The Trans-Asian Railway (TAR) is a project to create an integrated freight railway network across Europe and Asia . The project is of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP).
129-419: The project was initiated in the 1950s, with the objective of providing a continuous 8,750 miles (14,080 km) rail link between Singapore and Istanbul , Turkey , with possible further connections to Europe and Africa . At the time shipping and air travel were not as well developed, and the project promised to significantly reduce shipping times and costs between Europe and Asia . Progress in developing
258-479: A Vietnamese source from the same time period. The name possibly means Sea Town , being derived from the Malay tasek , meaning 'sea' or 'lake'. The Chinese traveller Wang Dayuan visited a place around 1330 named Danmaxi ( Chinese : 淡馬錫 ; pinyin : Dànmǎxí ; Wade–Giles : Tan Ma Hsi ) or Tam ma siak , depending on pronunciation; this may be a transcription of Temasek , alternatively, it may be
387-732: A funicular , was opened. In 1827, Horatio Allen , the chief engineer of the South Carolina Canal and Rail Road Company , prescribed the usage of 5 ft ( 1,524 mm ) gauge. Many other railroads in the Southern United States adopted this gauge. The presence of several distinct gauges was a major disadvantage to the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War . In 1886, when around 11,500 miles (18,500 km) of 5 ft gauge track existed in
516-549: A hinterland , the nation rapidly developed to become one of the Four Asian Tigers . As a highly developed country , it has one of the highest GDP per capita (PPP) in the world. It is also identified as a tax haven . Singapore is the only country in Asia with a AAA sovereign credit rating from all major rating agencies . It is a major aviation , financial , and maritime shipping hub and has consistently been ranked as one of
645-524: A snap election ). The 14th and current Parliament has 103 members; 93 were directly elected from the 31 constituencies , nine are nonpartisan nominated members appointed by the president, and three are non-constituency members from opposition parties who were not elected in the last general election but appointed to the legislature to increase opposition party representation. In group representation constituencies (GRCs), political parties assemble teams of candidates to contest elections. At least one MP in
774-530: A GRC must be of an ethnic minority background. All elections are held using first-past-the-post voting . MPs host weekly political surgeries , called " Meet-the-People Sessions ", where they help constituents resolve personal issues which can be related to housing, financial assistance, and immigration. The People's Action Party occupies a dominant position in Singaporean politics, having won large parliamentary majorities in every election since self-governance
903-601: A Muslim state, the soldiers rebelled, killing their officers and several British civilians before the mutiny was suppressed by non-Muslim troops arriving from Johore and Burma . After World War I , the British built the large Singapore Naval Base as part of the defensive Singapore strategy . Originally announced in 1921, the construction of the base proceeded at a slow pace until the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931. Costing $ 60 million and not fully completed in 1938, it
1032-481: A candidate needs to be a person at least 45 years of age who is no longer a member of a political party, to either have held public office for at least 3 years in a number of specific public service leadership roles, or to have 3 years experience as chief executive of a fully profitable private sector company with at least S$ 500 million in shareholders' equity , be a resident in Singapore for at least 10 years, not have
1161-567: A combination of the Malay Tanah meaning 'land' and Chinese xi meaning 'tin', which was traded on the island. Variations of the name Siṃhapura were used for a number of cities throughout the region prior to the establishment of the Kingdom of Singapura . In Hindu–Buddhist culture , lions were associated with power and protection, which may explain the attraction of such a name. The name Singapura supplanted Temasek sometime before
1290-597: A communist takeover. On 27 May 1961, Malaya's prime minister, Tunku Abdul Rahman , made a surprise proposal for a new Federation called Malaysia , which would unite the current and former British possessions in the region: the Federation of Malaya , Singapore, Brunei , North Borneo , and Sarawak . UMNO leaders believed that the additional Malay population in the Bornean territories would balance Singapore's Chinese population. The British government, for its part, believed that
1419-575: A criminal record, and more. Candidates must also "satisfy" the Presidential Elections Committee (PEC) that he or she is a person of integrity, good character and reputation. From 2017, the Constitution requires that presidential elections be " reserved " for a racial community if no one from that ethnic group has been elected to the presidency in the five most recent terms. Only members of that community may qualify as candidates in
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#17328486129011548-455: A cut from customers. In response, amendments were made to the Women's Charter by the government in 2019 to legislate more serious punishments for traffickers, including imprisonment of up to seven years and a fine of S$ 100,000. Singapore has a highly developed market economy , based historically on extended entrepôt trade. Along with Hong Kong , South Korea , and Taiwan , Singapore is one of
1677-783: A few out of more than sixty tram systems in Russia are not broad gauge: 1,000 mm in Kaliningrad and Pyatigorsk , 1,435 mm ( 4 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 in ) in Rostov-on-Don . There are two tram systems in and around Yevpatoria that use 1,000 mm ( 3 ft 3 + 3 ⁄ 8 in ) gauge. Finland's Helsinki trams and Latvia's Liepāja trams use 1,000 mm ( 3 ft 3 + 3 ⁄ 8 in ). Estonia's Tallinn trams use similar 1,067 mm ( 3 ft 6 in ). Warsaw's tramway system, constructed with 1525 mm gauge,
1806-513: A handful of Chinese . By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, more than half being Chinese . Many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations. In 1867, the Straits Settlements were separated from British India , coming under the direct control of Britain . Later, in the 1890s, when the rubber industry became established in Malaya and Singapore,
1935-691: A larger gauge could be viable for railways isolated from the extant 1,435 mm ( 4 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 in ) gauge Western European network. In 1840, work started on the second railway in the Russian Empire , the Warsaw–Vienna railway in Congress Poland . It was a 1,435 mm ( 4 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 in ) standard gauge , with the express intention of allowing through-freight trains into Austria-Hungary . The modern Russian railway network solidified around
2064-458: A local medical degree can opt to defer their draft. Though not required to perform military service, the number of women in the SAF has been increasing: since 1989 they have been allowed to fill military vocations formerly reserved for men. Before induction into a specific branch of the armed forces, recruits undergo at least nine weeks of basic military training. Because of the scarcity of open land on
2193-517: A maritime emporium known as Temasek and subsequently a major constituent part of several successive thalassocratic empires. Its contemporary era began in 1819, when Stamford Raffles established Singapore as an entrepôt trading post of the British Empire . In 1867, Singapore came under the direct control of Britain as part of the Straits Settlements . During World War II , Singapore
2322-630: A mezzanine floor of MacDonald House exploded, killing three people and injuring 33 others. It was the deadliest of at least 42 bomb incidents which occurred during the confrontation. Two members of the Indonesian Marine Corps , Osman bin Haji Mohamed Ali and Harun bin Said , were eventually convicted and executed for the crime. The explosion caused US$ 250,000 (equivalent to US$ 2,417,107 in 2023) in damages to MacDonald House. Even after
2451-691: A newly independent country. After being expelled from Malaysia, Singapore became independent as the Republic of Singapore on 9 August 1965, with Lee Kuan Yew and Yusof bin Ishak as the first prime minister and president respectively. In 1967, the country co-founded the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Race riots broke out once more in 1969. Lee Kuan Yew's emphasis on rapid economic growth, support for business entrepreneurship, and limitations on internal democracy shaped Singapore's policies for
2580-588: A reserved presidential election. In the 2017 presidential election , this combination of stringent requirements and a reserved election that required the candidate to be of the 13% Malay ethnic group led to the PEC approving a single candidate for the presidency; Halimah Yacob , considered part of the Malay community, won in an uncontested election. She also became Singapore's first female president. Members of Parliament (MPs) are elected at least every five years (or sooner with
2709-582: A result of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, its southernmost section from Changchun to Lüshun was lost to the Japanese, who promptly regauged it to standard gauge , after using the narrow 3 ft 6 in ( 1,067 mm ) for a short time during the war. This formed a break of gauge between Changchun and Kuancheng , the station just to the north of Changchun, still in Russian hands, until
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#17328486129012838-454: A similar announcement on 17 May 2007. As part of the agreement, India will build and rehabilitate rail links with neighboring Myanmar in projects that are estimated to cost more than ₹ 29.41 billion (US$ 730 million). Bangladesh finally signed the agreement on 10 November 2007. India's Look-East connectivity policy has resulted in the launch of several connectivity projects with China and ASEAN nations. The Northern Corridor
2967-421: A strange beast on the island that he took to be a lion. Seeing this as an omen, he established the town of Singapura where he encountered the beast. The second hypothesis, drawn from Portuguese sources , postulates that this mythical story is based on the real life Parameswara of Palembang . Parameswara declared independence from Majapahit and mounted a Lion Throne. After then being driven into exile by
3096-932: Is about one degree of latitude (137 kilometres or 85 miles) north of the equator , off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula , bordering the Strait of Malacca to the west, the Singapore Strait to the south along with the Riau Islands in Indonesia , the South China Sea to the east, and the Straits of Johor along with the State of Johor in Malaysia to the north. Singapore's history dates back at least eight hundred years, having been
3225-803: Is also a founding member of The Forum of Small States (FOSS) , a voluntary and informal grouping at the UN. Singapore maintains membership in other regional organisations, such as Asia–Europe Meeting , the Forum for East Asia-Latin American Cooperation , the Indian Ocean Rim Association , and the East Asia Summit . It is also a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, the United Nations and
3354-805: Is also a member of the United Nations , the World Trade Organization , the East Asia Summit , the Non-Aligned Movement , and the Commonwealth of Nations . The English name of "Singapore" is an anglicisation of the native Malay name for the country, Singapura ( pronounced [siŋapura] ), which was in turn derived from the Sanskrit word for 'lion city' ( Sanskrit : सिंहपुर ; romanised: Siṃhapura ; Brahmi : 𑀲𑀺𑀁𑀳𑀧𑀼𑀭 ; literally "lion city"; siṃha means 'lion', pura means 'city' or 'fortress'). Pulau Ujong
3483-532: Is an agreement signed on 10 November 2006, by seventeen Asian nations as part of a United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) effort to build a transcontinental railway network between Europe and Pacific ports in China. The plan has sometimes been called the "Iron Silk Road" in reference to the historical Silk Road trade routes. UNESCAP's Transport & Tourism Division began work on
3612-588: Is enshrined in the constitution and continues to shape national policies in education, housing, and politics. Singapore is a parliamentary republic in the Westminster tradition of unicameral parliamentary government, and its legal system is based on common law . While the country is de jure a multi-party democracy with free elections , the government under the People's Action Party (PAP) wields widespread control and political dominance . The PAP has governed
3741-670: Is maintaining security in Southeast Asia and surrounding territories. An underlying principle is political and economic stability in the region. It has diplomatic relations with more than 180 sovereign states. As one of the five founding members of ASEAN , Singapore is a strong supporter of the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) and the ASEAN Investment Area (AIA); it is also the host of the APEC Secretariat. Singapore
3870-695: Is regarded as a key factor behind Singapore's political stability, economic growth, and harmonious social order. In 2021, the World Justice Project 's Rule of Law Index ranked Singapore as 17th overall among the world's 193 countries for adherence to the rule of law . Singapore ranked high on the factors of order and security (#3), absence of corruption (#3), regulatory enforcement (#4), civil justice (#8), and criminal justice (#7), and ranked significantly lower on factors of open government (#34), constraints on government powers (#32), and fundamental rights (#38). Singapore's stated foreign policy priority
3999-464: Is the right policy and that there is "clear evidence" of serious deterrence , and that the law should be looked at upon in the wider context of "saving lives", particularly citizens. In 2004, Amnesty International claimed that some legal provisions of the Singapore system for the death penalty conflict with "the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty". The government has disputed Amnesty's claims, stating that their "position on abolition of
Trans–Asian railway - Misplaced Pages Continue
4128-521: The 1,676 mm ( 5 ft 6 in ) gauge, known as Indian gauge ; and most of Southeast Asia has 1,000 mm ( 3 ft 3 + 3 ⁄ 8 in ) metre gauge . For the most part the TAR would not change national gauges; mechanized transfer facilities would be built to transload shipping containers from train to train at the breaks of gauge . By 2001, four corridors had been studied: The Trans-Asian Railway Network Agreement
4257-583: The 1964 race riots . On 7 August 1965, Malaysian prime minister Tunku Abdul Rahman, seeing no alternative to avoid further bloodshed (and with the help of secret negotiations by PAP leaders, as revealed in 2015) advised the Parliament of Malaysia that it should vote to expel Singapore from Malaysia. On 9 August 1965, the Malaysian Parliament voted 126 to 0 to move a bill to amend the constitution, expelling Singapore from Malaysia, which left Singapore as
4386-597: The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami . Since 2009, the Republic of Singapore Navy (RSN) has deployed ships to the Gulf of Aden to aid in countering piracy efforts as part of Task Force 151 . The SAF also helped in relief efforts during Hurricane Katrina , and Typhoon Haiyan . Singapore is part of the Five Power Defence Arrangements (FPDA), a military alliance with Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, and
4515-567: The 5 ft gauge that was laid during canal construction. The first rail line in Finland was opened in January 1862. As Finland was then the Grand Duchy of Finland , an autonomous state ruled in personal union by Imperial Russia where railways were also built to the (5 ft) broad track gauge of 1,524 mm ( 5 ft ). However the railway systems were not connected until the bridge over
4644-659: The Commonwealth . While Singapore is not a formal member of the G20 , it has been invited to participate in G20 processes in most years since 2010. Singapore is also the location of the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council (PECC) Secretariat. In general, bilateral relations with other ASEAN members are strong; however, disagreements have arisen, and relations with neighbouring Malaysia and Indonesia have sometimes been strained. Malaysia and Singapore have clashed over
4773-490: The Digital and Intelligence Service . It is seen as the guarantor of the country's independence, translating into Singapore culture, involving all citizens in the country's defence. The government spent 2.7% of the country's GDP on the military in 2024, the highest in the region. After its independence, Singapore had only two infantry regiments commanded by British officers. Considered too small to provide effective security for
4902-585: The Four Asian Tigers , and has surpassed its peers in terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita. Between 1965 and 1995, growth rates averaged around 6 per cent per annum, transforming the living standards of the population. 5 ft and 1520 mm gauge railways Railways with a railway track gauge of 5 ft ( 1,524 mm ) first appeared in the United Kingdom and the United States. This gauge became commonly known as " Russian gauge ", because
5031-488: The Javanese , he usurped control over Temasek . He may have rechristened the area as Singapura , recalling the throne he had been driven from. Under Japanese occupation , Singapore was renamed Syonan-to ( Japanese : 昭 南 , Hepburn : Shōnan ) , meaning 'light of the south'. Singapore is sometimes referred to by the nickname the "Garden City", in reference to its parks and tree-lined streets. Another informal name,
5160-459: The MATADOR anti-tank weapon. The SAF is being developed to respond to a wide range of issues in both conventional and unconventional warfare. The Defence Science and Technology Agency (DSTA) is responsible for procuring resources for the military. The geographic restrictions of Singapore mean that the SAF must plan to fully repulse an attack, as they cannot fall back and re-group. The small size of
5289-709: The Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF) maintains a number of overseas bases in Australia , the United States , and France . The RSAF's 130 Squadron is based in RAAF Base Pearce , Western Australia , and its 126 Squadron is based in the Oakey Army Aviation Centre , Queensland . The RSAF has one squadron—the 150 Squadron—based in Cazaux Air Base in southern France. The RSAF's overseas detachments in
Trans–Asian railway - Misplaced Pages Continue
5418-628: The Saint Petersburg–Moscow railway , built in 1842. There, the Tsar established a committee to recommend technical standards for the building of Russia's first major railway. The team included devotees of Franz Anton von Gerstner , who pushed to continue the Tsarskoye Selo gauge, and engineer Pavel Melnikov and his consultant George Washington Whistler , a prominent American railway engineer. Whistler recommended 5 ft ( 1,524 mm ) on
5547-523: The Speakers' Corner . In the Corruption Perceptions Index , which ranks countries by "perceived levels of public sector corruption", Singapore has consistently ranked as one of the least corrupt countries in the world, in spite of being illiberal. Singapore's unique combination of a strong, soft authoritarian government with an emphasis on meritocracy is known as the "Singapore model", and
5676-401: The Strait of Malacca has been a cause of concern for all three countries. Close economic ties exist with Brunei , and the two share a pegged currency value, through a Currency Interchangeability Agreement between the two countries which makes both Brunei dollar and Singapore dollar banknotes and coins legal tender in either country. The first diplomatic contact with China was made in
5805-708: The Wylam waggonway was built to a 5 ft ( 1,524 mm ) gauge for the shipment of coal from Wylam to Lemington down the River Tyne . In 1839, the Eastern Counties Railway was constructed. In 1840, the Northern and Eastern Railway was built. In 1844, both lines were converted to 1,435 mm ( 4 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 in ) standard gauge . In 1903, the East Hill Cliff Railway ,
5934-486: The break of gauge did pose some amount of obstacle to the invading Germans. The 5-foot gauge became the standard in the Russian Empire and later the Soviet Union. Russian engineers used it on the Chinese Eastern Railway , built in the closing years of the 19th century across the Northeastern China entry to provide a shortcut for the Trans-Siberian Railway to Vladivostok . The railway's southern branch, from Harbin via Changchun to Lüshun , used Russian gauge. As
6063-439: The most expensive cities to live in for expatriates and foreign workers . Singapore ranks highly in key social indicators: education , healthcare , quality of life , personal safety , infrastructure , and housing , with a home-ownership rate of 88 percent. Singaporeans enjoy one of the longest life expectancies , fastest Internet connection speeds , lowest infant mortality rates , and lowest levels of corruption in
6192-401: The " Little Red Dot ", was adopted after an article in the Asian Wall Street Journal of 4 August 1998 said that Indonesian President B. J. Habibie referred to Singapore as a red dot on a map. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals , the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama . Although the historicity of the accounts as given in the Malay Annals is
6321-439: The "benevolent" yet "highly authoritarian" colonial system of governance inherited from Britain rather than forging a full democracy. A conservative ideology of " Asian values " evolved to replace British rule, based on "communal loyalty, distrust of government, and avoidance of individual or collective responsibility for wider public interests", with less regard for human rights in the nascent Western sense. The fact that "neither
6450-422: The 15th century, after the establishment of the Kingdom of Singapura on the island by a fleeing Sumatran Raja (prince) from Palembang . However, the precise time and reason for the name change is unknown. The semi-historical Malay Annals state that Temasek was christened Singapura by Sang Nila Utama , a 13th-century Sumatran Raja from Palembang . The Annals state that Sang Nila Utama encountered
6579-532: The 1970s, with full diplomatic relations established in the 1990s. China has been Singapore's largest trading partner since 2013, after surpassing Malaysia. Singapore and the United States share a long-standing close relationship, in particular in defence, the economy, health, and education. Singapore has also increased co-operation with ASEAN members and China to strengthen regional security and fight terrorism, and participated in ASEAN's first joint maritime exercise with China in 2018. It has also given support to
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#17328486129016708-401: The East", and military discussions often referred to the base as simply " East of Suez ". However, the British Home Fleet was stationed in Europe, and the British could not afford to build a second fleet to protect their interests in Asia. The plan was for the Home Fleet to sail quickly to Singapore in the event of an emergency. As a consequence, after World War II broke out in 1939, the fleet
6837-400: The Japanese changed its image in the eyes of Singaporeans. British Military Administration ended on 1 April 1946, and Singapore became a separate Crown Colony . In July 1947, separate Executive and Legislative Councils were established and the election of six members of the Legislative Council was scheduled for the following year. During the 1950s, Chinese communists , with strong ties to
6966-419: The PAP drop to 61% of the vote, while the Workers' Party took 10 of the 93 seats, the highest number ever won by another party. On 15 May 2024, Lawrence Wong became Singapore's fourth Prime Minister; he is the first prime minister born after independence. Singapore is a parliamentary republic based on the Westminster system . The Constitution of Singapore is the supreme law of the country, establishing
7095-514: The People's Action Party has led to Singapore being described by academics as an illiberal democracy , or a soft-authoritarian state in which the PAP faces little to no feasible political competition to its rule of the country. The multi-party democratic process of Singapore has been described as "minimal" in comparison to the state's focus on economic development and social order. According to Gordon P. Means, professor emeritus of political science at McMaster University , Singapore reinvented
7224-404: The River Neva was built in 1913. Russian trains could not have run on Finnish tracks, because the Finnish loading gauge was narrower, until the connection was made and the Finnish structure gauge was widened. In the late 1960s the gauge was redefined to 1,520 mm ( 4 ft 11 + 27 ⁄ 32 in ) in the Soviet Union. At the same time the tolerances were tightened. As
7353-475: The Singapore Government to create the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) from scratch, and Israeli instructors were brought in to train Singaporean soldiers. Military courses were conducted according to the IDF's format, and Singapore adopted a system of conscription and reserve service based on the Israeli model . Singapore still maintains strong security ties with Israel and is one of the biggest buyers of Israeli arms and weapons systems, with one recent example being
7482-489: The Soviet Union in 1991, Estonia redefined its track gauge to 1,524 mm , to match Finland's gauge. The redefinition did not mean that all the railways in Estonia were changed immediately. It was more a rule change, so that all renovated old tracks and new railways would be constructed in 1,524 mm gauge from then on. (See Track gauge in Estonia .) Finland allows its gauge to be 1,520–1,529 mm on first class lines (classes 1AA and 1A, speed 220–160 km/h). If
7611-452: The TAR was hindered by political and economic obstacles throughout the 1960s, 1970s and early 1980s. By the 1990s, the end of the Cold War and normalisation of relations between some countries improved the prospects for creating a rail network across the Asian continent. The TAR was seen as a way to accommodate the huge increases in international trade between Eurasian nations and facilitate the increased movements of goods between countries. It
7740-412: The Temenggong's help, Raffles managed to smuggle Tengku Long back into Singapore. Raffles offered to recognise Tengku Long as the rightful Sultan of Johor, under the title of Sultan Hussein , as well as provide him with a yearly payment of $ 5000 and another $ 3000 to the Temenggong; in return, Sultan Hussein would grant the British the right to establish a trading post on Singapore. The Treaty of Singapore
7869-446: The US-led coalition to fight terrorism, with bilateral co-operation in counter-terrorism and counter-proliferation initiatives, and joint military exercises. As Singapore has diplomatic relations with both the United States and North Korea , and was one of the few countries that have relationships with both countries, in June 2018, it hosted a historic summit between US President Donald Trump and North Korean leader Kim Jong-un ,
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#17328486129017998-568: The United Kingdom. According to the 2024 Global Peace Index , Singapore is the 5th most peaceful country in the world. Capital punishment is a legal and enforced penalty in Singapore. The country is one of four in the developed world to retain the death penalty, along with the United States , Japan and Taiwan . Particularly, its use against drug trafficking has been a source of contention with non-governmental organisations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch . The government has responded that it has "no doubts" that it
8127-435: The United States are: Luke Air Force Base in Arizona , Marana in Arizona, Mountain Home Air Force Base in Idaho , and Andersen Air Force Base in Guam . The SAF has sent forces to assist in operations outside the country, in areas such as Iraq , and Afghanistan , in both military and civilian roles. In the region, they have helped to stabilise East Timor and have provided aid to Aceh in Indonesia following
8256-537: The United States, almost all of the railroads using that gauge were converted to 4 ft 9 in ( 1,448 mm ), the gauge then used by the Pennsylvania Railroad . In 1837, the first railway built in Russia was a 6 ft ( 1,829 mm ) gauge, 17 km long experimental line connecting Saint Petersburg with Tsarskoye Selo and Pavlovsk . The choice of gauge was influenced by Brunel 's Great Western Railway which used 7 ft ( 2,134 mm ). The Tsarskoye Selo railway's success proved that
8385-399: The basis that it was cheaper to construct than 6 ft ( 1,829 mm ) and cheaper to maintain than 1,435 mm ( 4 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 in ). His advice won over the Tsar. At the time, questions of continuity with the European network did not arise. By the time difficulties arose in connecting the Prussian railroads to the Russian ones in Warsaw in the 1850s, it
8514-468: The continent: most of Europe , as well as Turkey , Iran , China , and the Koreas use the 1,435 mm ( 4 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 in ) gauge, known as Standard gauge ; Russia and the former Soviet republics use a 1,520 mm ( 4 ft 11 + 27 ⁄ 32 in ) gauge ; Finland uses a 1,524 mm ( 5 ft ) gauge, both known as Russian gauge ; the railways in India , Pakistan , Bangladesh and Sri Lanka use
8643-400: The country continuously since full internal self-government was achieved in 1959, and holds a supermajority in Parliament . One of the five founding members of ASEAN , Singapore is also the headquarters of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Secretariat, the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council Secretariat, and is the host city of many international conferences and events . Singapore
8772-494: The country's third prime minister. Lee Hsien Loong's tenure included the 2007–2008 financial crisis , the resolution of a dispute over land ownership at Tanjong Pagar railway station between Singapore and Malaysia, the introduction of the two integrated resorts (IRs), located at the Marina Bay Sands and Resorts World Sentosa , and the COVID-19 pandemic . The PAP suffered its worst ever electoral results in 2011, winning just 60% of votes, amidst debate over issues including
8901-691: The death penalty is by no means uncontested internationally" and that the report contains "grave errors of facts and misrepresentations". From 1938 to 2023, sexual relations between men were technically illegal under Section 377A of the Penal Code , first introduced during British colonial rule. During the last few decades, this law was mostly unenforced and pressure to repeal it increased as homosexuality became more accepted by Singaporean society. Meanwhile, sexual relations between women had always been legal. In 2022, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong announced that Singapore would repeal 377A, effectively decriminalising homosexual behaviour. Nevertheless, he added that
9030-400: The delivery of fresh water to Singapore, and access by the Singapore Armed Forces to Malaysian airspace. Border issues exist with Malaysia and Indonesia, and both have banned the sale of marine sand to Singapore over disputes about Singapore's land reclamation. Some previous disputes, such as the Pedra Branca dispute , have been resolved by the International Court of Justice . Piracy in
9159-427: The end of the 14th century, its ruler Parameswara was attacked by either the Majapahit or the Siamese, forcing him to move to Malacca where he founded the Sultanate of Malacca . Archaeological evidence suggests that the main settlement on Fort Canning Hill was abandoned around this time, although a small trading settlement continued in Singapore for some time afterwards. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down
9288-457: The fighting for Singapore were heavy, with a total of nearly 85,000 personnel captured. About 5,000 were killed or wounded, of which Australians made up the majority. Japanese casualties during the fighting in Singapore amounted to 1,714 killed and 3,378 wounded. The occupation was to become a major turning point in the histories of several nations, including those of Japan , Britain , and Singapore. Japanese newspapers triumphantly declared
9417-765: The first-ever meeting between the sitting leaders of the two nations. It also hosted the Ma–Xi meeting in 2015, the first meeting between the political leaders of the two sides of the Taiwan Strait since the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1950. The Singaporean military, arguably the most technologically advanced in Southeast Asia, consists of the Army , the Navy , the Air Force and
9546-534: The following participating countries: The 28 countries that did not sign the agreement at the conference had until 31 December 2007, to join and ratify the agreement. On 5 May 2007, officials in Bangladesh announced that the nation will sign on to the agreement at an upcoming meeting in New York City . The plan for the network includes three lines between India and Myanmar that traverse Bangladesh . India made
9675-545: The formal surrender of Japanese forces in the region from General Seishirō Itagaki on behalf of General Hisaichi Terauchi on 12 September 1945. Meanwhile, Tomoyuki Yamashita was tried by a US military commission for war crimes, but not for crimes committed by his troops in Malaya or Singapore. He was convicted and hanged in the Philippines on 23 February 1946. Much of the infrastructure in Singapore had been destroyed during
9804-631: The gauge of 5 ft or 1,520 mm, include: Short sections of Russian or 5 ft gauge extend into Poland , eastern Slovakia , Sweden (at the Finnish border at Haparanda ), and northern Afghanistan . There is an approximately 150 km long section in Hungary in the Záhony logistics area close to the Ukrainian border. Following renovations in 2014, a 32 km section of dual Standard /Russian gauge
9933-541: The government of the Russian Empire chose it in 1843. Former areas and states of the Empire (such as Finland ) have inherited this standard. However in 1970, Soviet Railways re-defined the gauge as 1,520 mm ( 4 ft 11 + 27 ⁄ 32 in ). With about 225,000 km (140,000 mi) of track, 1,520 mm is the second-most common gauge in the world, after 1,435 mm ( 4 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 in ) standard gauge . In 1748,
10062-627: The influx of foreign workers and the high cost of living. On 23 March 2015, Lee Kuan Yew died , and a one-week period of public mourning was observed nationwide. Subsequently, the PAP regained its dominance in Parliament through the September general election , receiving 69.9% of the popular vote, although this remained lower than the 2001 tally of 75.3% and the 1968 tally of 86.7%. The 2020 election held in July saw
10191-558: The initiative in 1992 when it launched the Asian Land Transport Infrastructure Development project. The agreement formally came into force on 11 June 2009. The Trans-Asian Railway system will consist of four main railway routes. The existing Trans-Siberian railway , which connects Moscow to Vladivostok , will be used for a portion of the network in Russia. Another corridor to be included will connect China to Korea, Mongolia, Russia and Kazakhstan. In 2003,
10320-439: The introduction of the non-constituency members of parliament in 1984 to allow up to three losing candidates from opposition parties to be appointed as MPs. Group representation constituencies (GRCs) were introduced in 1988 to create multi-seat electoral divisions, intended to ensure minority representation in parliament. Nominated members of parliament were introduced in 1990 to allow non-elected non-partisan MPs. The constitution
10449-532: The island became a global centre for rubber sorting and export. Singapore was not greatly affected by the First World War (1914–18), as the conflict did not spread to Southeast Asia . The only significant event during the war was the 1915 Singapore Mutiny by Muslim sepoys from British India, who were garrisoned in Singapore. After hearing rumours that they were to be sent to fight the Ottoman Empire ,
10578-490: The legal tradition established during British rule and with substantial local differences. Criminal law is based on the Indian Penal Code originally intended for British India , and was at the time as a crown colony also adopted by the British colonial authorities in Singapore and remains the basis of the criminal code in the country with a few exceptions, amendments and repeals since it came into force. Trial by jury
10707-477: The main island, training involving activities such as live firing and amphibious warfare are often carried out on smaller islands, typically barred to civilian access. However, large-scale drills, considered too dangerous to be performed in the country, have been performed in other countries such as Brunei, Indonesia, Thailand and the United States. In general, military exercises are held with foreign forces once or twice per week. Due to airspace and land constraints,
10836-1332: The maximum height and width for railway vehicles and their loads, is larger for Russian gauge. This means that if a standard gauge railway, in Europe, is adapted for dual gauge , bridges must be rebuilt, double tracks must be placed further apart and the overhead wire must be raised. Or there must be restrictions on permitted rolling stock, which would restrict the benefit of such a railway. Dual gauge needs more width than single gauge. For double stacking on Russian gauge tracks, maximum height shall be 6.15 or 6.4 m (20 ft 2 in or 21 ft 0 in) above rails. For standard gauge railways, double stacking maximum height shall be 6.15 m (20 ft 2 in). For Indian gauge railways, double stacking maximum height shall be 7.1 m (23 ft 4 in), and minimum overhead wiring height shall be 6.5 or 6.75 m (21 ft 4 in or 22 ft 2 in) above rails. Minimum overhead wiring height for double stacking, standard gauge railways shall be 6.5 m (21 ft 4 in), and Indian gauge railways shall be 7.45 m (24 ft 5 in) above rails, respectively. This would apply to Russia and Europe (or North America), rather than to Russia and China (or Iran). The primary countries currently using
10965-463: The merger would prevent Singapore from becoming a haven for communism. To obtain a mandate for a merger, the PAP held a referendum on the merger . This referendum included a choice of different terms for a merger with Malaysia and had no option for avoiding merger altogether. On 16 September 1963, Singapore joined with Malaya, the North Borneo, and Sarawak to form the new Federation of Malaysia under
11094-661: The merger, the Singaporean government and the Malaysian central government disagreed on many political and economic issues. Despite an agreement to establish a common market, Singapore continued to face restrictions when trading with the rest of Malaysia. In retaliation, Singapore did not extend to Sabah and Sarawak the full extent of the loans agreed to for economic development of the two eastern states. Talks soon broke down, and abusive speeches and writing became rife on both sides. This led to communal strife in Singapore, culminating in
11223-464: The network. Other standards to consider include allowing for interoperability : Transportation and railway ministers from forty one nations participated in the week-long conference held in Busan , South Korea , where the agreement was formulated. The proposed 80,900-km railway network will originate from the Pacific seaboard of Asia and end on the doorsteps of Europe . The agreement's cosigners included
11352-522: The new country, the development of its military forces became a priority. In addition, in October 1971, Britain pulled its military out of Singapore, leaving behind only a small British, Australian and New Zealand force as a token military presence. A great deal of initial support came from Israel , a country unrecognised by Singapore's neighbouring Muslim-majority nations of Malaysia and Indonesia. The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) commanders were tasked by
11481-782: The new port. The island was then nominally ruled by Tengku Abdul Rahman , the Sultan of Johor , who was controlled by the Dutch and the Bugis . However, the Sultanate was weakened by factional division: Abdul Rahman , the Temenggong of Johor to Tengku Abdul Rahman, as well as his officials, were loyal to the Sultan's elder brother Tengku Long , who was living in exile in Penyengat Island , Riau Islands . With
11610-411: The newly routed commercial cross-isthmus railway. In 2000 the gauge for the commercial parallel railway was changed to 1,435 mm ( 4 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 in ) to use standard gauge equipment. The original gauge was chosen under the influence of the pre-conversion southern United States railway companies. The electric manoeuvering locomotives along the locks ( mules ) still use
11739-407: The next half-century. Economic growth continued throughout the 1980s, with the unemployment rate falling to 3% and real GDP growth averaging at about 8% up until 1999. During the 1980s, Singapore began to shift towards high-tech industries, such as the wafer fabrication sector, in order to remain competitive as neighbouring countries began manufacturing with cheaper labour. Singapore Changi Airport
11868-511: The northern part of the island in 1930-1932 (Moskalvo-Okha). The railway has no fixed connection with the mainland. Before 2019, rail cars coming from the mainland port of Vanino on the Vanino-Kholmsk train ferry , operating since 1973, had to have their bogies changed in the Sakhalin port of Kholmsk . In 2004 and 2008 plans were put forward to convert it to the Russian gauge. The conversion
11997-506: The population has also affected the way the SAF has been designed, with a small active force and a large number of reserves. Singapore has conscription for all able-bodied males at age 18, except those with a criminal record or who can prove that their loss would bring hardship to their families. Males who have yet to complete pre-university education, are awarded the Public Service Commission (PSC) scholarship, or are pursuing
12126-729: The president of Kazakhstan proposed building a standard gauge link from Dostyk (on the Chinese border) to Gorgan in Iran ; it has not yet been built. Complicating the plan is the differences in rail gauges currently in use across the continent. While China, Iran, Laos and Turkey use 1,435 mm ( 4 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 in ) standard gauge tracks , tracks of Russia and Central Asia are gauged at 1,520 mm ( 4 ft 11 + 27 ⁄ 32 in ). In South Asia, India's and Pakistan's tracks are gauged at 1,676 mm ( 5 ft 6 in ). In South East Asia,
12255-640: The press as well as some civil and political rights. In 2023, Singapore was ranked 129th out of 180 nations by Reporters Without Borders on the global Press Freedom Index . Freedom House ranks Singapore as "partly free" in its Freedom in the World report, and the Economist Intelligence Unit ranks Singapore as a "flawed democracy", the second freest rank of four, in its " Democracy Index ". All public gatherings of five or more people require police permits, and protests may legally be held only at
12384-442: The public nor elites had experience with democracy" helped create Singapore's political culture, as dominated by status-focused hierarchies committed to economic development. The legacy of Asian values and the limited political culture within Singapore has led to the country being described as "classic illustration of soft authoritarianism", and "profoundly illiberal". The judicial system is based on English common law , continuing
12513-453: The repeal will not affect the recognition of "traditional familial and societal norms," including how marriage is defined, leaving the legal status of same-sex marriage unchanged for the time, although the possibility of civil unions was not officially ruled out. Lee described this as a compromise between the conservative (and often religious) and progressive elements of Singaporean society to prevent further political fracturing. The law
12642-538: The rest of the former Chinese Eastern Railway was converted to standard gauge, probably in the 1930s. Unlike in South Manchuria , the Soviet Union's reconquest of southern Sakhalin from Japan did not result in regauging of the railway system. Southern Sakhalin has continued with the original Japanese 1,067 mm ( 3 ft 6 in ) gauge simultaneously with the Russian gauge railway, constructed in
12771-462: The rolling stock's tolerance is kept within certain limits, through running between 1,520 mm ( 4 ft 11 + 27 ⁄ 32 in ) railways and Finnish 1,524 mm ( 5 ft ) railways is allowed. Since both 1,520 and 1,524 mm tolerances overlap, the difference is negligible. The international high-speed Allegro 's gauge between Helsinki and St. Petersburg was specified as 1,522 mm. The loading gauge , which defines
12900-488: The running gear ( wheelsets ) of the rolling stock remained unaltered, the result was an increased speed and stability. The conversion took place between 1970 and the beginning of the 1990s. In Finland, the Finnish State Railways kept the original definition of 1,524 mm ( 5 ft ), even though they also have tightened the tolerances in a similar way, but to a higher level. After its independence from
13029-694: The same sex were not wrong at all or not wrong most of the time, up from 10% in 2013. The survey found that 27% felt the same way about same-sex marriage (an increase from 15% in 2013) and 30% did so about same-sex couples adopting a child (an increase from 24% in 2013). In 2021, six Singaporeans protested for improved trans protections in the educational system outside the Ministry of Education headquarters at Buona Vista . Pimps often traffic women from neighbouring countries such as China , Malaysia and Vietnam at their brothels as well as rented apartments and hostels for higher profit margins when they get
13158-474: The settlement, and the island faded into obscurity for the next two centuries. By then, Singapore was nominally part of the Johor Sultanate . The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period after the 1641 Dutch conquest of Malacca . The British governor Stamford Raffles arrived in Singapore on 28 January 1819 and soon recognised the island as a natural choice for
13287-433: The structure and responsibility of governance. The President is the head of state . The governance of Singapore is separated into three branches: The president is directly elected by popular vote for a renewable six-year term. Requirements for this position, which were enacted by the PAP government, are extremely stringent, such that only a handful of people qualify for the candidacy. These qualifications include that
13416-608: The subject of academic debates, it is nevertheless known from various documents that Singapore in the 14th century, then known as Temasek , was a trading port under the influence of both the Majapahit Empire and the Siamese kingdoms, and was a part of the Indosphere . These Indianised kingdoms were characterised by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. Historical sources also indicate that around
13545-515: The terms of the Malaysia Agreement . Under this Agreement, Singapore had a relatively high level of autonomy compared to the other states of Malaysia. Indonesia opposed the formation of Malaysia due to its own claims over Borneo and launched Konfrontasi ("Confrontation" in Indonesian) in response to the formation of Malaysia. On 10 March 1965, a bomb planted by Indonesian saboteurs on
13674-603: The tracks of Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam and Malaysia are 1,000 mm ( 3 ft 3 + 3 ⁄ 8 in ) metre gauge with some dual gauge tracks near the China–Vietnam border and within Bangladesh, and tracks in Indonesia and Japan are mostly 1,067 mm ( 3 ft 6 in ) gauge. This leads to time-consuming interchanges or transloading to handle the break of gauge at main connecting points in
13803-592: The trade unions and Chinese schools, waged a guerrilla war against the government, leading to the Malayan Emergency . The 1954 National Service riots , Hock Lee bus riots , and Chinese middle schools riots in Singapore were all linked to these events. David Marshall , pro-independence leader of the Labour Front , won Singapore's first general election in 1955. He led a delegation to London , and Britain rejected his demand for complete self-rule. He resigned and
13932-483: The two. It was thought that reuniting with Malaya would benefit the economy by creating a common market, alleviating ongoing unemployment woes in Singapore. However, a sizeable left-wing faction of the PAP was strongly opposed to the merger, fearing a loss of influence, and hence formed the Barisan Sosialis , after being kicked out from the PAP. The ruling party of Malaya, United Malays National Organisation (UMNO),
14061-623: The victory as deciding the general situation of the war. Between 5,000 and 25,000 ethnic Chinese people were killed in the subsequent Sook Ching massacre . British forces had planned to liberate Singapore in 1945/1946; however, the war ended before these operations could be carried out. After the Japanese surrender to the Allies on 15 August 1945, Singapore fell into a brief state of violence and disorder; looting and revenge-killing were widespread. British, Australian, and Indian troops led by Lord Louis Mountbatten returned to Singapore to receive
14190-410: The war, including those needed to supply utilities. A shortage of food led to malnutrition, disease, and rampant crime and violence. A series of strikes in 1947 caused massive stoppages in public transport and other services. However, by late 1947 the economy began to recover, facilitated by a growing international demand for tin and rubber. The failure of Britain to successfully defend its colony against
14319-487: The world. It has the third highest population density of any country in the world , although there are numerous green and recreational spaces as a result of urban planning . With a multicultural population and in recognition of the cultural identities of the major ethnic groups within the nation, Singapore has four official languages : English , Malay , Mandarin , and Tamil . English is the common language , with exclusive use in numerous public services . Multi-racialism
14448-517: Was occupied by Japan in 1942 and returned to British control as a separate Crown colony following Japan's surrender in 1945. Singapore gained self-governance in 1959 and, in 1963, became part of the new federation of Malaysia , alongside Malaya , North Borneo , and Sarawak . Ideological differences led to Singapore's expulsion from the federation two years later; Singapore became an independent sovereign country in 1965. After early years of turbulence and despite lacking natural resources and
14577-494: Was abolished in 1970. Singapore is known for its strict laws and conservative stances on crime; both corporal punishment (by caning ) and capital punishment (by hanging ) are retained and commonly used as legal penalties. The right to freedom of speech and association is guaranteed by Article 14(1) of the Constitution of Singapore , although there are provisions in the subsequent subsection that regulate them. The government has restricted freedom of speech and freedom of
14706-552: Was also seen as a way to improve the economies and accessibility of landlocked countries like Laos , Afghanistan , Mongolia , and the Central Asian republics. Much of the railway network already exists as part of the Eurasian Land Bridge , although significant gaps remain. A big challenge is the differences in rail gauge across Eurasia. Four major rail gauges (which measures the distance between rails) are in use across
14835-420: Was amended in 1991 to provide for an elected president who has veto power in the use of past reserves and appointments to certain public offices. In 1990, Goh Chok Tong succeeded Lee and became Singapore's second prime minister. During Goh's tenure, the country went through the 1997 Asian financial crisis and the 2003 SARS outbreak. In 2004, Lee Hsien Loong , the eldest son of Lee Kuan Yew , became
14964-457: Was completed in 2019. There were proposals in 2013 for north-south and east-west lines in Afghanistan, with construction to start in 2013. The Panama Canal Railway , first constructed in ca. 1850, was built in 5 ft ( 1,524 mm ) gauge. During canal construction (1904–1914), this same gauge was chosen for both construction traffic, canal operating services along the quays, and
15093-533: Was fully occupied with defending Britain, leaving Singapore vulnerable to Japanese invasion . During the Pacific War , the Japanese invasion of Malaya culminated in the Battle of Singapore . When the British force of 60,000 troops surrendered on 15 February 1942, British prime minister Winston Churchill called the defeat "the worst disaster and largest capitulation in British history". British and Empire losses during
15222-456: Was granted in 1959. The PAP, self-described as pragmatic, have a syncretic ideology combining free-market principles , civil nationalism , and welfarism . Despite promulgating restrictions on civil liberties, Singapore under the PAP has seen consistent economic growth and political stability. The most represented and popular opposition party is the centre-left Workers' Party , which holds 8 seats in Parliament. The long-standing hegemony of
15351-439: Was in operation as early as the 1960s, although at first only for Soviet Union-China trade . The Southern corridor has progressively opened up after 2000. Successes so far include: Singapore Singapore , officially the Republic of Singapore , is an island country and city-state in Southeast Asia . The country's territory comprises one main island , 63 satellite islands and islets , and one outlying islet . It
15480-1071: Was installed between Tumangang and Rajin stations in North Korea. The most western 1,520 mm gauge railway is the Polish LHS ( Linia Hutnicza Szerokotorowa ) from the Ukrainian border to the eastern end of the Upper Silesian Industrial Region . Although broad gauge is quite rare on lighter railways and street tramways worldwide, almost all tramways in the former USSR are broad gauge (according to terminology in use in these countries, gauges narrower than 1,520 mm ( 4 ft 11 + 27 ⁄ 32 in ) are considered to be narrow). Many tramway networks initially built to narrow gauges ( 750 mm or 2 ft 5 + 1 ⁄ 2 in or 1,000 mm or 3 ft 3 + 3 ⁄ 8 in metre gauge ) were converted to broad gauge. As of 2015, only
15609-403: Was nonetheless the largest dry dock in the world, the third-largest floating dock , and had enough fuel tanks to support the entire British navy for six months. The base was defended by heavy 15-inch (380 mm) naval guns stationed at Fort Siloso , Fort Canning and Labrador, as well as a Royal Air Force airfield at Tengah Air Base . Winston Churchill touted it as the " Gibraltar of
15738-510: Was officially repealed on 3 January 2023. Pink Dot SG , an event held in support of the LGBT community, has drawn thousands of people annually since 2009 with increasing attendance. According to a survey conducted by the Institute of Policy Studies in 2019, Singaporean society has become more liberal on LGBT rights. In the survey, more than 20% of people said that sexual relations between adults of
15867-456: Was one of the earliest references to Singapore Island, which corresponds to a Chinese account from the third century referred to a place as Pú Luó Zhōng ( Chinese : 蒲 羅 中 ), a transcription of the Malay name for 'island at the end of a peninsula '. Early references to the name Temasek (or Tumasik) are found in the Nagarakretagama , a Javanese eulogy written in 1365, and
15996-488: Was opened in 1981 and Singapore Airlines was formed. The Port of Singapore became one of the world's busiest ports and the service and tourism industries also grew immensely during this period. The PAP has remained in power since independence. Some activists and opposition politicians see the government's strict regulation of political and media activities as an infringement on political rights. In response, Singapore has seen several significant political changes, such as
16125-535: Was regauged to 1435 mm during post-WWII reconstruction. Tampere tramway , built in 2021, uses 1,435 mm ( 4 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 in ). Underground urban rapid transit systems in the former USSR, like the Moscow Metro , Saint Petersburg Metro , Kyiv Metro and Yerevan Metro use Russian gauge ( 1,520 mm ). Outside the former USSR, the Helsinki Metro in Finland that utilizes
16254-512: Was replaced by Lim Yew Hock in 1956, and after further negotiations Britain agreed to grant Singapore full internal self-government for all matters except defence and foreign affairs on 3 June 1959. Days before, in the 30 May 1959 election , the People's Action Party (PAP) won a landslide victory. Governor Sir William Allmond Codrington Goode served as the first Yang di-Pertuan Negara (Head of State). PAP leaders believed that Singapore's future lay with Malaya, due to strong ties between
16383-427: Was signed on 6 February 1819. In 1824, a further treaty with the Sultan led to the entire island becoming a part of the British Empire . In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements , then under the jurisdiction of British India . Singapore became the regional capital in 1836. Prior to Raffles' arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with
16512-410: Was staunchly anti-communist, and it was suspected UMNO would support the non-communist factions of PAP. UMNO, initially sceptical of the idea of a merger due to distrust of the PAP government and concern that the large ethnic Chinese population in Singapore would alter the racial balance in Malaya on which their political power base depended, became supportive of the idea of the merger due to joint fear of
16641-416: Was too late to change. A persistent myth holds that Imperial Russia chose a gauge broader than standard gauge for military reasons, namely to prevent potential invaders from using the rail system. The Russian military recognized as early as 1841 that operations to disrupt railway track did not depend on the gauge, and should instead focus on destroying bridges and tunnels . However, in both World Wars
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