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110-616: James Muspratt (12 August 1793 – 4 May 1886) was a British chemical manufacturer who was the first to make alkali by the Leblanc process on a large scale in the United Kingdom. James Muspratt was born in Dublin of English parents, the youngest of three children. At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to a wholesale druggist , but his father died in 1810 and his mother soon afterwards. He left Dublin and in 1812 he went to Spain to take part in

220-452: A chemical reaction form a chemical compound . All compounds are substances, but not all substances are compounds. A chemical compound can be either atoms bonded together in molecules or crystals in which atoms, molecules or ions form a crystalline lattice . Compounds based primarily on carbon and hydrogen atoms are called organic compounds , and all others are called inorganic compounds . Compounds containing bonds between carbon and

330-660: A database and is popularly known as the Chemical substances index. Other computer-friendly systems that have been developed for substance information are: SMILES and the International Chemical Identifier or InChI. Often a pure substance needs to be isolated from a mixture , for example from a natural source (where a sample often contains numerous chemical substances) or after a chemical reaction (which often gives mixtures of chemical substances). Stoichiometry ( / ˌ s t ɔɪ k i ˈ ɒ m ɪ t r i / )

440-574: A mixture , referencing them in the chemical substances index allows CAS to offer specific guidance on standard naming of alloy compositions. Non-stoichiometric compounds are another special case from inorganic chemistry , which violate the requirement for constant composition. For these substances, it may be difficult to draw the line between a mixture and a compound, as in the case of palladium hydride . Broader definitions of chemicals or chemical substances can be found, for example: "the term 'chemical substance' means any organic or inorganic substance of

550-618: A "ligand". However, the center does not need to be a metal, as exemplified by boron trifluoride etherate BF 3 OEt 2 , where the highly Lewis acidic , but non-metallic boron center takes the role of the "metal". If the ligand bonds to the metal center with multiple atoms, the complex is called a chelate . In organic chemistry, there can be more than one chemical compound with the same composition and molecular weight. Generally, these are called isomers . Isomers usually have substantially different chemical properties, and often may be isolated without spontaneously interconverting. A common example

660-508: A cautious, yet authoritarian policy aiming at the prevention of the occurrence of yet another rebellion. Over half of the delegates elected to parliament in the liberal atmosphere of 1848 were arrested or fled the country. The administration, in their treatment of political prisoners, in their observation of 'suspicious elements', violated the rights of the individual guaranteed by the constitution. Conditions were so bad that they caused international attention; in 1856 Britain and France demanded

770-416: A chemical reaction takes place and a new substance is formed, the compound iron(II) sulfide , with chemical formula FeS. The resulting compound has all the properties of a chemical substance and is not a mixture. Iron(II) sulfide has its own distinct properties such as melting point and solubility , and the two elements cannot be separated using normal mechanical processes; a magnet will be unable to recover

880-450: A chemical works in partnership with Thomas Abbott. Here he began to manufacture chemical products such as hydrochloric and acetic acids and turpentine , adding prussiate of potash a few years later. Sodium carbonate , also known as soda ash, is an effective industrial alkali . The manufacture of sodium carbonate from common salt was first developed in France in the 1790s and known as

990-505: A daughter of Empress Maria Theresa , on 12 May 1768. Initially dominated by the dual influence of the great powers Spain and Austria, Naples-Sicily - particularly in the course of the French Revolutionary Wars from 1792 onwards - became increasingly dependent on the naval power Great Britain in order to defend itself against the new European superpower France . The Treaty of Casalanza restored Ferdinand IV of Bourbon to

1100-477: A low water supply due to the lack of public investment in the construction of pipes, which also means that most private houses do not have toilets. Paved roads are rare, except in the area around Naples or on the main roads of the country, and they are often flooded and have many potholes. Moreover, most rural inhabitants often live in small old towns which, due to lack of social expenditure, become unhealthy, allowing many infectious diseases to spread rapidly. While

1210-436: A metal are called organometallic compounds . Compounds in which components share electrons are known as covalent compounds. Compounds consisting of oppositely charged ions are known as ionic compounds, or salts . Coordination complexes are compounds where a dative bond keeps the substance together without a covalent or ionic bond. Coordination complexes are distinct substances with distinct properties different from

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1320-560: A new and larger theatre to replace the old, dilapidated, and too-small Teatro San Bartolomeo of 1621. Which had served the city well, especially after Scarlatti had moved there in 1682 and had begun to create an important opera centre which existed well into the 1700s. Thus, the San Carlo was inaugurated on 4 November 1737, the king's name day , with the performance of Domenico Sarro 's opera Achille in Sciro and much admired for its architecture

1430-462: A particular molecular identity, including – (i) any combination of such substances occurring in whole or in part as a result of a chemical reaction or occurring in nature". In the field of geology , inorganic solid substances of uniform composition are known as minerals . When two or more minerals are combined to form mixtures (or aggregates ), they are defined as rocks . Many minerals, however, mutually dissolve into solid solutions , such that

1540-437: A separate chemical substance. However, the polymer may be defined by a known precursor or reaction(s) and the molar mass distribution . For example, polyethylene is a mixture of very long chains of -CH 2 - repeating units, and is generally sold in several molar mass distributions, LDPE , MDPE , HDPE and UHMWPE . The concept of a "chemical substance" became firmly established in the late eighteenth century after work by

1650-400: A simple mixture. Typically these have a metal, such as a copper ion, in the center and a nonmetals atom, such as the nitrogen in an ammonia molecule or oxygen in water in a water molecule, forms a dative bond to the metal center, e.g. tetraamminecopper(II) sulfate [Cu(NH 3 ) 4 ]SO 4 ·H 2 O. The metal is known as a "metal center" and the substance that coordinates to the center is called

1760-479: A single chemical substance ( allotropes ). For instance, oxygen exists as both diatomic oxygen (O 2 ) and ozone (O 3 ). The majority of elements are classified as metals . These are elements with a characteristic lustre such as iron , copper , and gold . Metals typically conduct electricity and heat well, and they are malleable and ductile . Around 14 to 21 elements, such as carbon , nitrogen , and oxygen , are classified as non-metals . Non-metals lack

1870-430: A single manufacturing process. For example, charcoal is an extremely complex, partially polymeric mixture that can be defined by its manufacturing process. Therefore, although the exact chemical identity is unknown, identification can be made with a sufficient accuracy. The CAS index also includes mixtures. Polymers almost always appear as mixtures of molecules of multiple molar masses, each of which could be considered

1980-723: A single rock is a uniform substance despite being a mixture in stoichiometric terms. Feldspars are a common example: anorthoclase is an alkali aluminum silicate, where the alkali metal is interchangeably either sodium or potassium. In law, "chemical substances" may include both pure substances and mixtures with a defined composition or manufacturing process. For example, the EU regulation REACH defines "monoconstituent substances", "multiconstituent substances" and "substances of unknown or variable composition". The latter two consist of multiple chemical substances; however, their identity can be established either by direct chemical analysis or reference to

2090-498: A substitute in iron pyrites which was introduced as the raw material for the manufacture of sulphuric acid . Muspratt had been one of the original subscribers to the St Helens and Runcorn Gap Railway in 1833 when he purchased 15 shares at £100 each. In 1819 he married Julia Josephine Connor with whom he had ten children, three of whom died in infancy. He built a house, Seaforth Hall on dunes at Seaforth . In 1825 he helped to found

2200-495: A technical specification instead of particular chemical substances. For example, gasoline is not a single chemical compound or even a particular mixture: different gasolines can have very different chemical compositions, as "gasoline" is primarily defined through source, properties and octane rating . Every chemical substance has one or more systematic names , usually named according to the IUPAC rules for naming . An alternative system

2310-442: A yellow-grey mixture. No chemical process occurs, and the material can be identified as a mixture by the fact that the sulfur and the iron can be separated by a mechanical process, such as using a magnet to attract the iron away from the sulfur. In contrast, if iron and sulfur are heated together in a certain ratio (1 atom of iron for each atom of sulfur, or by weight, 56 grams (1 mol ) of iron to 32 grams (1 mol) of sulfur),

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2420-436: Is glucose vs. fructose . The former is an aldehyde , the latter is a ketone . Their interconversion requires either enzymatic or acid-base catalysis . However, tautomers are an exception: the isomerization occurs spontaneously in ordinary conditions, such that a pure substance cannot be isolated into its tautomers, even if these can be identified spectroscopically or even isolated in special conditions. A common example

2530-704: Is glucose , which has open-chain and ring forms. One cannot manufacture pure open-chain glucose because glucose spontaneously cyclizes to the hemiacetal form. All matter consists of various elements and chemical compounds, but these are often intimately mixed together. Mixtures contain more than one chemical substance, and they do not have a fixed composition. Butter , soil and wood are common examples of mixtures. Sometimes, mixtures can be separated into their component substances by mechanical processes, such as chromatography , distillation , or evaporation . Grey iron metal and yellow sulfur are both chemical elements, and they can be mixed together in any ratio to form

2640-592: Is a chemical substance made up of a particular kind of atom and hence cannot be broken down or transformed by a chemical reaction into a different element, though it can be transmuted into another element through a nuclear reaction . This is because all of the atoms in a sample of an element have the same number of protons , though they may be different isotopes , with differing numbers of neutrons . As of 2019, there are 118 known elements, about 80 of which are stable – that is, they do not change by radioactive decay into other elements. Some elements can occur as more than

2750-402: Is an example of complete combustion . Stoichiometry measures these quantitative relationships, and is used to determine the amount of products and reactants that are produced or needed in a given reaction. Describing the quantitative relationships among substances as they participate in chemical reactions is known as reaction stoichiometry . In the example above, reaction stoichiometry measures

2860-417: Is an example of a chemical substance, with a constant composition of two hydrogen atoms bonded to a single oxygen atom (i.e. H 2 O). The atomic ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is always 2:1 in every molecule of water. Pure water will tend to boil near 100 °C (212 °F), an example of one of the characteristic properties that define it. Other notable chemical substances include diamond (a form of

2970-411: Is the relationships among the weights of reactants and products before, during, and following chemical reactions . Stoichiometry is founded on the law of conservation of mass where the total mass of the reactants equals the total mass of the products, leading to the insight that the relations among quantities of reactants and products typically form a ratio of positive integers. This means that if

3080-486: Is used by the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS). Many compounds are also known by their more common, simpler names, many of which predate the systematic name. For example, the long-known sugar glucose is now systematically named 6-(hydroxymethyl)oxane-2,3,4,5-tetrol. Natural products and pharmaceuticals are also given simpler names, for example the mild pain-killer Naproxen is the more common name for

3190-567: The 1830 revolution . In 1829 he had created the Royal Order of Merit (Royal Order of Francis I of the Two Sicilies). His successor Ferdinand II declared a political amnesty and undertook steps to stimulate the economy, including reduction of taxation. Eventually the city of Naples would be equipped with street lighting and in 1839 the railroad from Naples to Portici was put into operation, measures that were visible signs of progress. However, as to

3300-505: The Code Civil , the penal and commercial code, were kept (and extended to Sicily). In the mainland parts of the Kingdom, the power and influence of both nobility and clergy had been greatly reduced, though at the expense of law and order. Brigandage and the forceful occupation of lands were problems the restored Kingdom inherited from its predecessors. The Vienna Congress had granted Austria

3410-653: The French period and which had been outlawed in 1816. In 1820 a revolution planned by Carbonari and their supporters, aimed at obtaining a written constitution (the Spanish constitution of 1812), did not work out as planned. Nevertheless, King Ferdinand felt compelled to grant the constitution sought by the liberals (13 July). That same month, a revolution broke out in Palermo , Sicily, but was quickly suppressed. Rebels from Naples occupied Benevento and Pontecorvo , two enclaves belonging to

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3520-570: The Inquilani (small-farmers) and the Contadini (peasantry), along with 65,225 listed as shepherds . Wheat, wine, olive oil and cotton were the chief products with an annual production, as recorded in 1844, of 67 million liters of olive oil largely produced in Apulia and Calabria and loaded for export at Gallipoli along with 191 million liters of wine that were for the most part consumed domestically. On

3630-628: The Italian Peninsula south of the Papal States . The kingdom was formed when the Kingdom of Sicily merged with the Kingdom of Naples , which was officially also known as the Kingdom of Sicily. Since both kingdoms were named Sicily, they were collectively known as the "Two Sicilies" ( Utraque Sicilia , literally "both Sicilies"), and the unified kingdom adopted this name. The king of the Two Sicilies

3740-544: The Kingdom of Naples , he and his successors never gave up the title King of Sicily and still officially referred to their realm as the Kingdom of Sicily. At the same time, the Aragonese rulers of the Island of Sicily also called their realm the Kingdom of Sicily. Thus, there were two kingdoms called Sicily: hence, when they were reunited, the result was named the Kingdom of Two Sicilies. From 1061 onwards, Norman warriors conquered

3850-403: The Leblanc process . Muspratt was attracted towards manufacturing it, but could not raise the capital for the relatively expensive Leblanc plant and also considered that Dublin was not a suitable location for this. He perceived Merseyside as better because of the neighbouring coal fields, the proximity to the salt district of Cheshire, and the proximity to glassmaking industry. The glassmakers were

3960-910: The Liverpool Institute for Boys and in 1848 he assisted his son James Sheridan to establish the Liverpool College of Practical Chemistry. He died at Seaforth Hall in 1886 and was buried in Walton, Merseyside , parish churchyard. Chemical substance Chemical substances can exist in several different physical states or phases (e.g. solids , liquids , gases , or plasma ) without changing their chemical composition. Substances transition between these phases of matter in response to changes in temperature or pressure . Some chemical substances can be combined or converted into new substances by means of chemical reactions . Chemicals that do not possess this ability are said to be inert . Pure water

4070-697: The Papal States , the Kingdom of Sicily never became part of the Holy Roman Empire . As a result of the escalating conflict between the Hohenstaufen dynasty and the papacy, the French prince Charles of Anjou was elevated to the Sicilian throne by Pope Clement IV in 1265. Charles took power in 1266 through his victory over the Hohenstaufen king Manfred , who had initially administered Sicily as regent for his underage and absent nephew Conradin , but had then assumed

4180-580: The Papal States . At the Congress of Troppau (Nov. 19th), the Holy Alliance ( Metternich being the driving force) decided to intervene. On 23 February 1821, in front of 50,000 Austrian troops paraded outside his capital, King Ferdinand cancelled the constitution. An attempt at Neapolitan resistance to the Austrians by regular forces under General Guglielmo Pepe , as well as by irregular rebel forces (Carbonari),

4290-522: The Peninsular War . He followed the British army on foot into the interior, was laid up with fever at Madrid , and, narrowly escaping capture by the French, succeeded in making his way to Lisbon where he joined the navy. After taking part in the blockade of Brest he deserted because of the harshness of the discipline. Returning to Dublin in about 1814, he came into an inheritance and in 1818 established

4400-646: The Staufer Henry VI , who had married Constance of Sicily in 1186, the daughter of the Norman King Roger II of Sicily and aunt and heiress of the last Norman King William II . Competing counter kings from the Norman ruling family were finally eliminated by military force. When Henry VI died unexpectedly in 1197 at the age of 32, Constance took over the rule of the Sicilian kingdom as regent for her son. He had been elected German King as Frederick II in 1196 at

4510-619: The Teatro di San Carlo in Naples on 30 May 1826. The kingdom had a large population, its capital Naples being the biggest city in Italy, at least three times as large as any other contemporary Italian state . At its peak, the kingdom had a military 100,000 soldiers strong, and a large bureaucracy . Naples was the largest city in the kingdom and the third largest city in Europe. The second largest city, Palermo,

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4620-550: The 1830s he had experimented in producing sodium carbonate alkali by the ammonia-soda process but was unsuccessful. In 1834–1835, in conjunction with Charles Tennant , he purchased sulphur mines in Sicily , to provide the raw material for the sulphuric acid needed for the Leblanc process. However, when the Neapolitan government imposed a prohibitive duty on sulphur, Muspratt found

4730-511: The Aragonese heir to the throne, John II (1458–1479), was only recognized in Sicily, but not in Naples, where Ferdinand (Ferrante, 1458–1494) , an illegitimate son of Alfonso V, seized power in 1458. However, his descendants lost Naples in 1495, first to the French king Charles VIII , who claimed the old Anjou throne rights for himself, and at the end of the wars triggered by this in 1501/04 to King Ferdinand V of Aragon and Sicily (1479–1516). Due to

4840-511: The Austrians were harassed here by Spanish troops who supported the claims of the Duke of Parma and Spanish Infante Charles to Naples and Sicily and were victorious at Bitonto in 1734. Infante Charles of the House of Bourbon ruled both Sicily from 1735 to 1759, until he became King of Spain. He was the first king of Naples and Sicily in over 230 years to live and rule there personally. The center of power

4950-481: The Fonderia Ferdinandea was a large foundry where cast iron was produced. The Reali ferriere ed Officine di Mongiana was an iron foundry and weapons factory. Founded in 1770, it employed 1600 workers in 1860 and closed in 1880. In Sicily (near Catania and Agrigento ), sulfur was mined to make gunpowder . The Sicilian mines were able to satisfy most of the global demand for sulfur. Silk cloth production

5060-613: The Hohenstaufen king Manfred, to king of the island. The old Norman-Staufer kingdom was since then - despite mutual claims to power - effectively divided into the Aragonese Kingdom of Sicily and the Kingdom of Naples ruled by the Angevins. In the Peace of Caltabellotta 1302 , the Aragonese king Frederick III of Sicily and the Angevin king Charles II of Naples recognized each other's rule, but

5170-523: The Italian unification, the railway development was highly limited. In the year 1859, the kingdom had only 99 kilometers of rail, compared to the 850 kilometers of Piedmont . Other achievements included the first volcano observatory in the world, l'Osservatorio Vesuviano (1841). The rails for the first Italian railways were built in Mongiana , Calabria , as well. All the rails of the old railways that went from

5280-549: The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was most efficiently conducted by sea. The kingdom possessed the largest merchant fleet in the Mediterranean. Urban road conditions, compared to Northern Italy, did not comply with the best European standards; by 1839, the main streets of Naples were gas-lit. Efforts were made to tackle the tough mountainous terrain; Ferdinand II built the cliff-top road along the Sorrentine peninsula. Road conditions in

5390-446: The San Carlo was now the biggest opera house in the world. On 13 February 1816 a fire broke out during a dress-rehearsal for a ballet performance and quickly spread to destroy a part of the building. On the orders of King Ferdinand I, who used the services of Antonio Niccolini , to rebuild the opera house within ten months as a traditional horseshoe-shaped auditorium with 1,444 seats, and a proscenium, 33.5m wide and 30m high. The stage

5500-522: The San Carlo. An offer in 1822 from Domenico Barbaja , the impresario of the San Carlo , which followed the composer's ninth opera, led to Gaetano Donizetti 's move to Naples and his residency there which lasted until the production of Caterina Cornaro in January 1844. In all, Naples presented 51 of Donizetti's operas. Also Vincenzo Bellini 's first professionally staged opera had its first performance at

5610-466: The Swiss Guard, took the initiative and ordered the suppression of the revolution in Naples (15 May) and by July the mainland was again under royal control and by September, also Messina . Palermo, the revolutionaries' capital and last stronghold, fell to the government some months later on 15 May 1849. The Kingdom of Two Sicilies, over the course of 1848–1849, had been able to suppress the revolution and

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5720-677: The Two Sicilies ( Italian : Regno delle Due Sicilie ) was a kingdom in Southern Italy from 1816 to 1861 under the control of the House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies , a cadet branch of the Bourbons . The kingdom was the largest sovereign state by population and land area in Italy before the Italian unification , comprising Sicily and most of the area of today's Mezzogiorno ( southern Italy ) and covering all of

5830-717: The Two Sicilies was the land forces of the Kingdom, it was created by the settlement of the Bourbon dynasty in Southern Italy following the events of the War of the Polish Succession . The army collapsed during the Expedition of the Thousand . The Real Marina was the naval forces of the Kingdom. It was the most important of the pre-unification Italian navies. A major problem in the Kingdom

5940-479: The age of two, but was no longer recognized as such after the death of his father. In 1212, at the instigation of the Pope Innocent III , he finally became German king, initially as an anti-king to Otto IV , and in 1220 he was crowned emperor. Frederick II (Frederick I of Sicily) rarely stayed on German soil, but ruled his empire from southern Italy. In contrast to the (Lombard-Tuscan) Kingdom of Italy north of

6050-532: The amounts of the separate reactants are known, then the amount of the product can be calculated. Conversely, if one reactant has a known quantity and the quantity of the products can be empirically determined, then the amount of the other reactants can also be calculated. This is illustrated in the image here, where the balanced equation is: Here, one molecule of methane reacts with two molecules of oxygen gas to yield one molecule of carbon dioxide and two molecules of water . This particular chemical equation

6160-478: The ancient name "Trinacria" was chosen for the island, while the title "King of Sicily" remained associated with Neapolitan rule, so that there were now two kingdoms called Sicily. A brief "reunification" took place from Sicily, when in 1442 the Aragonese-Sicilian king Alfonso V also brought the Kingdom of Naples under his rule. With Alfonso's death, this southern Italian personal union dissolved again, since

6270-498: The application, but higher tolerance of impurities is usually expected in the production of bulk chemicals. Thus, the user of the chemical in the US might choose between the bulk or "technical grade" with higher amounts of impurities or a much purer "pharmaceutical grade" (labeled "USP", United States Pharmacopeia ). "Chemicals" in the commercial and legal sense may also include mixtures of highly variable composition, as they are products made to

6380-522: The attempt of Sicilian secession with their own forces, hired Swiss Guards included. The war declared on Austria in April 1848, under pressure of public sentiment, had been an event on paper only. In 1849 King Ferdinand II was 39 years old. He had begun as a reformer; the early death of his wife (1836), the frequency of political unrest, the extent and range of political expectations on the side of various groups that made up public opinion, had caused him to pursue

6490-473: The bourgeoisie, at times revolutionary, had been Neapolitan respectively Sicilian rather than Italian in its tendency; Sicily in 1848–1849 had striven for a higher degree of independence from Naples rather than for a unified Italy. As public sentiment for Italian unification was rather low in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the country did not feature as an object of acquisition in the earlier plans of Piemont-Sardinia's prime minister Cavour . Only when Austria

6600-408: The chemical combination of the known chemical elements. As of Feb 2021, about "177 million organic and inorganic substances" (including 68 million defined-sequence biopolymers) are in the scientific literature and registered in public databases. The names of many of these compounds are often nontrivial and hence not very easy to remember or cite accurately. Also, it is difficult to keep track of them in

6710-451: The chemical compound (S)-6-methoxy-α-methyl-2-naphthaleneacetic acid. Chemists frequently refer to chemical compounds using chemical formulae or molecular structure of the compound. There has been a phenomenal growth in the number of chemical compounds being synthesized (or isolated), and then reported in the scientific literature by professional chemists around the world. An enormous number of chemical compounds are possible through

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6820-460: The chemical industry, manufactured "chemicals" are chemical substances, which can be classified by production volume into bulk chemicals, fine chemicals and chemicals found in research only: The cause of the difference in production volume is the complexity of the molecular structure of the chemical. Bulk chemicals are usually much less complex. While fine chemicals may be more complex, many of them are simple enough to be sold as "building blocks" in

6930-402: The chemical substances of which fruits and vegetables, for example, are naturally composed even when growing wild are not called "chemicals" in general usage. In countries that require a list of ingredients in products, the "chemicals" listed are industrially produced "chemical substances". The word "chemical" is also often used to refer to addictive, narcotic, or mind-altering drugs. Within

7040-419: The chemist Joseph Proust on the composition of some pure chemical compounds such as basic copper carbonate . He deduced that, "All samples of a compound have the same composition; that is, all samples have the same proportions, by mass, of the elements present in the compound." This is now known as the law of constant composition . Later with the advancement of methods for chemical synthesis particularly in

7150-662: The dynastic union in 1494 between the Habsburgs and the houses of Aragon and Castile, Naples and Sicily also fell to Charles V in 1516. With the extinction of the Spanish Habsburgs in 1700, Naples and Sicily were caught up in the turmoil of the War of the Spanish Succession . After initial rule by the Bourbons , who now ruled in Spain , Central Italy was occupied by Austria in 1707/08, whose Habsburg line also laid claim to

7260-531: The element carbon ), table salt (NaCl; an ionic compound ), and refined sugar (C 12 H 22 O 11 ; an organic compound ). In addition to the generic definition offered above, there are several niche fields where the term "chemical substance" may take alternate usages that are widely accepted, some of which are outlined in the sections below. Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) lists several alloys of uncertain composition within their chemical substance index. While an alloy could be more closely defined as

7370-616: The fortified port of Gaeta , where he surrendered and abdicated in February 1861 after the Siege of Gaeta . At the encounter of Teano , Garibaldi met King Victor Emmanuel , transferring to him the conquered kingdom, the Two Sicilies were annexed into the Kingdom of Sardinia , which became the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. The Real Teatro di San Carlo was commissioned by the Bourbon King Charles VII of Naples who wanted to grant Naples

7480-398: The idea of stereoisomerism – that atoms have rigid three-dimensional structure and can thus form isomers that differ only in their three-dimensional arrangement – was another crucial step in understanding the concept of distinct chemical substances. For example, tartaric acid has three distinct isomers, a pair of diastereomers with one diastereomer forming two enantiomers . An element

7590-616: The influence of the Roman Catholic Church. When this assertive monarch became King of Spain in 1759, he had to cede his former empire to his younger son Ferdinand IV , who founded the Bourbon-Sicily collateral line, because this crown could not be united with Naples-Sicily according to international treaties. This line was united with the Austrian Habsburgs through the marriage of Ferdinand IV and Maria Carolina of Austria ,

7700-656: The interior and hinterland areas of the kingdom made internal trade difficult. The kingdom achieved several scientific and technological accomplishments, such as the first steamboat in the Mediterranean Sea (1818), built in the shipyard of Stanislao Filosa at the Vigliena dock, near Naples, the first railway in the Italian peninsula (1839), which connected Naples to Portici , and the first iron-suspension bridge (the Real Ferdinando Bridge ) in Italy. However, until

7810-414: The iron, since there is no metallic iron present in the compound. While the term chemical substance is a precise technical term that is synonymous with chemical for chemists, the word chemical is used in general usage to refer to both (pure) chemical substances and mixtures (often called compounds ), and especially when produced or purified in a laboratory or an industrial process. In other words,

7920-419: The island of Sicily, in 1839, due to less arable lands, the output was much smaller than on the mainland yet approximately 115,000 acres of vineyards and about 260,000 acres of orchards , mainly fig, orange and citrus, were cultivated. One of the most important industrial complexes in the kingdom was the shipyard of Castellammare di Stabia , which employed 1800 workers. The engineering factory of Pietrarsa

8030-515: The island of Sicily, which had been ruled by the Saracens since 827. The conqueror Roger I became Count of Sicily and Calabria . His son Roger II also inherited the Duchy of Apulia . In 1131 this became the Kingdom of Sicily. Through further conquests, Roger II was able to expand his sphere of influence over all of Lower Italy as far as the Papal States . The previously Norman Kingdom of Sicily fell to

8140-401: The kingdom however had no obligation for school attendance nor a recognizable school system. Clerics could inspect schools and had a veto power over appointments of teachers who were for the most part from the clergy anyhow. In 1859, for a population of 9 million inhabitants, there were only 2,010 primary schools with 67,428 pupils and 3,171 teachers. At the time of unification the literacy rate

8250-557: The kingdom. The peace treaties of 1713/14 ( Utrecht / Rastatt ) left the Kingdom of Naples with Austria , but assigned the Kingdom of Sicily to Victor Amadeus of Savoy , who exchanged it with the Habsburgs in 1720 for the Sardinia . Since then, people have spoken of "Naples-Sicily". Until 1735, the Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily were now ruled by Austria. In the War of the Polish Succession

8360-425: The large number of chemical substances reported in chemistry literature need to be indexed. Isomerism caused much consternation to early researchers, since isomers have exactly the same composition, but differ in configuration (arrangement) of the atoms. For example, there was much speculation about the chemical identity of benzene , until the correct structure was described by Friedrich August Kekulé . Likewise,

8470-409: The literature. Several international organizations like IUPAC and CAS have initiated steps to make such tasks easier. CAS provides the abstracting services of the chemical literature, and provides a numerical identifier, known as CAS registry number to each chemical substance that has been reported in the chemical literature (such as chemistry journals and patents ). This information is compiled as

8580-447: The main prospective customer base for the sodium carbonate alkali. In 1822 he went to Liverpool and took a lease of an abandoned glass-works on the bank of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal . Though already determined to work the Leblanc process, he did not immediately possess the capital for it, and he therefore continued the production of prussiate of potash, which was profitable, and plough

8690-607: The masses of Lazzaroni , the poorest class. After visiting Naples in 1850, Gladstone began to support Neapolitan opponents of the Bourbon rulers: his "support" consisted of a couple of letters that he sent from Naples to the Parliament in London, describing the "awful conditions" of the Kingdom of Southern Italy and claiming that "it is the negation of God erected to a system of government". Gladstone's letters provoked sensitive reactions in

8800-411: The metallic properties described above, they also have a high electronegativity and a tendency to form negative ions . Certain elements such as silicon sometimes resemble metals and sometimes resemble non-metals, and are known as metalloids . A chemical compound is a chemical substance that is composed of a particular set of atoms or ions . Two or more elements combined into one substance through

8910-487: The mining, refining, and transportation of sulfur, combined with the failure of this lucrative export to transform Sicily's backward and impoverished economy, led to the 'Sulfur Crisis' of 1840. This was precipitated when King Ferdinand II granted a monopoly of the sulfur industry to a French company, in violation of an 1816 trade agreement with Britain. A peaceful solution was eventually negotiated by France. With all of its major cities boasting ports, transport and trade in

9020-410: The municipal administration has few economic means to remedy the situation, the gentlemen often have whole sections of streets paved in front of the entrance of their home. The peninsula was divided into fifteen departments and Sicily was divided into seven departments. In 1860, when the Two Sicilies were conquered by the Kingdom of Sardinia , the departments became provinces of Italy , according to

9130-630: The partition of the medieval Kingdom of Sicily . Until 1285, the island of Sicily and the Mezzogiorno were constituent parts of the Kingdom of Sicily. As a result of the War of the Sicilian Vespers (1282–1302), the King of Sicily lost the Island of Sicily (also called Trinacria) to the Crown of Aragon , but remained ruler over the peninsular part of the realm. Although his territory became known unofficially as

9240-529: The population of the countryside rose at a faster rate than that of the city of Naples herself, a rather odd phenomenon in a time when much of Europe experienced the Industrial Revolution. As registered in the 1827 census, for the Neapolitan (continental) part of the kingdom, 1,475,314 of the male population were listed as husbandmen which traditionally consisted of three classes the Borgesi (yeomanry),

9350-563: The profits into building the lead chambers and the other necessaries of a complete Leblanc works. Fortuitously in 1823 the duty or tax of £30 per ton was taken off salt. He began to make sodium carbonate alkali by the Leblanc process in 1823. In 1828 he built works at St Helens , (then in Lancashire), in partnership with Josias Gamble, another Irish-born chemist. But after two years the partnership ended and Muspratt moved to Newton-le-Willows , (then in Lancashire). This factory closed in 1851. He

9460-805: The railroad, the Church still objected to the construction of tunnels, because of their 'obscenity'. In 1836 the kingdom was struck by a cholera epidemic which killed 65,000 in Sicily alone. In the following years the Neapolitan countryside saw sporadic local insurrections. In the 1840s, clandestine political pamphlets circulated, evading censorship. Moreover, in September 1847 an uprising saw insurrectionists crossing from mainland Calabria over to Sicily before government forces were able to suppress them. On 12 January 1848, an open rebellion began in Palermo and demands were made for

9570-410: The realm of organic chemistry ; the discovery of many more chemical elements and new techniques in the realm of analytical chemistry used for isolation and purification of elements and compounds from chemicals that led to the establishment of modern chemistry , the concept was defined as is found in most chemistry textbooks. However, there are some controversies regarding this definition mainly because

9680-505: The reintroduction of the 1812 constitution. King Ferdinand II appointed a liberal prime minister, broke off diplomatic relations with Austria and even declared war on the latter (7 April). Although revolutionaries who had risen in several mainland cities outside Naples shortly after the Sicilians approved of the new measures (April 1848), Sicily continued with her revolution. Faced with these differing reactions to his moves, King Ferdinand, using

9790-491: The relationship between the quantities of methane and oxygen that react to form carbon dioxide and water. Because of the well known relationship of moles to atomic weights , the ratios that are arrived at by stoichiometry can be used to determine quantities by weight in a reaction described by a balanced equation. This is called composition stoichiometry . Kingdom of the Two Sicilies The Kingdom of

9900-419: The release of the political prisoners. When this was rejected, both countries broke off diplomatic relations. The Kingdom pursued an economic policy of protectionism ; the country's economy was mainly based on agriculture , the cities, especially Naples – with over 400,000 inhabitants, Italy's largest – "a center of consumption rather than of production" (Santore p. 163) and home to poverty most expressed by

10010-456: The right to station troops in the kingdom, and Austria, as well as Russia and Prussia , insisted that no written constitution was to be granted to the kingdom. In October 1815, Joachim Murat landed in Calabria , in an attempt to regain his kingdom. The government responded to acts of collaboration or of terrorism with severe repression and by June 1816 Murat's attempt had failed and the situation

10120-481: The royal opera houses, including the San Carlo. During this period he wrote ten operas which were Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra (1815), La gazzetta , Otello, ossia il Moro di Venezia (1816), Armida (1817), Mosè in Egitto , Ricciardo e Zoraide (1818), Ermione , Bianca e Falliero , Eduardo e Cristina , La donna del lago (1819), Maometto II (1820), and Zelmira (1822), many premiered at

10230-466: The royal title himself. As the last Hohenstaufen to lay claim to the Sicilian throne and fight for it, Conradin was captured in 1268 and executed by his opponent in Naples. Unlike in Naples, which was the focus of Angevin rule, French rule on Sicily was abolished after just a few years by the popular uprising of 1282, the Sicilian Vespers , which instead elevated Peter III of Aragon , a son-in-law of

10340-623: The south to as far as Bologna were built in Mongiana. The kingdom was home to three universities namely those in Naples founded in 1224, Catania founded in 1434 and Palermo founded in 1806. Also in Naples, established by Matteo Ripa in 1732, was the Collegio dei Cinesi today the University of Naples "L'Orientale" teaching Sinology and Oriental studies . Despite these institutions of higher learning

10450-454: The synthesis of more complex molecules targeted for single use, as named above. The production of a chemical includes not only its synthesis but also its purification to eliminate by-products and impurities involved in the synthesis. The last step in production should be the analysis of batch lots of chemicals in order to identify and quantify the percentages of impurities for the buyer of the chemicals. The required purity and analysis depends on

10560-496: The throne of Naples and the island of Sicily (where the constitution of 1812 virtually had disempowered him) was returned to him. In 1816 he annulled the constitution and Sicily became fully reintegrated into the new state, which was now officially called the Regno delle Due Sicilie (Kingdom of Two Sicilies). Ferdinand IV became Ferdinand I. A number of accomplishments under the administration of Kings Joseph and Joachim Murat , such as

10670-493: The whole of Europe and helped to cause its diplomatic isolation before the invasion and annexation of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies by the Kingdom of Sardinia , with the following foundation of modern Italy . Administratively, Naples and Sicily remained separate units; in 1858 the Neapolitan Postal Service issued her first postage stamps; that of Sicily followed in 1859. Until 1849, the political movement among

10780-536: Was defeated in 1859 and the unification of Northern Italy (except Venetia) was accomplished in 1860, did Giuseppe Garibaldi , at the head of the Expedition of the Thousand , launch his invasion of Sicily, with the connivance of Cavour (once in Sicily, many rallied to his colours); after a successful campaign in Sicily, he crossed over to the mainland and won the battle of the Volturno with half of his army being local volunteers. King Francis II (since 1859) withdrew to

10890-400: Was overthrown by Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1860, after which the people voted in a plebiscite to join the Kingdom of Sardinia . The annexation of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies completed the first phase of Italian unification, and the new Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in 1861. The Two Sicilies were heavily agricultural, like other Italian states. The name "Two Sicilies" originated from

11000-483: Was 34.5m deep. Niccolini embellished in the inner of the bas-relief depicting "Time and the Hour". Stendhal attended the second night of the inauguration and wrote: "There is nothing in all Europe, I won't say comparable to this theatre, but which gives the slightest idea of what it is like..., it dazzles the eyes, it enraptures the soul...". From 1815 to 1822, Gioachino Rossini was the house composer and artistic director of

11110-506: Was and remained Naples, which was magnificently expanded by the new Bourbon kings, while Sicily retained a secondary and semi-colonial status. North of Naples, Charles began the construction of a baroque planned city in Caserta and planned to move the seat of government to the Palace of Caserta. Charles attempted to rebuild the relatively weak state with enlightened reforms directed particularly against

11220-540: Was employing 120 on the Vauxhall Road site which had two chimneys, one of which was 50 yards high. In 1851 Muspratt largely withdrew from the business although he supported his sons, Richard and Frederic in starting new alkali works at Wood End, Widnes and Flint . After his retirement in 1857 his business was continued by his four sons. However, in 1867 he took over the management of Frederic's factory at Wood End before passing it on to another son, Edmund . In

11330-620: Was focused in San Leucio (near Caserta ). The region of Basilicata also had several mills in Potenza and San Chirico Raparo , where cotton , wool and silk were processed. Food processing was widespread, especially near Naples ( Torre Annunziata and Gragnano ). The kingdom maintained a large sulfur mining industry. In the increasingly industrialized Great Britain, with the repeal of tariffs on salt in 1824, demand for sulfur from Sicily surged. The growing British control and exploitation of

11440-415: Was just 14.4% in 1861. The situation of the time in terms of social expenditure and public hygiene is mainly known today thanks to the writings of the historian and journalist Raffaele De Cesare. It is well known that public hygiene conditions in the regions of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies are very poor and especially in the central and rural regions. Most small municipalities do not have sewers and have

11550-406: Was repeatedly involved in litigation because of the pollution caused. In 1828 he was cited as causing a public nuisance and fined one  shilling . In 1831 he was indicted but was acquitted on this occasion. In 1838 after a trial lasting three days, with 40 witnesses for the prosecution and 46 for the defence, a jury found Muspratt guilty of "creating and maintaining a nuisance". At this time he

11660-516: Was smashed and on 24 March 1821 Austrian forces entered the city of Naples . Political repression then only intensified. Lawlessness in the countryside was aggravated by the problem of administrative corruption. A coup attempted in 1828 and aimed at forcing the promulgation of a constitution was suppressed by Neapolitan troops (the Austrian troops had left the previous year). King Francis I (1825–1830) died after having visited Paris , where he witnessed

11770-400: Was the distribution of land property – most of it concentrated in the hands of a few families, the landed nobility . The villages housed a large rural proletariat , desperately poor and dependent on the landlords for work. The Kingdom's few cities had little industry, thus not providing the outlet excess rural population found in northern Italy, France or Germany. The figures above show that

11880-572: Was the largest industrial plant in the Italian peninsula, producing tools, cannons , rails, and locomotives . The complex also included a school for train drivers and naval engineers, and, thanks to this school, the kingdom was able to replace the English personnel who had been necessary until then. The first steamboat with screw propulsion known in Italy was the Giglio delle Onde , with mail delivery and passenger transport purposes after 1847. In Calabria,

11990-432: Was the third largest in Italy. In the 1800s, the kingdom experienced large population growth, rising from approximately five to seven million. It held approximately 36% of Italy's population around 1850. Because the kingdom did not establish a statistical department until after 1848, most population statistics before that year are estimates and censuses that were thought by contemporaries to be inaccurate. The Army of

12100-479: Was under government control. However, the Neapolitan administration had changed from conciliatory to reactionary policies. The French novelist Henri de Stendhal , who visited Naples in 1817, called the kingdom "an absurd monarchy in the style of Philip II ". As open political activity was suppressed, liberals organized themselves in secret societies, such as the Carbonari , an organization whose origins date back into

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