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76-512: The word Ishikari comes from the Ainu language , and several theories exist as to the meaning of the name. "Ishikari" is written in the Japanese language using ateji , or kanji characters used to phonetically represent native or borrowed words. The first, 石 , means to "stone", and the second, 狩 , means "to hunt". The meaning of the written form of Ishikari has no relationship to the meaning of word in

152-770: A bill officially recognising the indigeneity of the Ainu people in 2019. On 12 July 2020, the Japanese government opened the National Ainu Museum in Shiraoi , Hokkaido . It forms one of three institutions named Upopoy (which means 'singing in a large group' in the Ainu language) alongside the National Ainu Park and a memorial site on high ground on the east side of Lake Poroto (ポロト湖) where Ainu services are held. Its director, Masahiro Nomoto, says that "One of our main objectives

228-449: A V-shape, and decorated with lacquer, leather, or silver plating fittings. This is thought to have been some kind of spell tool, and was valued not because of the high cost of the raw materials or the difficulty of manufacturing and processing, but because of the powerful spiritual power that was thought to reside in this object. Treasures other than the hoe-shaped objects were circulated among influential Ainu people as rare goods, just like

304-529: A conversation" in Ainu, 3.4% answered that they "would be able to converse a little", 44.6% answered they "could barely converse at all", and 48.1% answered that they "would not be able to converse at all". In a subsequent survey of 472 respondents in 2023, these figures had shifted to 0.8%, 8.9%, 19.3%, and 69.3% respectively. The Japanese government made a decision to recognize Ainu as an indigenous language in June 2008. The Japanese government approved and passed

380-420: A culture of making idols. This Iomanthe has the meaning of entertaining Ramak, who has come to Ainu Mossi Lai to deliver bear meat and bear fur in the form of a bear, with a grand feast and many souvenirs to return to Ramak's world. The Ainu ritual is called Kamuinomi, and is performed to various gods, but when starting Kamuinomi, the first prayer is to the fire god apehuti Kamui. This is an act of rooting for

456-497: A jacket. Depending on the temperature of the weather, they may also wear tekunpe (literally "hand-on things", i.e. gloves or mittens), a konci ( hood ), or hos (leggings). During ceremonies, men wear a sapanpe ( crown ) on their heads, and women wear a matanpushi (an embroidered headband). Sakhalin Ainu women wear hetmuye , a headdress made of cloth wrapped in a ring, on their heads during rituals. Traditional Ainu clothing appears similar in tailoring to

532-459: A large area comparable to the provinces of Japan or to a Chinese county . However, after Shakushain's revolt (1669 – 1672), which was partly caused by the division of the region into separate iwor , the political unity of the Ainu region was dismantled with the shift to the place contracting system . The theory that Ainu society was a disparity society with extremely unequal distribution of wealth has been presented. Based on literature and

608-508: A ritual in the Japanese archipelago during the Jomon period in which wild boars were raised for a certain period of time and their souls were sent away. The Jomon people of Hokkaido and the following Jomon people also introduced wild boar piglets and imitated this ritual, and eventually the wild boar was replaced by the brown bear , which is the Iomanthe. The Ainu do not have idolatry , nor do they have

684-479: A syllable in the stem. This will typically fall on the first syllable if that is long (has a final consonant or a diphthong), and will otherwise fall on the second syllable, though there are exceptions to this generalization. Typologically , Ainu is similar in word order (and some aspects of phonology) to Japanese . Ainu has a canonical word order of subject, object, verb , and uses postpositions rather than prepositions . Nouns can cluster to modify one another;

760-430: A window on the back of the upper part in front of the hearth for the kamui (god) to enter and leave. On the outside of the cise, there was an epereset (a cage for keeping bear cubs), a pu (pantry), and an asinru (toilet). A few to a dozen of these cises formed a village called a kotan . In addition to cise , Ainu villages often also had areas called casi , also known as chashi from

836-456: Is categorized as animism . They believed that animals, plants, tools, natural phenomena (tsunamis, earthquakes, etc.), and pestilence all had their own spirituality, and that these things were inhabited by spirits called "ramak". The world was divided into the present world (Ainu Mosii company) and the world inhabited by lamats (Kamuimoshiri company), and lamats were believed to inhabit various things and came to Ainu Mosii with some kind of role. It

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912-404: Is in fact mandatory for incorporating oblique nouns. Like incorporation, applicatives have grown less common in the modern language. Ainu has a closed class of plural verbs , and some of these are suppletive . Ainu has a system of verbal affixes (shown below) which mark agreement for person and case. The specific cases that are marked differ by person, with nominative–accusative marking for

988-525: Is made from fibers from the bark of the Ulmus laciniata (lobed elm) and linden trees, has become common since the 17th century. In addition, a large amount of cotton clothing was brought in by the Japanese, and kosode and jinwaori became established as ceremonial clothing. Silk costumes were also imported from China through the Shantan trade , and were worn in various ways. The silk costumes were sold to

1064-475: Is marked by material cultural features such as iron pots, lacquerware bowls, sake chopsticks , bone hunting tools , hooked harpoons for salmon fishing, and extended burials. The Ainu culture is also known to have had regional differences. According to Rinzō Mamiya 's Hoki Bunkai Yōwa , the Sakhalin Ainu adopted cultural elements from surrounding cultures, such as the use of dog sledding and skiing . In

1140-570: Is not practiced in the Okhotsk culture area, nor in the Ainu culture of Hokkaido. However, in northern Japan, the mummies of three generations of the Oshu Fujiwara clan , who are said to have controlled northern trade in the late Heian period, are preserved in Hiraizumi . It is thought that the Ainu lived in social units called kotan (small village, usually five or six houses) when the Ainu culture

1216-498: Is rubbed in. Because the procedure is quite painful, the tattoo is applied in small increments, several times. Philipp Franz von Siebold , a German physician and naturalist living in Japan, went to the Ainu village of Hiratori, Ryusha-gun, Hokkaido, and found that "Ainu tattooing is done only on women, and begins with multiple horizontal wounds made with a small knife just above the upper lip of girls as young as seven or eight years old, where

1292-505: Is suggested that Hokkaido was continuously occupied by a people who undertook a cultural shift. This is similar to the situation in which the Japanese maintained the Heian culture until the 12th century, and then shifted to the Kamakura culture in the 13th century. In other words, the population remained the same, but the culture changed. Although there was not as much of a material cultural break as

1368-461: Is that the term "Ainu culture" can mean both "the culture of an ethnic group" and "a cultural style that existed at a certain time in history". Although the Ainu still exist as an ethnic group, it cannot be said that they have retained their culture completely in the archaeological sense, since modern Ainu do not live in Chise anymore and do not lead a fishing and gathering lifestyle. However, modern Ainu are

1444-412: Is the culture of the Ainu people , from around the 13th century (late Kamakura period ) to the present. Today, most Ainu people live a life superficially similar to that of mainstream Japanese people , partly due to cultural assimilation . However, while some people conceal or downplay their Ainu identity, Ainu culture is still retained among many groups. The Ainu way of life is called Ainupuri in

1520-540: Is to preserve and revive the language, as this is one of the most threatened elements of Ainu culture ". Announcements on some bus routes in Hokkaido can since be heard in Ainu, efforts are being undertaken to archive Ainu speech recordings by the Agency for Cultural Affairs , and there is a popular educational YouTube channel which teaches conversational Ainu. While these measures have been praised for taking steps to protect

1596-422: The makiri (knives for men) and tasiro (mountain swords similar to machetes ), which were given male privileges , the kem (sewing needles) and cispo (needle cases), which were used for clothing, food, and shelter, and the shu (iron pots and pans) and menoko makiri (knives for women), which were used for food, were also given strict female privileges . Tattoos were an important symbol of

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1672-403: The Ainu language (literally ainu + puri "customs, manners" ). The unique Ainu patterns and oral literature ( yukar ) have been selected as features of Hokkaido Heritage . The term "Ainu culture" has two meanings. One is an anthropological perspective, referring to the cultural forms held by the Ainu people as an ethnic group, which includes both the culture held or created by

1748-610: The Jōmon and Yayoi (until around Umataikoku ) and fell into disuse in Japanese society with the Yamatization (Yamato Court). It remained a custom in Ezo , but disappeared as they assimilated into Japanese society. In Amami and Ryukyu , the custom remained until the modern era. The custom of tattooing women's faces has been revived among the Māori people in modern-day New Zealand, but tattoos specific to

1824-573: The Jōmon period through to the Satsumon culture . Although pit dwellings were preserved among the Ainu of the Kuril Islands and the Ainu living in the north, there is only one site in Hokkaido where flat-land structures and pit dwellings are mixed, the Sapporo k528 site, which is believed to be from the Satsumon culture . The interior of a cise was usually a square room. There was a hearth inside, and

1900-458: The Oshima Peninsula to Shiraoi , the reed-thatched siariki-kitai-cise found from Shiraoi to Tokachi and Kunashir Island , and the bark-thatched yaara kitai cise found from Tokachi to Kunashir Island. The maximum area of a cise is thought to be about 100 square meters. The dwellings built on flat land are distinct from the pit dwellings that were the main type of dwelling from

1976-558: The Quipu system among the Inca of South America . There was a rumor or myth among the Japanese that the Ainu could not count, but this is not true. It is possible that the Japanese, such as the Matsumae clan, intentionally refrained from teaching the written language to the Ainu for political reasons, fearing that their misdeeds would be written down. There is also the view that the Ainu did not accept

2052-499: The endonym of the Ainu people , aynu ( アイヌ ), meaning "people" or "human". According to UNESCO , Ainu is an endangered language with few native speakers. Although there are estimated to be at least 30,000 Ainu people in Japan, there is a low rate of self-identification as Ainu among people with Ainu ethnic roots. Knowledge of the language was already endangered by the 1960s and has continued to decline since. In 2011 , just 304 people within Japan were reported to understand

2128-618: The unequal treaty in the Shogunate and early Meiji periods. However, only a few converts were reported, and those were ridiculed as "Ntsa Ainu" (Russian Ainu) by other Ainu. The southern part of Sakhalin, which was returned to Japan by the Treaty of Portsmouth signed in 1905 as a result of the victory in the Russo-Japanese War , has seen 336 of the Sakhalin Ainu who emigrated to Hokkaido in

2204-808: The Ainu language and culture, the museum and related government efforts have been criticised for failing to acknowledge the history of Japanese discrimination against the Ainu people, and for the government's refusal to apologise for past misdeeds against the Ainu. Ainu syllables are (C)V(C); they have an obligatory vowel, and an optional syllable onset and coda consisting of one consonant. There are few consonant clusters . There are five vowels in Ainu: Obstruents /p t ts~tʃ k/ may be voiced [b d dz~dʒ ɡ] between vowels and after nasals. /t͡s/ can be heard as [ t͡ʃ ] in free variation among speakers. Both /ti/ and /tsi/ are realized as [t͡ʃi] , and /s/ becomes [ ʃ ] before /i/ and at

2280-453: The Ainu language to some extent. As of 2016 , Ethnologue listed Ainu as "nearly extinct" (class 8b). In 2017, 671 people participated in a Hokkaido government survey on the lives of Ainu people. Participants were believed to be descendants of Ainu people or those who joined Ainu families by marriage or adoption. In response to survey questions about fluency in the Ainu language, 0.7% of participants answered that they "would be able to have

2356-409: The Ainu language. Ishikari Prefecture has two airports, both serving the greater Sapporo area. 43°03′52″N 141°20′45″E  /  43.064543°N 141.345792°E  / 43.064543; 141.345792 Ainu language Ainu ( アイヌ イタㇰ , aynu itak ), or more precisely Hokkaido Ainu ( Japanese : 北海道アイヌ語 ), is a language spoken by a few elderly members of the Ainu people on

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2432-627: The Ainu people have been limited to temporary tattoos applied for specific events. The Ainu did not use a written calendar , but instead had an orally handed down calendar. The Ainu language does not have its own writing system , and traditions were passed down orally. During the Meiji period, the Ainu continued to use the "tying rope" for arithmetic and record keeping. Similar customs include straw calculation in Okinawa , Fuxi Xi knots in East Asia , and

2508-443: The Ainu today primarily have Buddhism as their family religion. In the past, Ainu dwellings were unique dugout pillar buildings called cise . The basic structure consisted of dug-up pillars, a roof thatched with bark or reeds , and walls with few openings also made of bark or reeds, but the details differed from region to region. For example, from the Oshima Peninsula to Shiraoi, the thatched ki-kitai-cise found from

2584-417: The Japanese kimono , but features tubular sleeves and no gussets; garments are also single-layered. There are two types of jackets: grass skin jackets such as tetarabe and utarbe made from nettle or hemp fiber, and haori -like jackets made from fur from animals like the earless seal , or skin from fish like the salmon or itou . In addition, a strong bark garment called attus , which

2660-444: The Japanese as Ezo Nishiki ( 蝦夷錦 ) or "Ezo silk", and attus material was also brought outside of Hokkaido and processed into clothing. The trinkets of the Ainu are mainly metalware, such as ninkari ( earrings ), rekutunpe ( choker , literally "throat-on thing"), tamasai ( bead necklace ), and tekunkane ( ring or bracelet , literally "hand-on metal"). In the Ainu culture, where hunting and gathering were

2736-416: The adoption of the term into Japanese . Casi are thought to have been built between the 16th and 18th centuries. There are many unanswered questions about the purpose of their construction, but they may have been defensive fortresses , treasuries, sanctuaries for ceremonies, or places for people to view some performance or ritual. So far, more than 500 casi sites have been found in Hokkaido. Before

2812-449: The body over the river is considered disrespectful to the water god. The grave markers are wooden stakes called Irurakamui (gods who carry them) and Kwa (staffs), made of wood that does not decay easily, such as enju and hashidoi . In Shizunai-cho , male grave markers are Y-shaped and female grave markers are T-shaped. The concept of a "cemetery" is said to have existed around the mid-17th century. There are considerable differences between

2888-770: The change from the Jomon to the Yayoi period , later cultural customs differed greatly from earlier ones. The Ainu culture is considered indigenous to Hokkaido , Sakhalin and the Kurils , as well as the Tōhoku region of Honshu . Early Ainu-speaking groups (mostly hunters and fishermen) also migrated into the Kamchatka Peninsula . Evidence for Ainu-speakers in Honshu is through the Ainu toponyms found in several places of northern Honshu, mostly along

2964-712: The conflict between the Menasunkur Ainu (the eastern group) and the Sumunkur Ainu (the western group) was fierce, and there were battles that resulted in many deaths. Shakshain, the chief of the Menasunkuru clan who challenged the Matsumae clan , also fought and killed Onibishi, the chief of the Sumunkuru clan. Other inter-tribal battles were fought, sometimes involving extensive travel. Disputes between kotan were decided on

3040-590: The descendants of the people who developed the archaeological Ainu culture, and the cultural styles preserved by modern Ainu are also qualified to be called Ainu culture. In 2007, Takuro Segawa proposed that the historical "Ainu culture" from the Middle Ages to the early modern period (in the archaeological context) should be called "Nibutani culture", after the Nibutani site, one of the most important archaeological sites in Hokkaido. In archaeological terms, Ainu culture

3116-485: The early Meiji period return to their homeland. In addition, Buddhism spread to the Sakhalin Ainu along with Japanese language education. However, it is reported that many Ainu still followed the ancient beliefs of Kamui. In addition, since the Meiji era, missionaries such as John Batchelor , who wanted to evangelize the Ainu, were allowed to spread Christianity in Japan with some conditions. According to an interview with Ainu conducted by Hokkaido University in 2012,

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3192-505: The early modern period, they retained cultural elements found in the Okhotsk culture in northern Hokkaido, such as the production of earthenware and the use of pit-houses during the winter. The shape of the armor also differed from the Hokkaido Ainu, with a unique combination of chest and waist armor. The Sakhalin Ainu are also notable for their custom of mummification . Mummification

3268-403: The end of syllables. /h/ is heard as [ ɸ ] when occurring before /u/ . /n/ is heard as [ ŋ ] when before /k/ , as well as in final position. A glottal stop [ ʔ ] is often inserted at the beginning of words, before an accented vowel, but is non-phonemic. The Ainu language also has a pitch accent system. Generally, words containing affixes have a high pitch on

3344-650: The first person singular, tripartite marking for the first person plural and indefinite (or 'fourth') person, and direct or 'neutral' marking for the second singular and plural, and third persons (i.e. the affixes do not differ by case). クイタㇰ。 Ku-itak. 1SG -speak クイタㇰ。 Ku-itak. 1SG-speak 'I spoke.' エイタㇰ。 E-itak. 2SG -speak エイタㇰ。 E-itak. 2SG-speak You (SG) spoke.' イタㇰ。 Itak. speak イタㇰ。 Itak. speak 'He spoke.' クアニ Kuani I クイタㇰ。 ku-itak. 1SG -speak クアニ クイタㇰ。 Kuani ku-itak. I 1SG-speak 'I spoke.' Ainu culture Ainu culture

3420-432: The gods associated with the belief in spirits. The traditional tattoo around the mouth of an adult Ainu woman is thought to resemble a beard , but some believe it resembles the mouth of a sacred snake. When this traditional tattoo is applied, the mouth of the young woman is wiped clean and disinfected with hot water infused with the bark of alder . The tip of a mantis (small knife) is used to make fine scratches, and soot

3496-793: The grave system of the Abramite culture, where burials took place around or inside the house. Russian Orthodox Churches were built in the settlement of Shikotan near Hokkaido, where the Tishima Ainu, who had lived close to the Russian culture (in Uramori and Shinchi counties), migrated during the Meiji era . There are also reports that the Russian Orthodox Church proselytized to the remaining Sakhalin Ainu and others who had acquired Sakhalin from Japan through

3572-458: The guilty party was severely punished. There was no death penalty for the Hokkaido Ainu, but for serious crimes such as murder, some sentences were difficult to survive, such as being banished from the kotan after the Achilles tendon was severed. In Sakhalin Ainu society, murderers were sentenced to be buried alive along with the bodies of their victims There is a theory that this kind of system

3648-629: The head comes at the end. Verbs, which are inherently either transitive or intransitive, accept various derivational affixes . Ainu does not have grammatical gender . Plurals are indicated by a suffix. Classical Ainu, the language of the yukar , is polysynthetic , with incorporation of nouns and adverbs; this is greatly reduced in the modern colloquial language. Applicatives may be used in Ainu to place nouns in dative , instrumental , comitative , locative , allative , or ablative roles. Besides freestanding nouns, these roles may be assigned to incorporated nouns, and such use of applicatives

3724-441: The intermediary of the Ainu, traded Japanese iron products and lacquerware in Ezo ( Karafuto and Sōya ) for silk fabrics, iron products, and glass beads, including official Qing dynasty uniforms, brought by the visiting Primorsky people. They also exchanged iron products, glass beads, and other items. The Ainu have a tradition of oral literature called yukar . The tradition of yukar chanting temporarily declined after

3800-408: The law was changed to imposing punishment and suppressing religious freedom. Siebold recorded that he was asked by the Ainu people, who were bewildered by the Meiji government's ban on tattoos, if he could approach them to object to the ban. In modern times, some Ainu women paint their mouths black as face painting , especially at important events. The custom of tattooing flourished in Japan during

3876-589: The local Hokkaido Jōmon in about 15,000 BC. The Ainu in turn formed from a blending of the local Hokkaido Jōmon and the Okhotsk tribes. According to Tanaka Sakurako from the University of British Columbia , the Ainu culture can be included into a wider "northern circumpacific region", referring to various indigenous cultures of Northeast Asia and "beyond the Bering Strait " in North America . The academic issue

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3952-405: The mainstays, farming was only a secondary element, and the development of metalware technology was limited. Therefore, rather than blacksmithing, which involved extracting, forging, and smelting metals from ores, craftsmen developed techniques to modify, repair, and reuse existing metalware. The majority of these items, with the exception of the ninkari , were made exclusively for women, and like

4028-464: The merits in open discussions called carange , to prevent the disputes from escalating into violence. The debates took place in casi , or fortified compounds. In addition to this, the custom of saimon or "trial by ordeal" remained strong, and the outcome of such ordeals constituted a pact to settle a matter. When a crime occurred in Ainu society, the village chief brought the defendant to justice at his own discretion. In general, adultery

4104-411: The modern Ainu and the culture of their ancestors. The other usage, from an archeological perspective, refers to the cultural forms created by the indigenous peoples of Hokkaido and the northern Tohoku region after the Satsumon culture period. The mainstream theory maintains that the Ainu culture originated from the local Hokkaido-Jōmon culture, a merger of the Okhotsk and Satsumon subcultures. It

4180-404: The modern era, but a movement to preserve it is now underway. Men wear a tepa (a loincloth ) and then a jacket. Women wear a sacred girdle or belt, called a raun kut ("under belt") or upsoro kut ("inner belt") on the lower abdomen. This garment traces the woman's matrilineal line. To cover the upper body, a T-shirt -like undergarment that extends down to the knees is worn, and then

4256-418: The modern era, the Ainu prized as treasure some of the items they acquired from other cultures through trade. The Ainu treasures included swords such as the Ainu sword, silverware, Chinese silk fabrics (Ezo brocade), lacquerware, and feathers of birds of prey. The most prized item by the Ainu was a metal tool called a hoe. These were made of iron or brass plates about 1 to 2 millimeters thick, processed into

4332-575: The northern Japanese island of Hokkaido . It is a member of the Ainu language family , itself considered a language family isolate with no academic consensus of origin. It is classified as Critically Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger . Until the 20th century, the Ainu languages – Hokkaido Ainu and the now-extinct Kuril Ainu and Sakhalin Ainu – were spoken throughout Hokkaido,

4408-453: The other gods through the fire gods who are close to humans. Wooden money called Inau , which is processed from white wood, is used for the Kamuinomi. The rituals are performed by men, and women are responsible for the preparations. The bodies of the dead are buried in a cemetery in the mountains away from the kotan. The cemetery is not located across the river from the village because carrying

4484-400: The results of the excavation of tombs, Takuro Segawa has pointed out that early modern Ainu society was divided into four classes: the kamoi (chiefs), the nispa (lords and nobility), the commoners, and the usiune utare (slaves), with wealth concentrated in the kamoi . The Ainu were sometimes hostile to the Japanese. There was also periodic inter-Ainu warfare. In particular,

4560-457: The soot is rubbed in. Once the tattoo around the mouth is done, the back of the hand and forearm are tattooed. Once a woman is married, she is no longer tattooed. In the case of men, there were also various tattooing customs in different regions. In some areas, men got tattoos on their shoulders, and in other areas, men got tattoos on their hands, which were said to improve their archery skills and make them better hunters. The custom of tattooing

4636-412: The southern half of the island of Sakhalin and by small numbers of people in the Kuril Islands . Due to the colonization policy employed by the Japanese government, the number of Hokkaido Ainu speakers decreased through the 20th century, and it is now moribund . A very low number of elderly people still speak the language fluently, though attempts are being made to revive it. The term "Ainu" comes from

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4712-649: The starch, was fermented and dried, and was also one of the staple foods. Because of this tradition of starch use, when the potato was introduced, it was immediately accepted. When the Revolt of Shakushain, which was caused by the Shoba Chigyo system, ended in defeat, and the location contracting system was established, people were mobilized to work as servants for the location contractors (Japanese merchants who also acted as administrators), as well as to sell handicrafts and work at fishing grounds. The pre-modern Ainu religion

4788-841: The stone coins of Yap Island , but the hoe-shaped objects were never given away to others, and when their owners died, they were hidden in hidden places such as behind rocks, lost and decayed. . In 1916, four of the seven hoe-shaped objects found in Kakuda Village, Yubari County (now Kuriyama-cho ) are preserved in the Tokyo National Museum . In the Middle Ages, the Ainu traded dried salmon, bear and sea animal pelts, and raptor feathers for Japanese luxury goods such as silk fabrics and lacquerwares. In order to secure salmon as trade goods, there were also villages that specialized in salmon fishing as their livelihood. This kind of trading economy

4864-719: The wealthy as treasures, and that pedantic consumption of these goods secured collateral their authority within the tribe. The Abe clan of the Heian period , the Northern Fujiwara clan , the Oshu Fujiwara clan , and the Ando clan , which had a navy in the Middle Ages , were among the Ou clan's Primorskaya Oblast in the Medieval Period, which was carried out by the Ando clan and other powerful Ou clans with naval forces. The Matsumae clan, through

4940-541: The western coast and in the Tōhoku region . Evidence for Ainu speakers in the Amur region is found through Ainu loanwords in the Uilta and Ulch people . The Hokkaido Jōmon people, which predated the formation of the Ainu people and culture, formed from "proper Jōmon tribes of Honshu" and from "Terminal Upper-Paleolithic people" (TUP people) indigenous to Paleolithic Northern Eurasia. These two groups merged in Hokkaido, giving rise to

5016-412: Was called the kamui-chel (Lady's fish) or sipe (original food), and was regarded as a staple food and often dried. This was not only important as a self-sufficient food source, but was also one of the main products that needed to be secured in large quantities for trade with the Japanese. Farming was also practiced, but it was not the mainstay of their livelihood. However, this is not because farming

5092-657: Was established around the middle of the ninth century and was inherited by the Ainu culture. Before the 13th century, the Ainu had expanded to the mouth of the Amur River and Lake Kisi. In the "Preface to the Book of Genesis" cited in the Genbunrui, there is a description of the Ainu attacking the Nivkh people around the 13th century and later fighting the Mongol Empire . Some believe that this

5168-408: Was first established. Later, around the 15th century, the region became more culturally and politically integrated due to trade and conflicts between the Ainu and the Japanese, and by the 17th century, the Japanese had established a number of hunting and fishing settlements ( iwor ) around rivers called Sodaisho or Sotomyo . The Japanese lord mayor was a powerful ruler who politically integrated

5244-622: Was impossible. Farming was widely practiced during the Abramite culture, and many traces of fields from the Ainu culture have been discovered, such as the Takasago shell mound in Tōyako, Hokkaido , which was buried by the eruption of Mount Usu in 1663. It is also thought that the Ainu specialized in trading with the Japanese, for whom they obtained large quantities of trade goods such as salmon, animal skins, and raptor feathers. The cultivation of hiye (piyapa) has been practiced since ancient times, and it

5320-481: Was interpreted that Ramak would return to Kamuimoshishin after fulfilling his role. The Ainu gods were not absolute transcendents, and when Kamui acted unjustly, the Ainu would protest. The Iomante , the best-known Ainu religious ritual, was not found during the Abramian period, but was found in the Okhotsk culture , which existed adjacent to the Abramian culture during the Abramian period. It has been speculated that it

5396-601: Was not understood by the Japanese, whose court system was developed during the Edo period and who established a modern judicial system after the Meiji Restoration . This failure to understand led to contempt for the Ainu. Prior to the modern era, the Ainus' livelihood consisted of a combination of hunting , fishing , gathering (forest and marine), farming , and trading to secure the goods necessary for their livelihood. The chum salmon

5472-542: Was probably introduced into the Ainu culture from the Okhotsk culture sphere via the Tobinitai culture . On the other hand, archaeologist Takuro Segawa, in light of the fact that Wild boar bones and Dogū clay figurines resembling wild boars, which are not native to Hokkaido, have been unearthed at sites from the Jomon and Zoku-Jōmon period In light of the fact that bones of wild boars and clay figures resembling wild boars have been unearthed, we can conclude that "there existed

5548-406: Was punished by ear shaving or nose shaving, and theft was punished by caning with a club called a shuto , or by cutting the Achilles tendon . As the Ainu have never had a strong unified government, their laws and punishments have been greatly influenced by the authorities and the region, and if the village chief was mild, the guilty party was given lenient treatment, while if the chief was cruel,

5624-620: Was seen as strange by the Japanese, and was banned by the Tokugawa shogunate and the Meiji Restoration government. The Meiji Restoration and the Edo Shogunate enacted a ban on tattoos in October 1871, but it was not very effective because Ainu women at the time believed that if they did not have tattoos, they would incur the wrath of the gods and would not be able to marry. Therefore, in September 1876,

5700-521: Was to abduct the raptor feather collectors that existed in Nivkh . The Mongol Empire invaded Sakhalin in response to appeals from Nivkh and the Gilemi, who lived from the lower Amur River basin to Sakhalin, causing conflicts based on trade. The Yuan invasion forced many Ainu to leave Sakhalin, but the trade using the Amur River continued. It is thought that the luxury goods brought by the Japanese were possessed by

5776-414: Was used to brew an alcoholic beverage similar to nigori sake called "tonoto," which was used in rituals. In addition, foxtail millet (munchiro) and proso millet (mengku) were cultivated. These were called chisassuyep when cooked into rice, and sayo when cooked into porridge . Starch collected and preserved in bulk from the bulb (scale) of the giant lily ( tulais ), and the residue after collecting

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