144-588: Timeline The history of the Jews in Italy spans more than two thousand years to the present. The Jewish presence in Italy dates to the pre-Christian Roman period and has continued, despite periods of extreme persecution and expulsions, until the present. As of 2019, the estimated core Jewish population in Italy numbers around 45,000. The Jewish community in Rome is likely one of
288-539: A Talmudic authority even beyond Italy; and Rabbi Jehiel of the Mansi (Anaw) family, also of Rome, became known for their works. Nathan, son of the above-mentioned Rabbi Jehiel, was the author of a Talmudic lexicon ("'Aruk") that became the key to the study of the Talmud. During his residence at Salerno , Solomon ben Abraham ibn Parhon compiled a Hebrew dictionary . This encouraged Italian Jews to study Biblical exegesis . On
432-551: A Christian. The "good" kind denounced alleged Jewish plots to gain control of the world by controlling newspapers, banks, schools, etc., or otherwise attributed various evils to Jews. Kertzer's book details many instances in which Catholic publications denounced such alleged plots, and then, when criticized for inciting hatred of Jews, would remind people that the Catholic Church condemned the "bad" kind of anti-Semitism. Timeline of Italian history Timeline This
576-751: A century later, the First Temple was replaced by the Second Temple , which was built after the Neo-Babylonian Empire was conquered by the Achaemenid Persian Empire . While the Second Temple stood for a longer period of time than the First Temple, it was likewise destroyed during the Roman siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE. Projects to build the hypothetical " Third Temple " have not come to fruition in
720-585: A different partition surrounding the Sanctuary, distant from it, similar to the screen-like hangings of the court that were in the wilderness. All that which is surrounded by this partition, which, as noted, is like the court of the Tabernacle , is called 'Courtyard' ( Hebrew : עזרה ), whereas all of it together is called 'Temple' ( Hebrew : מקדש ) [ lit. ' the Holy Place ' ]. The Hebrew Bible says that
864-709: A few cases, the refugees exceeded in number the Jews already domiciled, and thus gave the determining vote in matters of communal interest and in the direction of studies. Popes Alexander VI to Clement VII were indulgent toward Jews, having more urgent matters to occupy them. After the 1492 expulsion of Jews from Spain , some 9,000 impoverished Spanish Jews arrived at the borders of the Papal States. Alexander VI welcomed them into Rome, declaring that they were "permitted to lead their life, free from interference from Christians, to continue in their own rites, to gain wealth, and to enjoy many other privileges." He similarly allowed
1008-516: A few in Hebrew / Aramaic or Latin , were decorated with the ritual menorah (seven-branched candelabrum). Some scholars have previously argued that Jews in the pre-Christian Roman Empire were active in proselytising Romans in Judaism, leading to an increasing number of outright converts . The new consensus is, that this is not the case. According to Erich S. Gruen , though conversions did happen, there
1152-546: A full reading of the Book of Ezra and the Book of Nehemiah , there were four edicts to build the Second Temple, which were issued by three kings: Cyrus in 536 BCE (Ezra ch. 1), Darius I of Persia in 519 BCE (ch. 6), and Artaxerxes I of Persia in 457 BCE (ch. 7), and finally by Artaxerxes again in 444 BCE (Nehemiah ch. 2). According to classical Jewish sources, another demolition of the Temple
1296-602: A historian, who had fled from the Portuguese Inquisition , settled in Ferrara, and Abraham Usque founded a large printing establishment there. A third Usque, Solomon , merchant of Venice and Ancona and poet of some note, translated the sonnets of Petrarch into excellent Spanish verse, and this work was much admired by his contemporaries. Although the return to Judaism of the Marrano Usques caused much rejoicing among
1440-522: A leading Hebrew expert of his day and professor of theology and philosophy at the College of Saint Thomas in Rome was appointed in 1640 by Pope Urban VIII to the mission of preaching to the Jews of Rome ( Predicatore degli Ebrei ) in order to promote their conversion." In the mid-1650s Ciantes wrote a "monumental bilingual edition of the first three Parts of Thomas Aquinas ' Summa contra Gentiles , which includes
1584-558: A legal religion of the Roman Empire by Constantine in 313 (the Edict of Milan ), the position of Jews in Italy and throughout the empire declined rapidly and dramatically. Constantine established oppressive laws for the Jews; but these were in turn abolished by Julian the Apostate , who showed his favor toward the Jews to the extent of permitting them to resume their plan for the reconstruction of
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#17328524409511728-457: A new Jewish poetry arose, mainly through the works of Leo Romano , translator of the writings of Thomas Aquinas and author of exegetical works of merit; of Judah Siciliano , a writer in rimed prose; of Kalonymus ben Kalonymus , a famous satirical poet; and especially of the above-mentioned Immanuel. On the initiative of the Roman community, a Hebrew translation of Maimonides' Arabic commentary on
1872-603: A statue of Zeus in their temple and Hellenic priests began sacrificing pigs (the usual sacrifice offered to the Greek gods in the Hellenic religion ), their anger began to spiral. When a Greek official ordered a Jewish priest to perform a Hellenic sacrifice, the priest ( Mattathias ) killed him. In 167 BCE, the Jews rose up en masse behind Mattathias and his five sons to fight and won their freedom from Seleucid authority. Mattathias' son Judah Maccabee , now called "The Hammer", re-dedicated
2016-537: A work in Latin , entitled De Medico Hebraeo , dedicated to Duke Francis of Urbino , in which he proved to the Jews their obligation to consider the Christians as brothers, to assist them, and to attend them. The Jews of Mantua , Milan, and Ferrara, taking advantage of the favorable disposition of the pope, sent to him an ambassador, Bezaleel Massarano , with a present of 2,000 scudi , to obtain from him permission to reprint
2160-433: Is a timeline of Italian history , comprising important legal and territorial changes and political events in Italy and its predecessor states, including Ancient Rome and Prehistoric Italy . Date of the prehistoric era are approximate. For further background, see history of Italy and list of prime ministers of Italy . Lucius Sicinius Vellutus , the plebs abandoned Rome for the nearby Monte Sacro . Marius
2304-407: Is indeed one of great splendor. After Immanuel there were no other Jewish writers of importance until Moses da Rieti (1388). The position of Jews in Italy worsened considerably under Pope Innocent III (1198–1216). This pope threatened with excommunication those who placed or maintained Jews in public positions, and he insisted that every Jew holding office should be dismissed. The deepest insult
2448-525: Is no evidence of Jews trying to convert Gentiles to Judaism. It has also been argued that some people adopted some Jewish practices and belief in the Jewish God without actually converting (called God-fearers ). The fate of Jews in Rome and Italy fluctuated, with partial expulsions being carried out under the emperors Tiberius and Claudius . After the successive Jewish revolts of 66 and 132 CE , many Judean Jews were brought to Rome as slaves (the norm in
2592-569: The Christian and Islamic worlds did not exist (see Anti-Judaism in the pre-Christian Roman Empire ). Despite their disdain, the Romans did recognize and respect the antiquity of the Jews' religion and the fame of their Temple in Jerusalem ( Herod's Temple ). Many Romans did not know much about Judaism, including the emperor Augustus who, according to his biographer Suetonius , thought that Jews fasted on
2736-533: The Duchy of Milan , then under Spanish rule. Such an inconsistency of policy was designed to work ill for the interests of the Jews. To avert this misfortune an eloquent ambassador, Samuel Coen, was sent to the king at Alessandria; but he was unsuccessful in his mission. The king, persuaded by his confessor, expelled the Jews from Milanese territory in the spring of 1597. The exiles, numbering about 1,000, were received at Mantua, Modena, Reggio, Verona, and Padua. The princes of
2880-560: The Duke of Urbino welcomed them graciously in the hope of directing the extensive commerce of the Levant to the new port of Pesaro, which was, at that time, exclusively in the hands of the Jews of Ancona. Among the many who were forced to leave Rome was the Marano Amato Lusitano , a distinguished physician, who had often attended Pope Julius III. He had even been invited to become physician to
3024-615: The Exarch of Ravenna ; but it was not long until the greater part of Italy came into the possession of the Lombards (568-774), under whom they lived in peace. Indeed, the Lombards passed no exceptional laws relative to the Jews. Even after the Lombards embraced Catholicism the condition of the Jews was always favorable, because the popes of that time not only did not persecute them, but guaranteed them more or less protection. Pope Gregory I treated them with much consideration. Under succeeding popes
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#17328524409513168-563: The First Temple was built by King Solomon , completed in 957 BCE. According to the Book of Deuteronomy , as the sole place of Israelite korban (sacrifice), the Temple replaced the Tabernacle constructed in the Sinai under the auspices of Moses , as well as local sanctuaries, and altars in the hills. This Temple was sacked a few decades later by Shoshenq I , Pharaoh of Egypt . Although efforts were made at partial reconstruction, it
3312-657: The Herodian Temple , the structure consisted of the wider Temple precinct, the restricted Temple courts, and the Temple building itself: The Temple edifice had three distinct chambers: According to the Talmud , the Women's Court was to the east and the main area of the Temple to the west. The main area contained the butchering area for the sacrifices and the Outer Altar on which portions of most offerings were burned. An edifice contained
3456-631: The Jerusalem Talmud , tractate Yoma iii. 8 the candlestick and the plate are confused. The Temple was the place where offerings described in the course of the Hebrew Bible were carried out, including daily morning and afternoon offerings and special offerings on Sabbath and Jewish holidays . Levites recited Psalms at appropriate moments during the offerings, including the Psalm of the Day, special psalms for
3600-516: The Mishnah was made. At this time Pope John XXII was on the point of pronouncing a ban against the Jews of Rome. The Jews instituted a day of public fasting and of prayer to appeal for divine assistance. King Robert of Sicily , who favored the Jews, sent an envoy to the pope at Avignon , who succeeded in averting this great peril. Immanuel himself described this envoy as a person of high merit and of great culture. This period of Jewish literature in Italy
3744-454: The Papal States excepting Rome and Ancona. A few became Christians. The majority found refuge in other parts of Italy, e.g. Leghorn and Pitigliano. A great sensation was caused in Italy by the choice of a prominent Jew, Solomon of Udine , as Turkish ambassador to Venice who was selected to negotiate within that republic during July 1574. There was a pending decree of expulsion of the Jews by
3888-581: The Priestly Blessing . The Mishna describes it as follows: The superintendent said to them, bless one benediction! and they blessed, and read the Ten Commandments, and the Shema, "And it shall come to pass if you will hearken", and "And [God] spoke...". They pronounced three benedictions with the people present: "True and firm", and the "Avodah" "Accept, Lord our God, the service of your people Israel, and
4032-665: The Temple Warning inscriptions and the Trumpeting Place inscription , two surviving pieces of the Herodian expansion of the Temple Mount. The Temple Warning inscriptions forbid the entry of pagans to the Temple, a prohibition also mentioned by the 1st century CE historian Josephus . These inscriptions were on the wall that surrounded the Temple and prevented non-Jews from entering the temple's courtyard. The Trumpeting Place inscription
4176-694: The Umayyad caliphate, the caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan ordered a renovation of the Islamic mosque, constructing the Dome of the Rock , on the Temple Mount. The mosque has stood on the mount since 691 CE; the Jami Al-Aqsa . It has been renovated several times since, including during the Abbasid, Fatimid, Mamluk, and Ottoman eras. Archaeological excavations have found remnants of both
4320-730: The ecclesial body of the Church, and the Eucharistic body on the altar). The Temple Mount bears significance in Islam as it acted as a sanctuary for the Hebrew prophets and the Israelites . Islamic tradition says that a temple was first built on the Temple Mount by Solomon , the son of David . After the destruction of the second temple, it was rebuilt by the second Rashidun Caliph , Omar , which stands until today as Al-Aqsa Mosque . Traditionally referred to as
4464-508: The house of Este had always accorded favor and protection to the Jews, and were much beloved by them. Eleonora, a princess of this house, had inspired two Jewish poets; and when she was ill public prayers were said in the synagogues for her restoration to health. But misfortune overtook the Jews of Ferrara as well; for when Alfonso II ., the last of the Este family, died, the Principality of Ferrara
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4608-565: The new month , and other occasions, the Hallel during major Jewish holidays, and psalms for special sacrifices such as the "Psalm for the Thanksgiving Offering" ( Psalm 100). As part of the daily offering, a prayer service was performed in the Temple which was used as the basis of the traditional Jewish (morning) service recited to this day, including well-known prayers such as the Shema , and
4752-427: The sabbath . Julius Caesar was known as a great friend to the Jews, and they were among the first to mourn his assassination . In Rome, the community was highly organized, and presided over by heads called άρχοντες ( archontes ) or γερουσιάρχοι ( gerousiarchoi ). The Jews maintained in Rome several synagogues, whose spiritual leader was called αρχισυνάγωγος ( archisynagogos ). Their tombstones, mostly in Greek with
4896-590: The ulam (antechamber), the hekhal (the "sanctuary"), and the Holy of Holies . The sanctuary and the Holy of Holies were separated by a wall in the First Temple and by two curtains in the Second Temple. The sanctuary contained the seven branched candlestick , the table of showbread and the Incense Altar . The main courtyard had thirteen gates. On the south side, beginning with the southwest corner, there were four gates: On
5040-516: The "Farthest Mosque" ( al-masjid al-aqṣa' literally "utmost site of bowing (in worship)" though the term now refers specifically to the mosque in the southern wall of the compound which today is known simply as al-haram ash-sharīf "the noble sanctuary"), the site is seen as the destination of Muhammad 's Night Journey , one of the most significant events recounted in the Quran and the place of his ascent heavenwards thereafter ( Mi'raj ). Muslims view
5184-533: The 7th century, the site had fallen into disrepair under Byzantine rule. After the Muslim conquest of Jerusalem in the 7th century during the Rashidun Caliphate , a mosque was built by caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (reigned 634–644 CE) who first cleared the site of debris and then erected a mihrab and simple mosque on the same site as the present mosque. This first mosque construction was known as Masjid al-'Umari. During
5328-708: The Bible and Talmud, and she transcribed Biblical commentaries in a notably beautiful handwriting (see Jew. Encyc. i. 567, s.v. Paola Anaw). During this period, the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II , the last of the Hohenstaufen , employed Jews to translate from the Arabic philosophical and astronomical treatises. Among the translators were Judah ben Solomon ha-Kohen of Toledo , later of Tuscany , and Jacob Anatoli of Provence . This encouragement naturally led to
5472-485: The Church; and accordingly the Jews, many of whom were bankers and leading merchants, found their condition better than ever before. It thus became easy for Jewish bankers to obtain permission to establish banks and to engage in monetary transactions. Indeed, in one instance even the Bishop of Mantua , in the name of the pope, accorded permission to the Jews to lend money at interest. All the banking negotiations of Tuscany were in
5616-543: The Eastern Mediterranean. Naples , Milan , and Sicily also hosted Jewish communities with diverse origins. For example, Naples saw the immigration of Jews from Venafrum , Rome, Caesarea (likely Caesarea Maritima ), and Mauretania , while Milan received Jews from Alexandria . Sicily hosted Jewish migrants from Egypt , and in Venosa , Jews from Lecce and Albania were interred. With the promotion of Christianity as
5760-467: The First Temple and the Second Temple. Among the artifacts of the First Temple are dozens of ritual immersion pools in this area surrounding the Temple Mount , as well as a large square platform identified by architectural archaeologist Leen Ritmeyer as likely being built by King Hezekiah c. 700 BCE as a gathering area in front of the Temple. Concrete finds from the Second Temple include
5904-510: The Great ) with historical sources. The accuracy of these dates is contested by some modern researchers, who consider the biblical text to be of later date and based on a combination of historical records and religious considerations, leading to contradictions between different books of the Bible and making the dates unreliable. The new temple was dedicated by the Jewish governor Zerubbabel . However, with
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6048-566: The Inquisition, which did not hesitate to condemn the accused to death. Gregory also induced the Inquisition to consign to the flames a large number of copies of the Talmud and of other Hebrew books. Special sermons , designed to convert the Jews, were instituted; and at these at least one-third of the Jewish community, men, women, and youths above the age of twelve, was forced to be present. The sermons were usually delivered by baptized Jews who had become friars or priests ; and not infrequently
6192-529: The Inquisition; he deprived the Jews of every liberty and confined them again in ghettos. Such became to a greater or less extent their condition in all the states into which Italy was then divided; in Rome they were again forced to listen to proselytizing sermons. In the year 1829, consequent upon an edict of the Emperor Francis I , there was opened in Padua, with the cooperation of Venice, of Verona, and of Mantua,
6336-474: The Italian Jews, this was counterbalanced by the deep grief into which they were plunged by the conversion to Christianity of two grandsons of Elijah Levita , Leone Romano and Vittorio Eliano . One became a canon of the Church; the other, a Jesuit . They heavily criticized the Talmud to Pope Julius III and the Inquisition; as a consequence the pope pronounced a sentence of destruction against this work, to
6480-410: The Jerusalem Law to be in violation of international law. The Jerusalem Islamic Waqf , based in Jordan, has administrative control of the Temple Mount. According to Matthew 24:2, Jesus predicts the destruction of the Second Temple. This idea, of the Temple as the body of Christ , became a rich and multi-layered theme in medieval Christian thought (where Temple/body can be the heavenly body of Christ,
6624-463: The Jews . According to that book, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the popes and many Catholic bishops and Catholic publications consistently made a distinction between "good anti-Semitism" and "bad anti-Semitism". The "bad" kind directed hatred against Jews merely because of their descent. That was considered un-Christian, in part because the church held that its message was for all of mankind equally, and any person of any ancestry could become
6768-407: The Jews from attending Christian patients, and threatened with the most severe punishment alike Christians who should have recourse to Hebrew practitioners, and Jewish physicians who should respond to the calls of Christians. Furthermore, the slightest assistance given to the Maranos of Portugal and Spain, in violation of the canonical laws , was sufficient to deliver the guilty one into the power of
6912-462: The Jews obtained full emancipation. In behalf of their country the Jews with great ardor sacrificed life and property in the memorable campaigns of 1859, 1866, and 1870. Of the many who deserve mention in this connection may be singled out Isaac Pesaro Maurogonato . He was minister of finance to the self-proclaimed Venetian Republic of San Marco (whose president, Daniele Manin came from a Jewish family that had converted to Christianity in 1759) during
7056-519: The Jews of Italy at this time was pitiable; pope Paul IV and Pius V reduced them to the utmost humiliation and had materially diminished their numbers. In southern Italy there were almost none left; in each of the important communities of Rome, Venice, and Mantua there were about 2,000 Jews; while in all Lombardy there were hardly 1,000. Gregory XIII was not less fanatical than his predecessors; he noticed that, despite papal prohibition, Christians employed Jewish physicians; he therefore strictly prohibited
7200-399: The Jews were expelled at this time, an exception was made in favor of Joseph Hakohen . In his Emek Habachah he narrates the history of these persecutions. He had no desire to take advantage of the exception, though, and went to Casale Monferrato , where he was graciously received even by the Christians. In this same year the pope directed his persecutions against the Jews of Bologna. Many of
7344-425: The Jews were in great danger because of the agitation fomented against them by the cloth-weavers. A violent tumult broke out; the lives of the Jews were seriously menaced; and it was only with the greatest difficulty that the governor of the city succeeded in rescuing them, in obedience to a rigorous order from Venice. For several days thereafter the ghetto had to be especially guarded. Among the first schools to adopt
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#17328524409517488-439: The Jews were more frequently disregarded in Italy than in any other country or region. A later pope—either Nicholas IV (1288–1292) or Boniface VIII (1294–1303)—had a Jewish physician, Isaac ben Mordecai , nicknamed Maestro Gajo. Among the early Jews of Italy who left written manuscripts was Shabbethai Donnolo (died 982). Two centuries later (1150), poets Shabbethai ben Moses of Rome; his son Jehiel Kalonymus, once regarded as
7632-571: The Jews, without any chance of protest, were forced to listen to such sermons in their own synagogues. These cruelties forced many Jews to leave Rome, and thus their number was still further diminished. Under the following pope, Sixtus V (1585–1590), the condition of the Jews was somewhat improved. He repealed many of the regulations established by his predecessors, permitted Jews to reside in all parts of his realm, and gave Jewish physicians freedom to practice their profession. David de Pomis , an eminent physician, profited by this privilege and published
7776-537: The King of Poland , but had declined the offer in order to remain in Italy. Paul IV was followed by the tolerant pope Pius IV , who was succeeded by Pius V , who restored all the anti-Jewish bulls of his predecessors—not only in his own immediate domains, but throughout the Christian world. In Lombardy , the expulsion of the Jews was threatened, and, although this extreme measure was not put into execution, they were tyrannized in countless ways. At Cremona and at Lodi their books were confiscated. In Genoa , from which
7920-474: The Ptolemaic army was defeated at Panium by Antiochus III of the Seleucids in 200 BCE, this policy changed. Antiochus wanted to Hellenise the Jews, attempting to introduce the Greek pantheon into the temple. Moreover, a rebellion ensued and was brutally crushed, but no further action by Antiochus was taken, and when Antiochus died in 187 BCE at Luristan , his son Seleucus IV Philopator succeeded him. However, his policies never took effect in Judea, since he
8064-636: The Reform projects of Hartwig Wessely were those of Trieste , Venice, and Ferrara . Under the influence of the liberal religious policy of Napoleon I, the Jews of Italy, like those of France, were emancipated. The supreme power of the popes was broken: they no longer had time to give to framing anti-Jewish enactments, and they no longer directed canonical laws against the Jews. To the Sanhedrin convened by Napoleon at Paris (1807), Italy sent four deputies: Abraham Vita da Cologna ; Isaac Benzion Segre , rabbi of Vercelli; Graziadio Neppi , physician and rabbi of Cento; and Jacob Israel Karmi , rabbi of Reggio. Of
8208-418: The Republic of Venice and was able to render great service to his coreligionists. Through his influence Jacob Soranzo , an agent of the Venetian Republic at Constantinople , came to Venice. Solomon was influential in having the decree of expulsion revoked within Italian kingdoms, and he furthermore obtained a promise from Venetian patricians that Jews would have a secure home within the Republic of Venice. Udine
8352-405: The Rock is now located, to the north of the Dome of the Rock (Professor Asher Kaufman), or to the east of the Dome of the Rock (Professor Joseph Patrich of the Hebrew University ). The exact location of the Temple is a contentious issue, as questioning the exact placement of the Temple is often associated with Temple denial . Since the Holy of Holies lay at the center of the complex as a whole,
8496-423: The Rock, as Kaufman postulated. However, chapter 54 of the Tractate Yoma and chapter 26 of the Tractate Sanhedrin assert that the Holy of Holies stood directly on the Foundation Stone , which agrees with the traditional view that the Dome of the Rock stands on the Temple's location. The Temple of Solomon or First Temple consisted of four main elements: In the case of the last and most elaborate structure,
8640-705: The Romans in 70 CE), and was used instead in the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus in Rome. In addition to Rome, there were a significant number of Jewish communities in southern Italy during this period. For example, the regions of Sicily , Calabria , and Apulia had well established Jewish populations. In late antiquity , Jewish communities in Italy were dispersed across both urban and rural areas. Archaeological discoveries, such as Jewish epitaphs and catacombs, reveal significant Jewish mobility. Jews arrived in Italy from both Palestine and various diaspora communities. The city of Rome, for instance, attracted Jewish migrants from diverse regions, including Sicily, Italy, and
8784-455: The Talmud and other Jewish books, promising at the same time to expurgate all passages considered offensive to Christianity. Their demand was granted, partly through the support given by Lopez, a Marano, who administered the papal finances and who was in great favor with the pontiff. Scarcely had the reprinting of the Talmud been begun, and the conditions of its printing been arranged by the commission, when Sixtus died. His successor, Gregory XIV ,
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#17328524409518928-402: The Temple Mount) has the significance as a holy site/sanctuary (" haram ") for Muslims primarily in three ways, the first two being connected to the Temple. First, Muhammad (and his companions) prayed facing the Temple in Jerusalem (referred to as " Bayt Al-Maqdis ", in the Hadiths ) similar to the Jews before changing it to the Kaaba in Mecca sixteen months after arriving in Medina following
9072-422: The Temple at Jerusalem. "Helena had a golden candlestick made over the door of the Temple," to which statement is added that when the sun rose its rays were reflected from the candlestick and everybody knew that it was the time for reading the Shema'. She also made a golden plate on which was written the passage of the Pentateuch which the Kohen read when a wife suspected of infidelity was brought before him. In
9216-513: The Temple at Jerusalem. This concession was withdrawn under his successor, who, again, was a Christian; and then the oppression grew considerably. Nicene Christianity was adopted as the state church of the Roman Empire in 380, shortly before the fall of the Western Roman Empire . At the time of the foundation of the Ostrogothic rule under Theodoric (493–526), there were flourishing communities of Jews in Rome, Milan , Genoa , Palermo , Messina , Agrigentum , and in Sardinia . The Popes of
9360-569: The Temple in Jerusalem as their inheritance, being the followers of the last prophet of God and believers in every prophet sent, including the prophets Moses and Solomon. To Muslims, Al-Aqsa Mosque is not built on top of the temple, rather, it is the Third Temple, and they are the true believers who worship in it, whereas Jews and Christians are disbelievers who do not believe in God's final prophets Jesus and Muhammad . In Islam, Muslims are encouraged to visit Jerusalem and pray at Al-Aqsa Mosque. There are over forty hadith about Al-Aqsa Mosque and
9504-463: The Temple in Jerusalem is referred to by this name. In classic English texts, however, the word "Temple" is used interchangeably, sometimes having the strict connotation of the Temple precincts, with its courts ( Greek : ἱερὸν ), while at other times having the strict connotation of the Temple Sanctuary ( Greek : ναός ). While Greek and Hebrew texts make this distinction, English texts do not always do so. Jewish rabbi and philosopher Maimonides gave
9648-421: The Temple is mourned on the Jewish fast day of Tisha B'Av . Three other minor fasts (Tenth of Tevet , 17th of Tammuz , and Third of Tishrei ), also mourn events leading to or following the destruction of the Temple. There are also mourning practices which are observed at all times, for example, the requirement to leave part of the house unplastered. The Temple Mount, along with the entire Old City of Jerusalem,
9792-402: The Temple's location is dependent on the location of the Holy of Holies. The location of the Holy of Holies was even a question less than 150 years after the Second Temple's destruction, as detailed in the Talmud . Chapter 54 of the Tractate Berakhot states that the Holy of Holies was directly aligned with the Golden Gate , which would have placed the Temple slightly to the north of the Dome of
9936-464: The Temple, and the Crusaders attributed the name " Templum Domini " ("Temple of the Lord") to the Dome of the Rock. The Hebrew name given in the Hebrew Bible for the building complex is either Mikdash ( Hebrew : מקדש ), as used in Exodus, or simply Bayt / Beit Adonai ( Hebrew : בית ), as used in 1 Chronicles. In rabbinic literature , the temple sanctuary is called Beit HaMikdash ( Hebrew : בית המקדש ), meaning, "The Holy House", and only
10080-403: The Temples". He adds that Jerusalem is sacred to Muslims because of its prior holiness to Jews and its standing as home to the biblical prophets and kings David and Solomon, all of whom he says are sacred figures in Islam. He claims that the Quran "expressly recognizes that Jerusalem plays the same role for Jews that Mecca has for Muslims". Ever since the Second Temple's destruction, a prayer for
10224-455: The Younger , his nephew, followed in his footsteps, as did their descendants until the end of the seventeenth century. Meïr ben Moses presided over an important Talmudic school in Rome, and Abraham ben Joseph over one in Pesaro. In Rome two famous physicians, Abraham and Jehiel, descendants of Nathan ben Jehiel, taught the Talmud. Paola dei Mansi , one of the women of this gifted family, also attained distinction; she had considerable knowledge of
10368-562: The ancient world was for prisoners of war and inhabitants of defeated cities to be sold as slaves). These revolts caused increasing official hostility from the reign of Vespasian onwards. The most serious measure was the Fiscus Judaicus , which was a tax payable by all Jews in the Roman Empire. The new tax replaced the tithe that had formerly been sent to the Temple in Jerusalem (destroyed by
10512-435: The city of Pisa for residence, and by Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga , at whose court Joseph da Fano , a Jew, was a favorite. They were again permitted to read the Talmud and other Hebrew books, provided that they were printed according to the rules of censorship approved by Sixtus V. From Italy, where these expurgated books were printed by thousands, they were sent to the Jews of other various countries. Giuseppe Ciante (d. 1670),
10656-417: The condition of the Jews did not grow worse; and the same was the case in the several smaller states into which Italy was divided. Both popes and states were so absorbed in continual external and internal dissensions that the Jews were left in peace. In every individual state of Italy a certain amount of protection was granted to them in order to secure the advantages of their commercial enterprise. The fact that
10800-459: The construction of a Third Temple has been a formal and mandatory part of the thrice-daily Jewish prayer services. However, the question of whether and when to construct the Third Temple is disputed both within the Jewish community and without; groups within Judaism argue both for and against construction of a new Temple, while the expansion of Abrahamic religion since the 1st century CE has made
10944-494: The death of Pope Paul III (1534–1549), who had showed favor to the Jews, a period of strife, persecution, and despondency set in. A few years later the Jews were exiled from Genoa , among the refugees being Joseph Hakohen , physician to the doge Andrea Doria and eminent historian. Duke Ercole allowed the Marranos , driven from Spain and Portugal, to enter his dominions and to profess Judaism freely and openly. Samuel Usque , also
11088-519: The early Arabic names for Jerusalem is Bayt al-Maqdis, which preserves the memory of the Temple. The Temple Mount is home to two monumental Islamic structures, the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque , which date to the Umayyad period. The site, known to Muslims as the "Al-Aqsa Mosque compound" or Haram al-Sharif, is considered the third-holiest site in Islam . The Christian New Testament and tradition hold that important events in Jesus ' life took place in
11232-700: The edict of expulsion by the Spanish Inquisition. Throughout the 16th century, Jews gradually moved from the south of Italy to the north, with conditions worsening for Jews in Rome after 1556 and the Venetian Republic in the 1580s. Many Jews from Venice and the surrounding area migrated to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth at this time. When Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, many of them found refuge in Italy, where they were given protection by King Ferdinand I of Naples . One of
11376-416: The fifth order, or division, of the Mishnah (compiled between 200 and 220 CE), provides detailed descriptions and discussions of the religious laws connected with Temple service including the sacrifices , the Temple and its furnishings, as well as the priests who carried out the duties and ceremonies of its service. Tractates of the order deal with the sacrifices of animals, birds, and meal offerings ,
11520-565: The fire-offerings of Israel and their prayer receive with favor. Blessed is He who receives the service of His people Israel with favor" (similar to what is today the 17th blessing of the Amidah), and the Priestly Blessing, and on the Sabbath they recited one blessing; "May He who causes His name to dwell in this House, cause to dwell among you love and brotherliness, peace and friendship" on behalf of
11664-417: The first Italian rabbinical college, in which Lelio della Torre and Samuel David Luzzatto taught. Luzzatto was a man of great intellect; he wrote in pure Hebrew upon philosophy, history, literature, criticism, and grammar. Many distinguished rabbis came from the rabbinical college of Padua. Zelman , Moses Tedeschi , and Castiglioni followed at Trieste the purposes and the principles of Luzzatto's school. At
11808-438: The followers of Maimonides and his opponents wrought most serious damage to the interests of Judaism. The rise of poetry in Italy at the time of Dante influenced the Jews also. The rich and the powerful, partly by reason of sincere interest, partly in obedience to the spirit of the times, became patrons of Jewish writers, thus inducing the greatest activity on their part. This activity was particularly noticeable at Rome, where
11952-473: The following definition of "Temple" in his Mishne Torah (Hil. Beit Ha-Bechirah ): They are enjoined to make, in what concerns it (i.e. the building of the Temple), a holy site and an inner-sanctum, and where there is positioned in front of the holy site a certain place that is called a 'Hall' ( Hebrew : אולם ). The three of these places are called 'Sanctuary' ( Hebrew : היכל ). They are [also] enjoined to make
12096-538: The four rabbis assigned to the committee which was to draw up the answers to the twelve questions proposed to the Assembly of Notables, two, Cologna and Segre, were Italians, and were elected respectively first and second vice-presidents of the Sanhedrin. But the liberty acquired by the Jews under Napoleon was of short duration; it disappeared with his downfall. Pope Pius VII , on regaining possession of his realms, reinstalled
12240-403: The ghetto and of the city. The fugitives, together with their wives and children, repaired to the neighboring city of Ferrara. Then Pius V decided to banish the Jews from all his dominions, and, despite the enormous loss which was likely to result from this measure, and the remonstrances of influential and well-meaning cardinals, the Jews (in all about 1,000 families) were actually expelled from all
12384-416: The ghetto, thereby hoping to secure the spoils for himself. The Jews were ordered to leave the city, taking with them only their personal clothing and three gold ducats per capita. There were retained enough Jews to act as guides to the places where their coreligionists were supposed to have hidden their treasures. Through three Jewish zealots these circumstances came to the knowledge of the emperor, who ordered
12528-643: The governor, Collalto, to issue a decree permitting the Jews to return and promising them the restoration of their goods. Only about 800, however, returned, the others having died. The victories in Europe of the Turks, who brought their armies up to the very walls of Vienna in a 1683 siege , helped even in Italy to incite the Christian population against the Jews, who remained friendly to the Ottoman Empire . In Padua, in 1683,
12672-672: The greatest number of accessions; but many Jews passed on from these cities to Ancona , Venice, Calabria, and thence to Florence and Padua . Venice, imitating the odious measures of the German cities, assigned to the Jews a special quarter ( ghetto ). The ultra-Catholic party tried with all the means at its disposal to introduce the Inquisition into the Neapolitan realm, then under Spanish rule . Charles V , upon his return from his victories in Africa,
12816-406: The hands of a Jew, Jehiel of Pisa . The influential position of this successful financier was of the greatest advantage to his coreligionists at the time of the exile from Spain . The Jews were also successful as skilled medical practitioners. William of Portaleone , physician to King Ferdinand I of Naples , and to the ducal houses of Sforza and Gonzaga , was one of the ablest of that time. He
12960-492: The historians of this period scarcely make mention of the Jews, suggests that their circumstances were tolerable. There were several expulsions, including a brief one from Bologna in 1172, and forced conversions: in Trani in 1380 there were four synagogues, transformed into churches at the time of Charles III of Naples , while 310 local Jews were forced to be baptized. A nephew of Rabbi Nathan ben Jehiel acted as administrator of
13104-448: The immigration of Jews expelled from Portugal in 1497 and from Provence in 1498. The popes and many of the most influential cardinals openly violated one of the most severe enactments of the Council of Basel , namely, that prohibiting Christians from employing Jewish physicians; they even gave the latter positions at the papal court. The Jewish communities of Naples and of Rome received
13248-696: The importance of visiting the holy site. In another hadith the prophet Muhammad said, "You should not undertake a special journey to visit any place other than the following three Masjids with the expectations of getting greater reward: the Sacred Masjid of Makkah (Ka’bah), this Masjid of mine (the Prophet’s Masjid in Madinah), and Masjid Al-Aqsa (of Jerusalem)." According to Seyyed Hossein Nasr , professor of Islamic Studies at George Washington University, Jerusalem (i.e.,
13392-766: The issue contentious within Christian and Islamic thought as well. Furthermore, the complicated political status of Jerusalem makes reconstruction difficult, while Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock have been constructed at the traditional physical location of the Temple. In 363 CE, the Roman emperor Julian had ordered Alypius of Antioch to rebuild the Temple as part of his campaign to strengthen non-Christian religions. The attempt failed, with contemporary accounts mentioning divine fire falling from Heaven but also perhaps due to sabotage, an accidental fire, or an earthquake in Galilee . The Book of Ezekiel prophesies what would be
13536-481: The knowledge of his works. The effect of this on the Italian Jews was apparent in their love of freedom of thought and their esteem for literature, as well as in their adherence to the literal rendering of the Biblical texts and their opposition to fanatical cabalists and mystic theories. Among other devotees of these theories was Immanuel ben Solomon of Rome, the celebrated friend of Dante Aligheri . The discord between
13680-601: The land which You gave to their fathers. ... If there be in the land famine, if there be pestilence, if there be blasting or mildew, locust or caterpillar; if their enemy besiege them in the land of their cities; whatever plague, whatever sickness there be; whatever prayer and supplication be made by any person of all Your people Israel, who shall know every man the plague of his own heart, and spread forth his hands toward this house - may You hear in heaven Your dwelling-place, and forgive, and do, and render to every man according to all his ways, whose heart You know. Seder Kodashim ,
13824-537: The late Roman Republican period (from around 150 BC). They were largely Greek -speaking and poor. As Rome had increasing contact with and military/trade dealings with the Greek-speaking Levant , during the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE , many Greeks, as well as Jews, came to Rome as merchants or were brought there as slaves. The Romans appear to have viewed the Jews as followers of peculiar, backward religious customs, but antisemitism as it would come to be in
13968-616: The laws of bringing a sacrifice, such as the sin offering and the guilt offering , and the laws of misappropriation of sacred property. In addition, the order contains a description of the Second Temple ( tractate Middot ), and a description and rules about the daily sacrifice service in the Temple ( tractate Tamid ). In the Babylonian Talmud , all the tractates have Gemara – rabbinical commentary and analysis – for all their chapters; some chapters of Tamid, and none on Middot and Kinnim. The Jerusalem Talmud has no Gemara on any of
14112-684: The leaders of several kingdoms within Italy, thereby making the Venetian Senate concerned if whether there would be difficulties collaborating with Solomon of Udine. However, through the influence of the Venetian diplomats themselves, and particularly of the Patrician, Marcantonio Barbaro of the noble Barbaro family , who esteemed Udine highly, Solomon was received with great honors at the Doge's Palace . In virtue of this, Udine received an exalted position within
14256-529: The modern era, though the Temple in Jerusalem still features prominently in Judaism . As an object of longing and a symbol of future redemption, the Temple has been commemorated in Jewish tradition through prayer, liturgical poetry, art, poetry, architecture, and other forms of expression. Outside of Judaism, the Temple (and today's Temple Mount) also carries a high level of significance in Islam and Christianity . One of
14400-519: The north side, beginning with the northwest corner, there were four gates: The Hall of Hewn Stones (Hebrew: לשכת הגזית Lishkat haGazit ), also known as the Chamber of Hewn Stone , was the meeting place, or council-chamber, of the Sanhedrin during the Second Temple period (6th century BCE – 1st century CE). The Talmud deduces that it was built into the north wall of the Temple in Jerusalem, half inside
14544-569: The oldest continuous Jewish communities in the world, existing from classical times until today. Most certainly, it is known that in 139 BCE, Simon Maccabeus sent a Hasmonean embassy to Rome in order to strengthen his alliance with the Roman Republic against the Hellenistic Seleucid kingdom . The ambassadors received a cordial welcome from their coreligionists already established in Rome. Large numbers of Jews even lived in Rome during
14688-461: The original Latin text and a Hebrew translation prepared by Ciantes, assisted by Jewish apostates, the Summa divi Thomae Aquinatis ordinis praedicatorum Contra Gentiles quam Hebraicè eloquitur... . Until the present this remains the only significant translation of a major Latin scholastic work in modern Hebrew." It was strange that under Philip II the Jews exiled from all parts of Spain were tolerated in
14832-415: The period of grace was short; for Martin's successor, Eugenius IV , at first favorably disposed toward the Jews, ultimately reenacted all the restrictive laws issued by Benedict. In Italy, however, his bull was generally disregarded. The great centers, such as Venice , Florence , Genoa , and Pisa , realized that their commercial interests were of more importance than the affairs of the spiritual leaders of
14976-522: The period were not seriously opposed to the Jews; and this accounts for the ardor with which the latter took up arms for the Ostrogoths as against the forces of Justinian —particularly at Naples , where the remarkable defense of the city was maintained almost entirely by Jews. After the failure of the various attempts to make Italy a province of the Byzantine empire , the Jews had to suffer much oppression from
15120-481: The persecutions and the violence of past times had to a large extent disappeared. The last outrage against the Jews of Italy was connected with the case of Edgardo Mortara , which occurred in Bologna in 1858. In 1859 most of the papal states were annexed into the united Kingdom of Italy under King Victor Emanuel II . Except in and near Rome, where oppression lasted until the end of the papal dominion (20 September 1870),
15264-480: The printing of which one of his predecessors, Leo X , had given his sanction. On the Jewish New Year Day (9 September) in 1553, all the copies of the Talmud in the principal cities of Italy, in the printing establishments of Venice, and even in the distant island of Candia ( Crete ), were burned. He was restrained from the execution of the scheme by Cardinal Alexander Farnese who succeeded in bringing to light
15408-515: The property of Pope Alexander III , who showed his amicable feelings toward the Jews at the Lateran Council of 1179. He defeated the designs of hostile prelates who advocated anti-Jewish laws. Under Norman rule , the Jews of southern Italy and of Sicily enjoyed even greater freedom; they were considered the equals of Christians, and were permitted to follow any career. They also had jurisdiction over their own affairs. The canonical laws against
15552-580: The refugees, Don Isaac Abravanel , even received a position at the Neapolitan court, which he retained under the succeeding king, Alfonso II . The Spanish Jews were also well received in Ferrara by Duke Ercole d'Este I and in Tuscany through the mediation of Jehiel of Pisa and his sons. But at Rome and Genoa they experienced all the vexations and torments that hunger, plague, and poverty bring with them, and they were forced to accept baptism to escape starvation. In
15696-502: The relentless persecutions of the Avignon -based antipope Benedict XIII . They hailed his successor, Martin V , with delight. The synod convoked by the Jews at Bologna, and continued at Forlì , sent a deputation with costly gifts to the new pope, praying him to abolish the oppressive laws promulgated by Benedict and to grant the Jews those privileges which had been accorded them under previous popes. The deputation succeeded in its mission, but
15840-463: The right of succession was contested at the time of the Thirty Years' war , and the city was besieged by the German soldiery of Wallenstein . After a valiant defense, in which the Jews labored at the walls until the approach of the Sabbath, the city fell into the power of the besiegers, and for three days was at the mercy of fire and sword. The commander-in-chief, Altringer, forbade the soldiers to sack
15984-545: The same time, Elijah Benamozegh , a man of great knowledge and the author of several works, distinguished himself in the old rabbinical school at Leghorn. The return to medieval servitude after the Italian restoration did not last long; and the Revolution of 1848 , which convulsed all Europe, brought great advantages to the Jews. Although this was followed by restoration of the Papal States only four months later, in early 1849, yet
16128-507: The sanctuary and half outside, with doors providing access both to the temple and to the outside. The chamber is said to have resembled a basilica in appearance, having two entrances: one in the east and one in the west. On the east side was the Gate of Nicanor, between the Women's Courtyard and the main Temple Courtyard, which had two minor doorways, one on its right and one on its left. On
16272-487: The study of the works of Maimonides —particularly of the " Moreh Nebukim "—the favorite writer of Hillel of Verona (1220–1295). This last-named litterateur and philosopher practised medicine at Rome and in other Italian cities, and translated several medical works into Hebrew. The liberal spirit of the writings of Maimonides had other votaries in Italy; e.g., Shabbethai ben Solomon of Rome and Zerahiah Ḥen of Barcelona , who migrated to Rome and contributed much to spread
16416-433: The temple in 164 BCE and the Jews celebrate this event to this day as the central theme of the non-biblical festival of Hanukkah . During the Roman era, Pompey entered (and thereby desecrated) the Holy of Holies in 63 BCE, but left the Temple intact. In 54 BCE, Crassus looted the Temple treasury. Around 20 BCE, the building was renovated and expanded by Herod the Great , and became known as Herod's Temple . It
16560-457: The time of the Thirty Years' War . The Jews exiled from the papal dominions had repeatedly found refuge in Mantua, where the dukes of Gonzaga had accorded protection to them, as they had done to the Jews already resident there. The next to the last duke, although a cardinal, favored them sufficiently to enact a statute for the maintenance of order in the ghetto. After the death of the last of this house
16704-541: The times their corresponding offerings were performed in the Temple. The Temple is mentioned extensively in Orthodox services . Conservative Judaism retains mentions of the Temple and its restoration, but removes references to the sacrifices . References to sacrifices on holidays are made in the past tense, and petitions for their restoration are removed. Mentions in Orthodox Jewish services include: The destruction of
16848-453: The tractates of Kodashim. The Talmud ( Yoma 9b) describes traditional theological reasons for the destruction: "Why was the first Temple destroyed? Because the three cardinal sins were rampant in society: idol worship, licentiousness, and murder… And why then was the second Temple – wherein the society was involved in Torah, commandments and acts of kindness – destroyed? Because gratuitous hatred
16992-410: The true culprit. Marcellus' successor, Paul IV , confirmed all the bulls against the Jews issued up to that time and added more oppressive measures, including a variety of prohibitions designed to condemn Jews to abject misery, depriving them of the means of sustenance, and denying them the exercise of all professions. The papal bull Cum nimis absurdum of 1555 created the Roman ghetto and required
17136-645: The two religious structures that served as the central places of worship for Israelites and Jews on the modern-day Temple Mount in the Old City of Jerusalem . According to the Hebrew Bible , the First Temple was built in the 10th century BCE, during the reign of Solomon over the United Kingdom of Israel . It stood until c. 587 BCE , when it was destroyed during the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem . Almost
17280-536: The verses revealed (Sura 2:144, 149–150). Secondly, during the Meccan part of his life, he reported to have been to Jerusalem by night and prayed in the Temple, as the first part of his otherworldly journey ( Isra and Mi'raj ). Imam Abdul Hadi Palazzi , leader of Italian Muslim Assembly, quotes the Quran to support Judaism's special connection to the Temple Mount. According to Palazzi, "The most authoritative Islamic sources affirm
17424-644: The virtue of visiting and praying in it, or at least sending oil to light its lamps. In a hadith compiled by Al-Tabarani , Bayhaqi , and Suyuti , the Prophet Muhammad said, "A prayer in Makkah (Ka’bah) is worth 1,000,000 times (reward), a prayer in my mosque (Madinah) is worth 1,000 times and a prayer in Al-Aqsa Sanctuary is worth 500 times more reward than anywhere else." Another hadith compiled by imams Muhammad al-Bukhari , Muslim , and Abu Dawud expounds on
17568-411: The war of 1848 against Austria, and his grateful country erected to him a memorial in bronze. Also erected in the palace of the doges there was a marble bust of Samuele Romanin , a celebrated Jewish historian of Venice. Florence, too, has commemorated a modern Jewish poet, Solomon Fiorentino , by placing a marble tablet upon the house in which he was born. The secretary and faithful friend of Count Cavour
17712-401: The wealthiest Jews were imprisoned and tortured to force false confessions from them. When Rabbi Ishmael Ḥanina was being racked, he declared that should the pains of torture elicit from him any words that might be construed as casting reflection on Judaism, they would be false and null. Jews were forbidden to leave the city, but many succeeded in escaping by bribing the watchmen at the gates of
17856-622: The wearing of yellow badges . The Jews were also forced to labor at the restoration of the walls of Rome without any compensation. Cum nimis absurdum limited each ghetto in the Papal States to one synagogue. In the early 16th century, there were at least seven synagogues across Rome, each serving as the house of worship for distinct demographic subgroup: Roman Jews ( Benè Romì ), Sicilian Jews, Italian Jews (that were neither Benè Romì nor Sicilian), German Ashkenazim, French Provençal, Castilian Sephardim, and Catalan Sephardim. Many Jews abandoned Rome and Ancona and went to Ferrara and Pesaro . Here
18000-420: The weekly Priestly Guard that departed. In addition to the sacrifices, the Temple was considered a special location for prayer to God: When Your people Israel are smitten down before the enemy, when they sin against You, if they turn again to You, and confess Your name, and pray and make supplication to You in this house - may You hear in heaven, and forgive the sin of Your people Israel, and bring them back to
18144-753: The western wall, which was relatively unimportant, there were two gates that did not have any name. The Mishnah lists concentric circles of holiness surrounding the Temple: Holy of Holies; Sanctuary; Vestibule; Court of the Priests; Court of the Israelites; Court of the Women; Temple Mount; the walled city of Jerusalem ; all the walled cities of the Land of Israel ; and the borders of the Land of Israel. The Talmud speaks also of important presents which Queen Helena of Adiabene gave to
18288-480: The whole, however, Hebrew literary culture was not flourishing. The only liturgical author of merit was Joab ben Solomon, some of whose compositions are extant. Toward the second half of the 13th century, signs appeared of a better Hebrew culture and of a more profound study of the Talmud. Isaiah di Trani the Elder (1232–1279), a high Talmudic authority, wrote many celebrated responsa . David, his son, and Isaiah di Trani
18432-629: Was as well disposed to the Jews as Sixtus had been; but during his short pontificate he was almost always ill. Clement VIII (1592–1605), who succeeded him, renewed the anti-Jewish bulls of Paul IV and Pius V, and exiled the Jews from all his territories with the exception of Rome, Ancona, and Avignon; but, in order not to lose the commerce with the East, he gave certain privileges to the Turkish Jews. The exiles repaired to Tuscany, where they were favorably received by Duke Ferdinand dei Medici , who assigned to them
18576-526: Was assassinated the year after his ascension to the throne. Antiochus IV Epiphanes succeeded his older brother to the Seleucid throne and immediately adopted his father's previous policy of universal Hellenisation. The Jews rebelled again and Antiochus, in a rage, retaliated in force. Considering the previous episodes of discontent, the Jews became incensed when the religious observances of Sabbath and circumcision were officially outlawed. When Antiochus erected
18720-461: Was called for by Cyrus the Great and began in 538 BCE, after the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire the year before. According to some 19th-century calculations, work started later, in April 536 BCE and was completed on 21 February, 515 BCE, 21 years after the start of the construction. This date is obtained by coordinating Ezra 3:8–10 (the third day of Adar , in the sixth year of the reign of Darius
18864-558: Was captured from Jordan by Israel in 1967 during the Six-Day War , allowing Jews once again to visit the holy site. Jordan had occupied East Jerusalem and the Temple Mount immediately following Israel's declaration of independence on May 14, 1948. Israel officially unified East Jerusalem , including the Temple Mount, with the rest of Jerusalem in 1980 under the Jerusalem Law , though United Nations Security Council Resolution 478 declared
19008-645: Was destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE during the Siege of Jerusalem . During the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Romans in 132–135 CE, Simon bar Kokhba and Rabbi Akiva wanted to rebuild the Temple, but bar Kokhba's revolt failed and the Jews were banned from Jerusalem (except for Tisha B'Av ) by the Roman Empire. The emperor Julian allowed the Temple to be rebuilt, but the Galilee earthquake of 363 ended all attempts ever since. By
19152-761: Was elected consul for the first of three years in a row. Civil wars would follow with the first breaking out in 238, another in 249 followed by a third in 253. From 235 through 284 the average reign of a Roman Emperor was just 18 months, down from average just over 9 years during the first centuries of the Empire. Temple in Jerusalem The Temple in Jerusalem , or alternatively the Holy Temple ( Hebrew : בֵּית־הַמִּקְדָּשׁ , Modern : Bēt haMīqdaš , Tiberian : Bēṯ hamMīqdāš ; Arabic : بيت المقدس , Bayt al-Maqdis ), refers to
19296-657: Was eventually honored for his services and returned to Constantinople, leaving his son Nathan in Venice to be educated. Nathan was one of the first Jewish students to have studied at the University of Padua , under the inclusive admission policy established by Marcantonio Barbaro . The success of Udine inspired many Jews in the Ottoman Empire, particularly in Constantinople, where they had attained great prosperity. The position of
19440-463: Was found at the southwest corner of Temple Mount, and is believed to mark the site where the priests used to declare the advent of Shabbat and other Jewish holidays. Ritual objects used in the temple service were carried off and many are likely located in museum collections, in particular, that of the Vatican Museums . There are three main theories as to where the Temple stood: where the Dome of
19584-425: Was incorporated in the dominions of the Church under Clement VIII ., who decreed the banishment of the Jews. Aldobrandini, a relative of the pope, took possession of Ferrara in the pontiff's name. Seeing that all the commerce was in the hands of the Jews, he complied with their request for an exemption of five years from the decree, although this was much against the pope's wish. The Mantuan Jews suffered seriously at
19728-560: Was narrowly avoided in 332 BCE when the Jews refused to acknowledge the deification of Alexander the Great of Macedonia, but Alexander was placated at the last minute by astute diplomacy and flattery. After the death of Alexander on 13 June 323 BCE, and the dismembering of his empire, the Ptolemies came to rule over Judea and the Temple. Under the Ptolemies, the Jews were given many civil liberties and lived content under their rule. However, when
19872-486: Was on the point of exiling the Jews from Naples when Benvenida, wife of Samuel Abravanel , caused him to defer the action. A few years later, in 1533, a similar decree was proclaimed, but upon this occasion also Samuel Abravanel and others were able through their influence to avert for several years the execution of the edict. Many Jews repaired to the Ottoman Empire , some to Ancona, and still others to Ferrara , where they were received graciously by Duke Ercole II . After
20016-442: Was one of the world's first Jewish heads of government (not converted to Christianity). Another Jew, Ernesto Nathan served as mayor of Rome from 1907 to 1913. By 1902, out of 350 senators, there were six Jews. By 1920, there were nineteen Jewish senators. Pope John Paul II gave access to some formerly secret Vatican Archives to scholars, one of whom, David Kertzer , used information thus obtained in his book The Popes Against
20160-401: Was only in 835 BCE when Jehoash, King of Judah , in the second year of his reign invested considerable sums in reconstruction, only to have it stripped again for Sennacherib , King of Assyria c. 700 BCE . The First Temple was totally destroyed in the Siege of Jerusalem by the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 586 BCE. According to the Book of Ezra , construction of the Second Temple
20304-477: Was rampant in society." Part of the traditional Jewish morning service, the part surrounding the Shema prayer, is essentially unchanged from the daily worship service performed in the Temple. In addition, the Amidah prayer traditionally replaces the Temple's daily tamid and special-occasion Mussaf (additional) offerings (there are separate versions for the different types of sacrifices ). They are recited during
20448-499: Was the Piedmontese Isaac Artom ; while L'Olper, later rabbi of Turin , and also the friend and counselor of Mazzini, was one of the most courageous advocates of Italian independence. The names of the Jewish soldiers who died in the cause of Italian liberty were placed along with those of their Christian fellow soldiers on the monuments erected in their honour. Italian prime minister Luigi Luzzatti , who took office in 1910,
20592-423: Was the first of the long line of illustrious physicians in his family. It is estimated that in 1492 Jews made up between 3% and 6% of the population of Sicily . Many Sicilian Jews first went to Calabria , which already had a Jewish community since the 4th century. In 1524 Jews were expelled from Calabria, and in 1540 from the entire Kingdom of Naples , as all these areas fell under Spanish rule and were subject to
20736-497: Was the order that every Jew must always wear, conspicuously displayed, a special yellow badge . In 1235 Pope Gregory IX published the first bull against the ritual murder accusation . Other popes followed his example, particularly Innocent IV in 1247, Gregory X in 1272, Clement VI in 1348, Gregory XI in 1371, Martin V in 1422, Nicholas V in 1447, Sixtus V in 1475, Paul III in 1540, and later Alexander VII , Clement XIII , and Clement XIV . The Jews suffered much from
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