from Kilis and a rebel Ottoman governor of Aleppo who wielded practical supremacy over Syria in c.  1606–1607 . His rebellion, launched to avenge the execution of his uncle Huseyn ibn Janbulad by the commander Jigalazade Sinan Pasha in 1605, gained currency among northern Syria's Kurdish, Turkmen and Arab tribes and expanded to include local Syrian governors and chiefs, most prominently Fakhr al-Din Ma'n of Mount Lebanon and his erstwhile enemy Yusuf Sayfa Pasha of Tripoli . Ali formed

204-585: A bathhouse in the city. After Janbulad's death his lands were bequeathed to his sons Huseyn and Habib. A third son, Ahmed, was Ali's father. Huseyn was a sipahi (fief-holding cavalryman) in Damascus and inherited the tribal emirate of Kilis, which he shared on a rotational arrangement with Habib. He participated in the 1578 Ottoman campaigns against the Safavids in Georgia and eastern Anatolia . Three years later he

306-412: A 'principal elder brother' or 'prince's elder son' in the pre-Ottoman period. According to etymologist Sevan Nişanyan , the word is derived from Turkish beşe ( بچّه 'boy, prince'), which is cognate with Persian bačče ( بچّه ). Some earlier Turkish lexicographers, such as Ahmed Vefik Paşa and Mehmed Salahi, argued it was most likely derived from Turkish başa or Turkish beşe ,

408-629: A Pasha, such as the Pasha or Bashaw of Tripoli . Ottoman and Egyptian authorities conferred the title upon both Muslims and Christians without distinction. They also frequently gave it to foreigners in the service of the Ottoman Empire, or of the Egyptian Khedivate (later Sultanate , and Kingdom in turn), e.g. Hobart Pasha . In an Egyptian context, the Abaza Family is known as "the family of

510-690: A battle was to be fought in Europe, Rumeli (Balkan) Sipahis took the honorary right flank under the Rumeli beylerbey, while the Anatolian beylerbey and his Sipahis took the left flank; when a battle was in Asia, positions were switched. This way, the Ottoman classical army 's flanks wholly consisted of Timariot cavalry, while the center consisted of Janissary infantry and artillery divisions. The equipment and tactics differed between

612-638: A campaign against Ali secret, with no contemporary record or reference in Ottoman official correspondence of Ali's disloyalty to the Empire or rebellion. He launched his expedition against Ali from Uskudar on 10 July 1607, ostensibly with the purpose of regaining territory lost to the Safavids. En route through central Anatolia, Murad Pasha recruited minor Celali chiefs and executed ones he considered dangerous. Among those executed were one hundred men of Ali's ally Deli Ahmed,

714-516: A career Ottoman official, sensed a dual opportunity: he could neutralize the Janbulads, whose hegemony he feared, and in the process gain significant prestige with the sultan for suppressing Ali without the costly intervention of an imperial army. The Porte agreed to Yusuf's request to head a campaign against Ali and promoted him to serdar (commander-in-chief) of Damascus. In a short battle near Hama on 24 July, Ali routed Yusuf's forces, which included

816-514: A certain "Shaykh Junblat" is mentioned in the Druze area of Mount Lebanon in 1614, though without any mention of a link to Janbulad or information about his origins. The modern historian William Harris notes "it is only clear that the name Junblat did not feature before the [Ali] Janbulad affair". The Junblat family emerged as one of the most dominant Druze clans and factions in Mount Lebanon's politics in

918-518: A counterattack with musket and cannon against Ali's remaining forces who could not see their commanders to due to the smoke of the artillery. The counterattack and lack of visibility of Ali or his commanders induced the sekban to panic and flight. Ali could not rally the largely undisciplined sekbans and they were pursued, many being slain, while thousands were captured by imperial troops. Ali fled eastward and Murad Pasha ordered mass executions of captive troops, few of whom were pardoned, and then ordered

1020-482: A formal request to the imperial government for the governorship of Aleppo and a vizier post in Constantinople and pledged 10,000 troops to the Ottoman campaign against the Safavids. The Porte responded to Ali's activities by encouraging and providing assistance to the beylerbey of Tripoli , Yusuf Sayfa , a natural opponent of Ali. As a result, Yusuf, a Kurdish chieftain with a local power base in his province and

1122-453: A full-scale assault, he resolved to pressure the city to surrender Yusuf to him. Aware of the internal divisions among the Ottoman military factions in Damascus, Ali and Fakhr al-Din besieged the city. A skirmish was fought on 30 September 1606, in which the Damascenes were bested. The defeated troops retreated behind the city walls, refusing to hand over Yusuf. Ali ordered a three-day plunder of

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1224-507: A janissary ever became a silahtar, other members of the division with cavalry backgrounds despised him and former comrade janissaries considered him a traitor, but because the position and wealth of a silahtar was so attractive, Janissaries and other soldiers still enlisted for suicide missions. The commander of the Silahtar division was the Silahtar Agha . He was the official weaponsmaster of

1326-557: A pardon for Ali. The Kurdish chief may have interpreted the pardon as an imperial pass to continue his rebellion in Syria. Although control of Damascus would seal his paramountcy in the Syrian region, Ali was mindful of the city's distance from his Aleppine power base and its importance to the Porte as the Empire's main marshaling point for the annual Hajj pilgrimage caravan to Mecca . As such, instead of

1428-589: A potential refuge where he could regroup. Ali also communicated with the major Anatolian Celali leaders Kalenderoglu Mehmed and Kara Said . To prop up his nascent Syrian state Ali moved to obtain recognition, as well as loans or trade revenue, from regional powers. In November 1606 the Duke of Tuscany , Ferdinand I , sent as envoys a Tuscan noble with close ties to Florentine merchants and King Philip III of Spain , Hippolito Leoncini, and an Aleppine-born dragoman Michael Angiolo Corai , who maintained close contacts with

1530-504: A pyramid of 20,000 skulls erected in front of his camp next to 700 captured rebel banners, including Ali's white standard. Despite the rout at Oruç Ovasi, Ali did not surrender. His Syrian allies Yusuf Sayfa and Fakhr al-Din did not participate with their forces, having returned to their local bases after Ali's Syrian campaign. Ali gathered his kinsmen in Kilis before proceeding to Aleppo and positioned hundreds of loyal soldiers with his kinsmen in

1632-547: A reconciliation with the Sublime Porte, while Ali encamped at the hamlet of Pazarcık . From there, on 28 December, he reached out to the Celali chiefs, whose armies were encamped in the general vicinity. His invitation to Tavil was rejected, while his efforts to recruit Kalenderoglu Mehmed and Kara Said fell through as they were in negotiations with the grand vizier and refused to subordinate themselves to Ali's leadership. Sultan Ahmed

1734-507: A secret military alliance with the Grand Duke of Tuscany , Ferdinand I , with the explicit aim of jointly destroying the Ottoman Empire and establishing the Janbulad family as the sovereigns of Syria. Ali's burgeoning ties with several Celali revolt leaders, whose influence spanned central Anatolia , Cilicia and part of Mesopotamia , posed a major threat to the Empire at a time in which it

1836-621: Is also sipaio (with variants like sipai , cipaio and cipai ), but in Spanish it was adapted as cipayo . The word sepoy is derived from the same Persian word sepāhī . In Maldivian , the army's soldiers are referred to as {ސިފައިން} "sifain". The term refers to all freeborn Ottoman Turkish mounted troops other than akıncı and tribal horsemen in the Ottoman army. The word was used almost synonymously with cavalry. The sipahis formed two distinct types of cavalry: feudal-like, provincial timarlı sipahi ( timariots ) which consisted most of

1938-456: The firman ( patent of nobility ) issued by the Sultan carrying the tughra (imperial seal). The title did not bestow rank or title to the wife nor was any religious leader elevated to the title. In contrast to western nobility titles, where the title normally is added before the given name, Ottoman titles followed the given name. In contacts with foreign emissaries and representatives, holders of

2040-719: The Banat region of the Balkans. There is no indication he acted against the Ottomans in Temeşvar, but the province's local elites worked against his rule in much the same way they were opposed to his predecessor Deli Hasan (d. 1605). The Janissaries of the province may have planned to eliminate him and the threat to his life was considerable enough to have prompted his flight to Belgrade in April 1609. Upon returning to Constantinople from his campaigns against

2142-490: The Ceyhan River at Misis, but took an alternative northern route instead of the road leading through Bakras; the alternative route was about 100 kilometers (62 mi) longer than the southern Bakras route. Ali was taken by surprise upon Murad Pasha's arrival in the plains north of Kilis and compelled him to revise his strategy away from the familiar hilly terrain of Bakras where his sekbans were most accustomed to fighting to

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2244-721: The Chouf village of Mazraa . Janbulad and his sons became close associates of Fakhr al-Din and the Khazens , a Maronite family in Keserwan , from 1631 until Fakhr al-Din's demise four years later. The family, which intermarried with the local Druze and converted to the Druze religion, became known as the Junblat (or Jumblatt), the Arabicized version of Janbulad. In the version of the 17th-century historian and associate of Fakhr al-Din, al-Khalidi al-Safadi ,

2346-573: The Euphrates valley . Through the mediation of his uncle Haydar ibn Janbulad and other representatives, he was pardoned by the sultan in 1608 and appointed beylerbey of Temeşvar several months later. Machinations against him by the local elites and Janissaries there compelled him to seek refuge in Belgrade in April 1609. Murad Pasha ordered his arrest there in the summer and he was executed in March 1610. Ali

2448-617: The Osman Dynasty in Constantinople (now Istanbul ), and sought to style his Egyptian realm as a successor sultanate to the Ottoman Empire. As such, he bore the title of Pasha , in addition to the official title of Wāli , and the self-declared title of Khedive . His successors to the Egyptian and Sudanese throne , Ibrahim , Abbas , Sa'id , and Isma'il also inherited these titles, with Pasha , and Wāli ceasing to be used in 1867, when

2550-523: The Ottoman Sultan , Abdülaziz officially recognised Isma'il as Khedive. The title Pasha appears originally to have applied exclusively to military commanders and only high ranking family of the sultans, but subsequently it could distinguish any high official, and also unofficial persons whom the court desired to honour. It was also part of the official style of the Kapudan Pasha (Grand Admiral of

2652-535: The Seljuk Turks and later by the Ottoman Empire . Sipahi units included the land grant –holding ( timar ) provincial timarli sipahi , which constituted most of the army, and the salaried regular kapikulu sipahi , or palace troops. However, the irregular light cavalry akıncı ("raiders") were not considered to be sipahi . The sipahi formed their own distinctive social classes and were rivals to

2754-1012: The janissaries , the elite infantry corps of the sultans . A variant of the term " sipahi " was also applied by colonial authorities to several cavalry units serving in the French and Italian colonial armies during the 19th and 20th centuries (see Spahi ). The word is derived from Persian and means "soldier" and is also transliterated as spahi and spahee ; rendered in other languages as: spahiu in Albanian and Romanian , sepuh (սեպուհ) in Armenian , spahis ( Σπαχής ) in Greek , spahija or spahiya in Serbo-Croatian , Bulgarian , and Macedonian ( Cyrillic : спахија , спахия ): in Bengali [sipāhī] " sepoy " (সিপাহী). The Portuguese version

2856-626: The sanjak-beys of Kostendil and Selanik , his important lieutenant Jin Ali Bolukbashi was slain. Many other leading figures in Ali's army were taken captive in the battle and revealed to Murad Pasha, Ali's explicit intentions to establish a sovereign state of his own based in Aleppo. Murad Pasha sent patrols to gauge Ali's strength and positions and on 24 October Ali, realizing the almost two-to-one disadvantage in strength, sent letters proclaiming his loyalty to

2958-594: The sipahi themselves; they were usually sons, brothers or nephews and their position was probably more similar to squires than men-at-arms. Although timars were not originally granted to their holders until perpetuity (the state inheriting the land at the death of the landholder), by the end of the 17th century estates were passed on from father to son. In wartime, Timarli sipahis and their retainers were gathered under their alay (regiment) beys . Alay-beys were gathered with their troops under sanjak (province) beys, and sanjak-beys gathered under beylerbeys . If

3060-476: The 17th–19th centuries. Pasha The English word pasha comes from Turkish pasha ( pāşā ; also basha ( bāşā )). The Oxford English Dictionary attributes the origin of the English borrowing to the mid-17th century. The etymology of the Turkish word itself has been a matter of debate. Contrary to titles like emir ( amīr ) and bey ( beg ), which were established in usage much earlier,

3162-415: The Anatolian and Balkan Timarli Sipahi. The Anatolian Sipahi were equipped and fought as classic horse archers, shooting while galloping, yet they were not nomadic cavalry and their status was similar to medium cavalry class. Balkan Timarli Sipahis wore chainmail, rode barded horses and carried lances and javelins, and fought as medium cavalry. Timarli Sipahis of the classical Ottoman period usually comprised

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3264-525: The Celali rebels in Anatolia in the summer, Murad Pasha learned of Ali's circumstances and ordered his imprisonment in the Belgrade fortress. After several months the grand vizier was able to obtain a death sentence for Ali. The latter staved off the execution for at least forty days through his appeals but was decapitated on 1 March 1610. As customary, his head was publicly displayed in Constantinople. Ali's family,

3366-489: The Duke's representatives that he was poised to become an independent sultan of Syria . Ottoman and Safavid sources do not mention ties formed between Ali and Shah Abbas, who adopted a policy of allowing Celali rebels safe haven in his territory. Non-Ottoman and non-Safavid diplomats maintained that Ali sent the shah gifts to elicit Safavid sympathy. All of Ali's communications with non-Ottoman regional powers were kept secret, though

3468-432: The Janbulads, at least partly remained in their home region of Kurd-Dagh where until the present day traditional ballads are sung celebrating Ali. Part of the family may have been reestablished in Mount Lebanon where, according to the 19th-century chronicler Tannus al-Shidyaq , a certain Janbulad ibn Sa'id, possibly Ali's grandson, and his sons Sa'id and Rabah were received by Ali's old ally Fakhr al-Din in 1630 and settled in

3570-648: The Mediterranean ports of Acre , Haifa and Caesarea . With northern and central Syria under his control, Ali demanded from the beylerbey of Damascus, Seyyed Mehmed Pasha , control of certain areas of Seyyid Mehmed's eyalet under Ali and his allies: he sought the Hauran for Amr al-Badawi, chief of the Bedouin Mafarija tribe of Jabal Ajlun , the southern Beqaa Valley to the Bedouin chief Mansur ibn Bakri Furaykh , and

3672-682: The Ottoman army fought a fluid, mounted type of warfare around the center of the army, which served as a stable pivot. The standard equipment of Rumeli Sipahis of the classical Ottoman period consisted of a round shield, lance, sword, javelins, and plated armour. Their horses were barded. Standard equipment of Anatolian Sipahis in the same era was a round shield, composite Turkish bow , arrows, kilij (Turkish sword), and leather or felt armor. Besides these, Sipahis of both provinces were equipped with bozdogan and şeşper maces , and aydogan , teber and sagir axes. Anatolian Sipahis sometimes also carried lances. Kapikulu Sipahis (Sipahis of

3774-622: The Ottoman army, and salaried, regular kapıkulu sipahi (sipahi of the Porte ), which constituted the cavalry part of the Ottoman household troops. The provincial governors, or beys , were rotated every few years, preventing land inheritance. The provinces, or sanjaks , were not all equal since Anatolia and the Balkans were mostly ruled by Turks, while other areas of the empire were more flexible, adhering, somewhat, to local traditions. The entwinement of land, military, politics, economics and religion

3876-502: The Ottoman fleet). Pashas ranked above Beys and Aghas , but below Khedives and Viziers . Three grades of Pasha existed, distinguished by the number of horse tails (three, two, and one respectively; a symbol of Turco-Mongol tradition) or peacock tails that the bearers were entitled to display on their standard as a symbol of military authority when on campaign. Only the sultan himself was entitled to four tails, as sovereign commander in chief . The following military ranks entitled

3978-497: The Ottoman throne. They weren't literally slaves, though their legal status was different from other Ottoman people. The Sultan had the power to directly command execution of his servants without any court verdict. Theoretically, the Sultan didn't have this kind of power over other people, even simple peasants. If a freeman was promoted to one of Kapikulu Sipahi divisions, he considered automatically switched to kul (servant) status. Equipment of Silahtar, Sipahi and Ulufeci divisions

4080-577: The Porte acceded to his request for the governorship of Aleppo, appointing him in September; his request for a vizierate was ignored. Ali practically proclaimed his sovereignty by having the Friday prayers read in his name, and likely minting coins as well. To enforce his control over the Syrian emirs, Ali looked for allies among the Celali rebels of Anatolia. The Celali revolts were a series of rebellions beginning in

4182-614: The Porte in Constantinople, and Ferdinand viewed the Aleppine port Iskenderun as a suitable Levantine harbor for his political and economic ambitions. Moreover, for a technologically advancing Tuscany the relationship with Ali and his vulnerable but geographically strategic domains served as an extension of their burgeoning imperialism. Aleppo would serve as the commercial link between Persia and their European domains. Ferdinand's envoys came with significant gifts and proposed an alliance treaty with Ali. It explicitly stipulated joint efforts toward

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4284-722: The Porte), also known as the Six Divisions of Cavalry, were household cavalry troops of the Ottoman Palace. They were the cavalry equivalent of the Janissary household infantry force. There were six divisions of Kapikulu Sipahis: Sipahis, Silahtars, Right Ulufecis, Left Ulufecis, Right Garips, and Left Garips. All of them were paid quarterly salaries, while the Sipahis and Silahtars were elite units. Silahtars ("weapon masters") were chosen from

4386-496: The Porte, and a well-trained and well-compensated army of sekbans , as well as his Kurdish tribesmen and Turkmen and Arab tribal levies from northern Syria. Huseyn was reappointed beylerbey of Aleppo in July 1604. Aleppo was a particularly wealthy city and the revenues of its province amounted to about 3.6 million akces . Around one year later Huseyn was executed in Van by the order of

4488-696: The Safavid Shah Abbas and the Aleppo Janissaries. Ferdinand sought to reconquer Cyprus for the Christians and had similar designs on the Holy Land , while also seeking commercial ties with Aleppo, the principal outlet for the export of Iranian silk and other commodities to European markets. The Tuscans had also been refused the capitulations and trading rights maintained by the French, English and Venetians with

4590-776: The Sipahis played an important part in the disbandment of the Janissary corps . The Sultan received critical assistance from the loyalist Sipahi cavalry in order to forcefully dismiss the infuriated Janissaries. Two years later, however, they shared a similar fate when Sultan Mahmud II revoked their privileges and dismissed them in favor of a more modern military structure. Unlike the Janissaries before them they retired honorably, peacefully, and without bloodshed into new Ottoman cavalry divisions who followed modern military tradition doctrines. Older sipahis were allowed to retire and keep their tımar lands until they died, and younger sipahis joined

4692-466: The appointment of his enemy as beylerbey there, Sinan Pasha's son Mahmud Pasha. Military assistance from Tuscany in the relatively modest form of five cannons and 1,000 musket barrels was also not slated to arrive for another six to ten months, while a Tuscan attempt to invade Cyprus, partly to support Ali, was repulsed in August. Ali publicly proclaimed in Aleppo that he served only Sultan Ahmed and threatened

4794-488: The armies of Tripoli, Damascus and Hama , and put Yusuf to flight. While Yusuf escaped to Tripoli , the bulk of his allies joined Ali, who financially rewarded them to ensure their loyalty. He proceeded to plunder the countryside of Tripoli. To destroy Yusuf's remaining influence in Syria, Ali formed an alliance with Fakhr al-Din Ma'n , a Druze chieftain in Mount Lebanon and sanjak-bey of Sidon-Beirut and Safad , who

4896-452: The army as rearguards. They acted as reserve cavalry and bodyguards of Ottoman sultan and viziers . Their job included to join and reinforce Ottoman army's flanks which otherwise consisted entirely provincial timariot sipahis. The Sipahis of the Porte (Kapikulu Sipahis) were founded during the reign of Murad I . The Sipahi eventually became the largest of the six divisions of the Ottoman cavalry. Their duties included mounted body-guarding for

4998-475: The best warriors in the Ottoman Empire. Any Ottoman soldier who committed a significant deed on the battlefield could be promoted to the Silahtar division, although normally members of other mounted units, like Timarli Sipahis or one of the other less prestigious of the four divisions of Kapikulu Sipahis, were promoted this way. Infantry soldiers had to enlist as serdengecti (literally means giver of his head) and survive suicide missions to join Silahtar division. If

5100-437: The bulk of the army and did the majority of the fighting on the battlefield. While infantry troops at the army's center maintained a static battle line, the cavalry flanks constituted its mobile striking arm. During battle, Timarli Sipahi tactics were used, opening the conflict with skirmishes and localized skirmishes with enemy cavalry. Regiments of Timarli Sipahis made charges against weaker or isolated units and retreated back to

5202-485: The city's officials surrendered. Ali's loyalists and associates were executed for treason. The forces in the citadel refused to surrender, compelling Murad Pasha to appeal to its inhabitants, especially Ali's wives, to spare themselves of his army's assaults and offer them clemency. A number of Ali's relatives were pardoned, but the rest of his kinsmen and soldiers were executed immediately after they surrendered. Ali sent his paternal uncle Haydar to Constantinople to arrange

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5304-684: The city's suburbs; to avoid Damascus experiencing the same fate, Yusuf and the Damascene authorities, led by the kadi (head judge), and local merchants bribed Ali 125,000 gold piasters to withdraw. Ali agreed and further opened Damascus to free trade with foreign merchants. Meanwhile, Yusuf had escaped and taken refuge in Hisn al-Akrad (Krak des Chevaliers) near Homs . Ali and Fakhr al-Din proceeded north to besiege him, compelling Yusuf to sue for peace. The three leaders formed an alliance sealed by marital ties. Together they held absolute control of Syria, with Ali

5406-497: The city. Although Dervish seized the valuables stockpiled in the inner citadel of Tripoli's castle , Ali strictly forbade the city's plunder in a bid to demonstrate to its inhabitants that his rule would be mild and generous. The minor emirs and sheikhs of Tripoli and its hinterland joined Ali, whose forces swelled to about 60,000 fighters. Yusuf had escaped to Damascus where he raised an army out of its imperial garrisons. On their pursuit of Yusuf, Ali and Fakhr al-Din captured Baalbek ,

5508-463: The devşirme. They made great strides of efforts to gain respect within the Ottoman Empire and their political reputation depended on the mistakes of the Janissary. That minor quarrels erupted between the two units is made evident with a Turkmen adage, still used today within Turkey, " Atlı er başkaldırmaz " , which, referring to the unruly Janissaries, translates into "Horsemen don't mutiny" . Towards

5610-532: The general Jigalazade Sinan Pasha for refusing join the campaign against the Safavids. Ali acted as a stand-in for his uncle Huseyn while the latter was fighting on the Safavid front. He had already established a reputation across Syria as "an experienced leader, an able, generous man" according to Griswold. His rebellion against the Ottoman authorities was expressly launched as a bid to avenge his uncle, whom he declared to have been unjustly executed; he insisted that he

5712-526: The grand vizier "would taste the strength of his army" should he proceed toward his domains. Although an opportunity to attack Murad Pasha's army as it crossed eastward past Misis presented itself to Ali, he left such an opportunity open to Kalenderoglu, not knowing the latter had reconciled with Murad Pasha. Ali determined the most favorable place to assault the grand vizier was the mountain pass of Bakras , where he dispatched his sekban to fortify themselves. Murad Pasha departed Adana in late September, crossed

5814-709: The grand vizier and offering to meet him, which Murad Pasha rejected. The two armies encountered at Oruç Ovasi (the Meadow of the Ritual Fasting), a narrow area opening into a plain bound by mountains to the west and the Afrin River to the east. On the same day, Ali's forces charged against Zulfikar Pasha, whose forces absorbed the assault, before counter-charging. The day ended without a decisive victory for either side, though Ali's men had gained an advantage and demonstrated their strength. The following day Tiryaki Hasan Pasha put to use

5916-650: The grand vizier. Although he was afterward authorized to appoint sanjak-beys to the sanjaks of Aleppo, at that point there was little time for the new district governors to consolidate their position. His appointee to Marash , Haydar Bey, was unable to oust the grand vizier's general Zulfikar Pasha from the post and the latter's forces remained positioned north of the Taurus Mountains against Ali. He also could not rely on his ally Tavilahmedoglu Mehmed, who had been besieged in Baghdad by government forces led by Nasuh Pasha in April–July 1607 and eventually killed. Meanwhile, Ali's domination of Damascus had come to an end in April with

6018-458: The headquarters of a locally powerful Shia Muslim chief and old ally of Yusuf, Musa al-Harfush . They cautiously kept Musa on side, sending him to lobby military factions in Damascus to abandon Yusuf, but forced him to step down from his chieftainship in favor of his kinsman Yunus al-Harfush. They proceeded south through the Beqaa Valley and recruited a certain Ahmad of the Shihab clan based in Wadi al-Taym . Fakhr al-Din maintained his control of

6120-458: The hereditary governorships of the sanjaks of Kilis and Ma'arra . According to the historian William Griswold, the hereditary appointments to the militarily strategic and lucrative posts were "generous and represented considerable respect" by the Sublime Porte (imperial Ottoman government in Constantinople ) for Janbulad. He built at least one Sunni Muslim mosque in Kilis in 1562 before his governorship, and he or one of his family members built

6222-516: The holder to the style Pasha (lower ranks were styled Bey or merely Effendi ): If a Pasha governed a provincial territory , it could be called a pashaluk after his military title, besides the administrative term for the type of jurisdiction, e.g. eyalet , vilayet/walayah . Both beylerbeys (governors-general) and valis/wālis (the most common type of Governor) were entitled to the style of Pasha (typically with two tails). The word pashalik designated any province or other jurisdiction of

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6324-400: The imperial army's field artillery, hiding the batteries behind the slopes of Oruç Ovasi. He had the imperial infantry and cavalry feign a slow retreat, thereby encouraging Ali's sekbans to pursue them on the field and expose them to the fire of the hidden artillery. Ali lost significant numbers of soldiers in the artillery barrage, while Murad Pasha's Rumeli cavalry and reserve troops launched

6426-593: The inner Citadel of Aleppo with two years-worth of food and supplies. Ali fled toward al-Bira with 2,000 men, hoping to link with the sons of Tavilahmedoglu Mehmed. They lost their power in Mesopotamia, however, and Ali's hope failed to materialize while his offer to join the Safavid shah was rebuffed. As Murad Pasha made his way toward Kilis and Aleppo, Ali attempted to seek the assistance of Sultan Ahmed. Murad Pasha confiscated Ali's lands and money in Kilis and appointed officers to posts once filled by Ali's loyalists. He arrived outside of Aleppo on 8 November and soon after,

6528-410: The late 16th century. The revolts were precipitated by economic pressures in rural Anatolia stemming from overpopulation, a significant drop in the value of local silver and subsequent inflation, the inability of graduates from madrasas to find employment combined with the increasing availability of muskets among the peasantry. They posed a major challenge for the government, which was unable to suppress

6630-409: The latter meaning 'elder brother' and being a title given to some Ottoman provincial officials and janissaries . As first used in western Europe, the title appeared in writing with an initial b . The English forms bashaw , bassaw , bucha , etc., general in the 16th and 17th century, derive through the medieval Latin and Italian word bassa . Due to the Ottoman presence in the Arab world ,

6732-553: The main body of troops whenever confronted with heavy cavalry. During one regiment's retreat, other regiments of sipahis may have charged the chasing enemy's flanks. Such tactics served to draw enemy cavalry away from infantry support, break their cohesion, and isolate and overwhelm them with numerical superiority. Anatolian Sipahis had the ability to harass and provoke opposing troops with arrow shots. More heavily equipped Balkan Sipahis carried javelins for protection against enemy horsemen during their tactical retreats. All cavalry flanks of

6834-422: The members of two Ulufeci divisions weren't granted timar fiefs. Garip means "poor ones" (because their equipment was lighter compared to the other four divisions) and were paid salaries. The six divisions of Sipahis represented the Kapikulu cavalry in the same way that the Janissaries represented the Kapikulu infantry. Kapikulu means servant of the Porte. Servants of the Porte (Kapikullari) were legally servants of

6936-466: The middle of the 16th century, the Janissaries had started to gain more importance in the army, though the Sipahis remained an important factor in the empire's bureaucracy, economy and politics, and a crucial aspect of disciplined leadership within the army. As late as the 17th century, the Sipahis were, together with their rivals the Janissaries, the de facto rulers in the early years of sultan Murad IV 's reign. In 1826, after an evident Janissary revolt

7038-475: The palace and a close personal aide of the sultan, helping him to don his armor. He was also a liaison officer who supervised the communication between the sultan and the grand vizier . The Sipahi division was the most prestigious of the six divisions. Traditionally, sons of Ottoman élite (sons of Vezirs, Pashas and Beys) served in this unit. The Sipahis and Silahtars were granted timar fiefs near Istanbul, alongside their salaries. Ulufeci means "salaried ones", and

7140-413: The pashas" for having produced the largest number of nobles holding this title under the Muhammad Ali dynasty and was noted in Egyptian media in 2014 as one of the main "families that rule Egypt" to this day, and as "deeply rooted in Egyptian society and… in the history of the country." As an honorific, the title pasha was an aristocratic title and could be hereditary or non-hereditary, stipulated in

7242-408: The people in their timar, enlisting and training cebelu soldiers for the army. A timar was the smallest unit of land held by a Sipahi, providing a yearly revenue of no more than 20,000 akçe , which was between two and four times what a teacher earned. A ziamet ( زعامت ) was a larger unit of land, yielding up to 100,000 akçe, and was owned by Sipahis of officer rank. A has ( خاص )

7344-472: The plains of Kirikan or east banks of the Afrin River where the grand vizier's field artillery was most effective. Ali encamped with about 25,000 of his sekbans and other cavalries in the wide Amik Valley near Lake Amik . Zulfikar's patrols engaged with Ali's troops for three days while the grand vizier's army rested until 23 October when clashes culminated into a pitched battle. Although Ali's men killed

7446-580: The post and accumulated debts. Not long after Yerevan, the Porte dismissed Huseyn and Habib from their Kilis and Ma'arra posts for unclear reasons, reassigning control of Kilis to a certain Kurd, Dev Sulayman. The authorities imprisoned Huseyn in Aleppo and sold his assets at a low price to pay back his debts and diminish his strength. Upon his release Huseyn returned to Kilis and with his musketeers drove out Dev Suleyman and reclaimed his former hereditary lands. By 1600 he had accrued significant wealth and influence with

7548-437: The rebel beylerbey of Karaman . Upon arriving at Konya the grand vizier informed troops the target of the campaign was Ali and the speed and severity of their march deep through Celali rebel territory was to avoid Ali's detection and counterattacks by him or his Celali allies. Although the prospect of a winter campaign was daunting, spending the winter months in temperate Aleppo encouraged his troops. He temporarily neutralized

7650-436: The restoration of Kiwan ibn Abdullah to his Janissary post–all of Ali's requests were rejected, though he demonstrated to his allies among the southern Syrian emirs and chieftains the benefits of his rule. Meanwhile, Ali issued excuses for his failure to remit taxes and continued to publicly assert his allegiance to the Ottoman sultan, whose government, unable at the time to rein in Ali's power, sent an envoy named Mehmed Agha with

7752-592: The revolts effectively. The government adopted a strategy in 1600 of temporarily accommodating rebel leaders through bribes or official appointments while making preparations to neutralize them. Ali had maintained friendly ties with certain Celali rebel leaders, including Cemsid Bey of Tarsus , who had taken control of Adana and its vicinity, and Tavil Bey of Bozok , who was a recipient of Ali's financial aid. The Celali leader Tavilahmedoglu Mahmud, who controlled Baghdad Eyalet , made common cause with Ali. Ali saw in Baghdad

7854-603: The root of the Persian word shah , شاه . According to Oxford Dictionaries, the Turkish word from which it was borrowed was formed as a result of the combination of the Pahlavi words pati- 'lord', and shah ( 𐭬𐭫𐭪𐭠 ). According to Josef W. Meri and Jere L. Bacharach , the word is "more than likely derived from the Persian Padishah " ( پادشاه ). The same view is held by Nicholas Ostler , who mentions that

7956-427: The small army, dedicated to serving the sultan. The sipahi did not inherit anything, preventing power centres from growing and threatening the supreme power structure. The locals on the timar used the land and all it produced. The "Timarli Sipahi" or "timariot" ( tımarlı ) was the holder of a fief of land ( تيمار tîmâr ) granted directly by the Ottoman sultan or with his official permission by beylerbeys . He

8058-549: The strongest Celali chief of Anatolia, Kalenderoglu Mehmed, by appointing him sanjak-bey of Ankara . Before departing Konya, Murad Pasha sent notice to Ali demanding his loyalty. The grand vizier proceeded toward Adana where he routed the Celali chief and Janbulad ally Cemsid. With his victory he gained control of the Taurus mountain passes, which guarded Ali's north Syrian heartland, and the port of Adana. Ali likely realized upon hearing of Cemsid's defeat his weakened position against

8160-489: The strongest of the three. Nonetheless, Ali's supremacy over the eyalets of Aleppo, Tripoli and Damascus was reliant on his control of the Syrian emirs. Closer to his territorial power base Ali had the absolute loyalty of his Janbulad clan, followed by the Kurdish tribal beys and the nomadic Arabs of Kilis and Azaz . With the prospect of a full-scale civil war brewing in Anatolia and in the face of Ali's practical control of Syria,

8262-432: The sultan and his family, as well as parade-riding with the sultan, having replaced the earlier Silahtar division for this duty. Since Kapikulu Sipahis were a cavalry regiment, it was well known within the Ottoman military circles that they considered themselves a superior stock of soldiers than Janissaries , who were sons of Christian peasants from the Balkans (Rumelia), and were officially slaves bounded by various laws of

8364-491: The ties with Tuscany were likely uncovered by government spies and the failed Tuscan invasion of Chios in 1607 probably riled the new grand vizier, the Empire's most celebrated and feared veteran commander Kuyucu Murad Pasha . The extent to which the Ottomans had become alarmed at Ali's power and alliances compelled them to call a ceasefire with the Habsburgs . Given the approval of Sultan Ahmed I , Murad Pasha kept his plans for

8466-565: The title pasha came into Ottoman usage right after the reign of Osman I (d. 1324), though it had been used before the Ottomans by some Anatolian Turkish rulers of the same era. Old Turkish had no fixed distinction between /b/ and /p/, and the word was spelled başa still in the 15th century. According to Online Etymology Dictionary , the Turkish pasha or basha was itself from Turkish baş  /  bash ( باش 'head, chief'), itself from Old Persian pati- ('master', from Proto-Indo-European * poti ) and

8568-518: The title ( Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [ˈbæːʃæ] ) came to be used in Egypt, which was conquered by the Ottomans in 1517. The rise to power in Egypt in 1805 by Muhammad Ali , an Albanian military commander, effectively established Egypt as a de facto independent state , however, it still owed technical fealty to the Ottoman Sultan. Moreover, Muhammad Ali harboured ambitions of supplanting

8670-539: The title Pasha were often referred to as "Your Excellency". The sons of a Pasha were styled Pashazada or Pashazade . In modern Egyptian and (to a lesser extent) Levantine Arabic , it is used as an honorific closer to "Sir" than "Lord", especially by older people. Among Egyptians born since the Revolution of 1952 and the abolition of aristocratic titles, it is considered a highly formal way of addressing one's male peers. The Republican Turkish authorities abolished

8772-611: The title became used frequently in Arabic , though pronounced basha due to the absence of the /p/ sound in Arabic. Within the Ottoman Empire , the Sultan had the right to bestow the title of Pasha . Lucy Mary Jane Garnett wrote in the 1904 work Turkish Life in Town and Country that it was the sole "Turkish title which carries with it any definite rank and precedence". It was through this custom that

8874-863: The title circa the 1930s. Although it is no longer an official title, high-ranking officers of the Turkish Armed Forces are often referred to as "pashas" by the Turkish public and media. In the French Navy , "pasha" ( pacha in French) is the nickname of the Commanding Officer , similar to the term "skipper" in the Anglophone navies. The inclusion criterion is that the person held the rank of "pasha" in his society Sipahi The sipahi ( Persian : سپاهی sipâhi , Turkish pronunciation: [sipaːhi] ) were professional cavalrymen deployed by

8976-517: The weakening and eventual destruction of the Ottoman Empire, the strengthening of the Janbulad dynasty and recognition of Ali as "Prince and Protector of the Kingdom of Syria". It mandated a special status for the Tuscans in Syria, including free trade with Iskenderun, authorization for their sale of pirated goods, Tuscan residency rights throughout Syria and their subjects' governance by Florentine law. Janbulad

9078-411: The word was formed as a shortening of the Persian word padishah . Jean Deny also attributed its origin to padishah , while repeating a suggestion by Gerhard Doerfer that it was influenced by Turkic baskak ( bāsqāq ), meaning 'agent, tax collector'. Some theories have posited a Turkish or Turkic origin of the word, claiming it derived from başağa ( bāş āghā ), which denoted

9180-406: Was plated mail , chainmail, round shield, sword , composite bow, arrows, lance, bozdogan mace and axe. Their equipment was similar to Rumeli (Balkan) provincial Timarli Sipahis, though they wore brilliant fabrics, prominent hats and bore ornamented polearms. The two Garip divisions were more lightly equipped. In the classical period Ottoman battle formation, Kapikulu Sipahis were positioned back of

9282-698: Was Yusuf's in-law and principal rival. One of the commanders of the Damascus Janissaries , Kiwan ibn Abdullah, seeking to undermine a rival Damascene commander, encouraged Fakhr al-Din to accept's Ali entreaty. Ali and Fakhr al-Din met in the northeastern Beqaa Valley , at the source of the Orontes River , and devised plans to capture or kill Yusuf. Their first target was Tripoli, the principal source of Yusuf's wealth and strength, against which Ali dispatched his paternal first cousin Dervish ibn Habib, who captured

9384-423: Was a way of life. The timar system, where the sultan owned all land but individual plots of land, came with residential rights. The Ottoman people had rights to the land but the sipahi , a unique kind of military aristocracy and cavalry portion of the military, also lived on the land with the farmers (90% of the population) and collected tax revenues, usually in-kind, to subsidize the costs of training and equipping

9486-476: Was adamant to bring Ali to Constantinople to prevent his potential stirrings of the Celalis in Anatolia and sent a palace kethuda to summon Haydar and a ship to bring Ali's other envoys to the capital by sea. Once Ali's representatives were notified of Ali's pardon, they returned by ship to Iznikmid with a palace official to meet and transport Ali to the capital. He arrived there on 16 January 1608 to large crowds and

9588-411: Was appointed beylerbey (provincial governor) of Aleppo Eyalet, the first Kurd to attain the rank of beylerbey in Ottoman history and the first local to be appointed governor of Aleppo. In 1585 he was the lieutenant commander of Grand Vizier Sinan Pasha during the capture of Yerevan from the Safavid shah Mohammad Khodabanda . During his governorship Huseyn likely struggled against rivals seeking

9690-470: Was at war with Austria - Hungary in the west and Safavid Iran in the east. The prospect of a foreign-backed, wide-scale rebellion in the Ottoman heartland prompted Grand Vizier Kuyucu Murad Pasha to launch an expedition against Ali. The latter publicly maintained his loyalty to Sultan Ahmed I throughout his rebellion and his practical control of Aleppo was formalized with his appointment as beylerbey in September 1606. Murad Pasha's campaign against Ali

9792-523: Was entitled to all of the income from that land, in return for military service. The peasants on the land were subsequently attached thereto. Timarli Sipahis' status resembled that of the knights of medieval Europe . Unlike medieval knights, they were not legally owners of their fiefs. The right to govern and collect taxes in a timar fief was merely given to a Timarli Sipahi by the Ottoman State. And in return, tımarli sipahis were responsible for security of

9894-449: Was not revolting against the sultan, but rather fighting as a loyal subject against the sultan's advisers and viziers—not least Jigalazade Sinan Pasha—whom he collectively accused of injustice. His cause for revenge gained wide currency among his Kurdish tribal kin and more generally throughout Syria. He engaged in a six-month struggle against local opponents in northern Syria and became the unofficial power in Aleppo. In May 1606 he had lodged

9996-583: Was ostensibly directed against the Safavids to avoid Ali's mobilization; the latter realized he was the grand vizier's target only when Murad Pasha's army routed his Celali allies in Cilicia and approached his north Syrian domains. The grand vizier's army of Rumeli and Anatolian troops routed and mass executed Ali's rebel sekbans (musketeers) at the Amik Valley in October 1607, but Ali escaped, first to Aleppo then to

10098-612: Was received by the sultan. While the sultan deliberated and questioned Ali for about a week, he resided in the former home of Grand Vizier Dervish Pasha. Upon the sultan's inquiry for why Ali rebelled, the latter replied "I am no rebel. But around me gathered evil ones, from whom I could not escape, so that I led them in their revenge against your troops. Now I am in flight as one laden with guilt. If you forgive, then it will be worthy of you; if you punish, you will surely be within your rights". Sultan Ahmed pardoned Ali and after an unknown period of time appointed him beylerbey of Temeşvar in

10200-533: Was required by the treaty to assist a European conquest of Jerusalem and recognize the city's Christian denominational redirection to Roman Catholicism from the Eastern churches. The Tuscans also called for tax exemptions for Christian pilgrims compensated by Tuscany and permission for the construction of a Roman Catholic church in Aleppo. European signatories would include Ferdinand, Pope Paul V and King Philip III, among other Christian royals and pontiffs. Ali boasted to

10302-598: Was the grandson of Janbulad ibn Qasim al-Kurdi (d. 1572), the sanjak-bey (district governor) of Kilis , part of Aleppo Eyalet . Janbulad suppressed brigandage in the district and took part in the 1571 Ottoman conquest of Cyprus during the war with Venice (1570–1573). He belonged to a family of Kurdish tribal chieftains based in the Kurd-Dagh (Kurd Mountains) west of Kilis and Aleppo . The family name Janbulad translates from Kurdish as "soul of steel". Janbulad and his family were rewarded for their military achievements with

10404-407: Was the largest unit of land, giving revenues of more than 100,000 akçe, and was only held by the highest-ranking members of the military. A tîmâr Sipahi was obliged to provide the army with up to five armed retainers ( cebelu ), a ziamet Sipahi with up to twenty, and a has Sipahi with far more than twenty. The cebelu (meaning "armed, armored") were expected to be mounted and fully equipped as

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