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138-451: Peter Wright & Sons provided invaluable commercial expertise and foreign contacts. The firm operated a large fleet of ships, with many transporting petroleum from the recently discovered fields of western Pennsylvania, carried in barrels and cases, to European markets. Peter Wright & Sons also had established friendships and business ties with two prominent Belgian shipowners, Jules-Bernard von Der Becke and William Edouard Marsily. During

276-525: A long siege and as part of the terms of surrender its Protestant citizens were given two years to settle their affairs before quitting the city. Most went to the United Provinces in the north, starting the Dutch Golden Age . Antwerp's banking was controlled for a generation by Genoa , and Amsterdam became the new trading centre. The recognition of the independence of the United Provinces by

414-523: A 65.4% payout ratio . The total net earnings from 1882 to 1906 amounted to $ 838,783,800 (equivalent to $ 21,321,800,000 in 2023), exceeding the dividends by $ 290,347,800, which was used for plant expansions. In 1896, John Rockefeller retired from the Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey, the holding company of the group, but remained president and a major shareholder. Vice-president John Dustin Archbold took

552-525: A British flagged Liverpool-New York mail service. With PRR's backing, Griscom ordered two record breakers to restore Inman's fortunes. However, the British Government objected to Inman's ownership change and revoked Imman's mail contract. Griscom successfully lobbied Congress to reflag the two new express liners and qualify for an American mail subsidy. In 1893, Inman was merged the American Line and

690-513: A British petroleum entrepreneur in Mexico, began negotiating with Standard Oil in 1912–13 to sell his "El Aguila" oil company, since Pearson was no longer bound to promises to the Porfirio Díaz regime (1876–1911) to not to sell to U.S. interests. However, the deal fell through and the firm was sold to Royal Dutch Shell . Standard Oil's production increased so rapidly it soon exceeded U.S. demand and

828-576: A US yard so that Inman would have the four ships required for a weekly service. In May 1892, Congress enacted the necessary legislation. Five months later, the post office department agreed to contract with INC for a weekly New York–Southampton mail service. On February 22, 1893, President Benjamin Harrison personally raised the American flag on the newly renamed New York , and the Inman and International Line

966-466: A beam of 32 feet (9.8 m), a depth of 10 feet 6 inches (3.2 m), and had a bulletproof wheelhouse. Mei Ping ("Beautiful Tranquility"), launched in 1927, was designed off-shore, but assembled and finished in Shanghai. Its oil-fuel burners came from the U.S. and water-tube boilers came from England. Standard Oil Company and Socony-Vacuum Oil Company became partners in providing markets for

1104-578: A city with a population of roughly 89,000 in 1569 (250 people per painter), it was the most important artistic centre north of the Alps , serving notable painters such as Pieter Bruegel . Moneylenders and financiers developed a large business lending money all over Europe including the English government in 1544–1574. London bankers were too small to operate on that scale, and Antwerp had a highly efficient bourse that itself attracted rich bankers from around Europe. After

1242-496: A combined passenger ship/tanker, but she probably only carried oil on one voyage after it was realized that the fire hazard with tankers was too great to also carry passengers on the same ship. In 1872, Griscom and Thompson concluded that International Navigation should seek a terminus on the continent. According to his son, Griscom marked all of the principal manufacturing towns in England, Belgium, France and Germany and determined that

1380-599: A cultural centre, has been built in Antwerp (Wilrijk). Ramesh Mehta, a Jain, is a member of the Belgian Council of Religious Leaders, put up on 17 December 2009. There are significant Armenian communities that reside in Antwerp, many of whom are descendants of traders who settled during the 19th century. Most Armenian Belgians are adherents of the Armenian Apostolic Church , while a smaller number are adherents of

1518-649: A diverse range of parks and recreational areas for locals and tourists to explore. One of the most popular attractions is the Antwerp Zoo . It opened on 21 July 1843, making it one of the oldest and most famous zoos in the world. The zoo covers an area of 10 hectares and is home to more than 5,000 animals from over 950 species. The zoo is located right next to Antwerp Central Station on the Koningin Astridplein. Antwerp Zoo has played its role in preservation and breeding programmes for several endangered species, including

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1656-641: A dozen or so within Standard Oil knew the extent of company operations. The committee counsel, Simon Sterne , questioned representatives from the Erie Railroad and the New York Central Railroad and discovered that at least half of their long-haul traffic granted rebates and much of this traffic came from Standard Oil. The committee then shifted focus to Standard Oil's operations. John Dustin Archbold , as president of Acme Oil Company, denied that Acme

1794-551: A few of them, the postal code has become a cultural reference. Encompassing the area between the river and the Spanish fortification walls, this is the historical heart of Antwerp. On the place of the Spanish walls is now an avenue called de Leien in Dutch or den Boulevard in the local dialect. Tourist sights such as the Cathedral are located here, but also more mundane places. Quarters in

1932-456: A gallant defence, Chassé made an honourable surrender, ending the Siege of Antwerp (1832) . Later that century, a double ring of Brialmont Fortresses was constructed some 10 km (6 mi) from the city centre, as Antwerp was considered vital for the survival of the young Belgian state. And in 1894 Antwerp presented itself to the world via a World's Fair attended by 3 million. Antwerp

2070-457: A gallon or forty-two cents a barrel, an effective 71% discount from its listed rates in return for a promise to ship at least 60 carloads of oil daily and to handle loading and unloading on its own. Smaller companies decried such deals as unfair because they were not producing enough oil to qualify for discounts. Standard's actions and secret transport deals helped its kerosene price to drop from 58 to 26 cents from 1865 to 1870. Rockefeller used

2208-595: A growing Standard Oil spin-off in its own right. In the Asia-Pacific region, Jersey Standard had oil production and refineries in the Dutch East Indies but no marketing network. Socony-Vacuum had Asian marketing outlets supplied remotely from California. In 1933, Jersey Standard and Socony-Vacuum merged their interests in the region into a 50–50 joint venture. Standard-Vacuum Oil Co., or "Stanvac", operated in 50 countries, from East Africa to New Zealand , before it

2346-657: A large new liner for Red Star, the Friesland . The intent was to continue Inman as a British-flagged company. However, considerable opposition developed over Inman's change in ownership, and the British Government transferred Inman's mail contract to the Guion Line . Under the Postal Aid Act of 1891, the US Government offered to pay $ 12,500 per round-trip voyage to any American-flagged carrier offering 20-knot steamship service to

2484-463: A large part in the running of the firm. In the year 1904, Standard Oil controlled 91% of oil refinement and 85% of final sales in the United States. At this time, state and federal laws sought to counter this development with antitrust laws. In 1911, the U.S. Justice Department sued the group under the federal antitrust law and ordered its breakup into 39 companies. Standard Oil's market position

2622-408: A policy of toleration, which attracted a large crypto- Jewish community composed of migrants from Spain and Portugal. Antwerp experienced three booms during its golden age: the first based on the pepper market, a second launched by American silver coming from Seville (ending with the bankruptcy of Spain in 1557), and a third boom, after the stabilizing Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis in 1559, based on

2760-533: A population of 536,079, it is the most populous municipality in Belgium, and with a metropolitan population of over 1.2 million people, the country's second-largest metropolitan area after Brussels . Flowing through Antwerp is the river Scheldt . Antwerp is linked to the North Sea by the river's Westerschelde estuary. It is about 40 km (25 mi) north of Brussels, and about 15 km (9 mi) south of

2898-877: A quarter of the shares of the resultant companies, and those share values mostly doubled, he emerged from the dissolution as the richest man in the world. The dissolution had actually propelled Rockefeller's personal wealth. By 1911 the Supreme Court of the United States ruled, in Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States , that Standard Oil of New Jersey must be dissolved under the Sherman Antitrust Act and split into 39 companies. Two of these companies were Standard Oil of New Jersey (Jersey Standard or Esso), which eventually became Exxon , and Standard Oil of New York (Socony), which eventually became Mobil ; those two companies later merged into ExxonMobil . Over

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3036-475: A set of canal docks. The broader aim was to facilitate the growth of the north-eastern Antwerp metropolitan region, which attracted new industry based on a flexible and strategic implementation of the project as a co-production between various authorities and private parties. The plan succeeded in extending the linear layout along the Scheldt river by connecting new satellite communities to the main strip. Starting in

3174-543: A single holding agency managed by nine trustees. The original trust was valued at $ 70 million. On March 21, 1892, the Standard Oil Trust was dissolved and its holdings were reorganized into 20 independent companies that formed an unofficial union referred to as "Standard Oil Interests." In 1899, the Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) acquired the shares of the other 19 companies and became the holding company for

3312-479: A subsidiary company in Antwerp beginning on September 19, 1872, under the title "Societe Anonyme de Navigation Belge-Americaine" (Red Star Line). The agreement established the Red Star Line as the exclusive carrier of mail service out of Antwerp to Philadelphia and New York. This subsidiary would provide most of the company's profits for the next 30 years. The shipping line's home port was Antwerp and it sailed under

3450-414: A symbol of the reliable "standards" of quality and service that he envisioned for the nascent oil industry. In the early years, John D. Rockefeller dominated the combine; he was the single most important figure in shaping the new oil industry. He quickly distributed power and the tasks of policy formation to a system of committees, but always remained the largest shareholder . Authority was centralized in

3588-410: A tanker, was specially designed for river duty. It was built by New Engineering and Shipbuilding Works of Shanghai, who also built the 500-ton launch Mei Foo in 1912. Mei Hsia ("Beautiful Gorges") was launched in 1926 and carried 350 tons of bulk oil in three holds, plus a forward cargo hold, and space between decks for carrying general cargo or packed oil. She had a length of 206 feet (63 m),

3726-409: A trust to control capacity and pricing. As a result of the 1899 refinancing, he became acquainted with J. P. Morgan , the investment banker who was successful in putting together large trusts. Morgan was then in the process of building U.S. Steel, the first billion-dollar corporation. Morgan profited from the investment fees associated with creating or refinancing companies, but not actually operating

3864-432: Is Neo-Latin . A Germanic ( Frankish or Frisian ) origin could contain prefix anda ("against") and a noun derived from the verb werpen ("to throw") and denote, for example: land thrown up at the riverbank; an alluvial deposit ; a mound (like a terp ) thrown up (as a defence) against (something or someone); or a wharf. If Andoverpis is Celtic in origin, it could mean "those who live on both banks". There

4002-467: Is a folklore tradition that the name Antwerpen is from Dutch handwerpen ("hand-throwing"). A giant called Antigoon is said to have lived near the Scheldt river and extracted a toll from passing boatmen. He severed the hand of anyone who did not pay, and threw it in the river. Eventually the giant was killed by a young hero named Silvius Brabo , who cut off the giant's own hand and flung that into

4140-524: Is a blend of old and new, with a cultural heritage spanning from the Gothic and Renaissance periods to contemporary designs. In the 16th century, the city was noted for the wealth of its citizens ( Antwerpia nummis ). The houses of these wealthy merchants and manufacturers have been preserved throughout the city. However, fire has destroyed several old buildings, such as the house of the Hanseatic League on

4278-497: Is estimated that the port of Antwerp was earning the Spanish crown seven times more revenues than the Spanish colonization of the Americas". Without a long-distance merchant fleet, and governed by an oligarchy of banker-aristocrats forbidden to engage in trade, the economy of Antwerp was foreign-controlled, which made the city very cosmopolitan, with merchants and traders from Venice , Genoa , Ragusa , Spain and Portugal. Antwerp had

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4416-465: Is home to a considerable Haredi population in the 21st century. Early recorded versions of the name include Ando Verpia on Roman coins found in the city centre, Germanic Andhunerbo from around the time Austrasia became a separate kingdom (that is, about 567 CE), and (possibly originally Celtic) Andoverpis in Dado 's Life of St. Eligius (Vita Eligii) from about 700 CE. The form Antverpia

4554-475: Is the common name for a corporate trust in the petroleum industry that existed from 1882 to 1911. The origins of the trust lay in the operations of the Standard Oil Company (Ohio) , which had been founded in 1870 by John D. Rockefeller . The trust was born on January 2, 1882, when a group of 41 investors signed the Standard Oil Trust Agreement, which pooled their securities of 40 companies into

4692-667: The 1920 Summer Olympics . During World War II , the city was an important strategic target because of its port. It was occupied by Germany on 18 May 1940 and liberated by the British 11th Armoured Division on 4 September 1944. After this, the Germans attempted to destroy the Port of Antwerp , which was used by the Allies to bring new material ashore. Thousands of Rheinbote , V-1 and V-2 missiles were fired (more V-2s than used on all other targets during

4830-624: The Armenian Catholic Church and Armenian Evangelical Church . One of the important sectors that Armenian communities in Antwerp excel at and are involved in is the diamond trade business, that based primarily in the diamond district . Some of the famous Armenian families involved in the diamond business in the city are the Artinians, Arslanians, Aslanians, Barsamians and the Osganians. Standard Oil Company Standard Oil

4968-655: The Atlantic Transport Line , the Leyland Line, the White Star Line , the Dominion Line and half of Holland America . International Navigation was renamed International Mercantile Marine (IMM). However, Griscom and Morgan paid too high a price for the companies they acquired and IMM struggled under the debt payments. Management was reorganized to focus on White Star, the most profitable subsidiary. In 1915, IMM

5106-538: The Chevron Corp . Some have speculated that if not for that court ruling, Standard Oil could have possibly been worth more than $ 1 trillion in the 2000s. Whether the breakup of Standard Oil was beneficial is a matter of some controversy. Some economists believe that Standard Oil was not a monopoly, and argue that the intense free market competition resulted in cheaper oil prices and more diverse petroleum products. Critics claimed that success in meeting consumer needs

5244-588: The Dutch border. The Port of Antwerp is one of the biggest in the world, ranking second in Europe after Rotterdam and within the top 20 globally . The city is also known as the hub of the world's diamond trade . In 2020, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network rated Antwerp as a Gamma + (third level/top tier) Global City . Both economically and culturally, Antwerp is and has long been an important city in

5382-643: The Erie Canal as a cheap alternative form of transportation—in the summer months when it was not frozen—to ship his refined oil from Cleveland to the industrialized Northeast. In the winter months, his only options were the three trunk lines—the Erie Railroad and the New York Central Railroad to New York City, and the Pennsylvania Railroad to Pittsburgh and Philadelphia. Competitors disliked

5520-569: The Guion Line collapsed. By 1896, economic conditions improved, and the major lines reached a new agreement, negotiated at International Navigation's headquarters in London. The Spanish–American War (1898) and the Boer War (1899-1902) created a shortage of shipping on the Atlantic, and the major lines launched building programs to increase their fleets. Most of the American Line's ships were requisitioned by

5658-589: The Low Countries , especially before and during the Spanish Fury (1576) and throughout and after the subsequent Dutch Revolt . The Bourse at Antwerp , originally built in 1531 and re-built in 1872, was the world's first purpose-built commodity exchange . In 1920, the city hosted the Summer Olympics . The inhabitants of Antwerp are nicknamed Sinjoren ( Dutch pronunciation: [sɪˈɲoːrə(n)] ), after

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5796-502: The Sherman Antitrust Act (Senate 51–1; House 242–0), a source of American anti-monopoly laws. The law forbade every contract, scheme, deal, or conspiracy to restrain trade, though the phrase "restraint of trade" remained subjective. The Standard Oil group quickly attracted attention from antitrust authorities leading to a lawsuit filed by Ohio Attorney General David K. Watson . From 1882 to 1906, Standard paid out $ 548,436,000 (equivalent to $ 13,941,200,000 in 2023) in dividends at

5934-430: The Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, for sustaining a monopoly and restraining interstate commerce by: Rebates, preferences, and other discriminatory practices in favor of the combination by railroad companies; restraint and monopolization by control of pipe lines, and unfair practices against competing pipe lines; contracts with competitors in restraint of trade; unfair methods of competition, such as local price cutting at

6072-654: The South Improvement Co. which would have allowed him to receive rebates for shipping and drawbacks on oil his competitors shipped. But when this deal became known, competitors convinced the Pennsylvania Legislature to revoke South Improvement's charter. No oil was ever shipped under this arrangement. Using highly effective tactics, later widely criticized, it absorbed or destroyed most of its competition in Cleveland in less than two months and later throughout

6210-709: The Treaty of Münster in 1648 stipulated that the Scheldt should be closed to navigation, which destroyed Antwerp's trading activities. This impediment remained in force until 1863, although the provisions were relaxed during French rule from 1795 to 1814, and also during the time Belgium formed part of the Kingdom of the United Netherlands (1815 to 1830). Antwerp had reached the lowest point in its fortunes in 1800, and its population had sunk to under 40,000, when Napoleon , realizing its strategic importance, assigned funds to enlarge

6348-582: The US Supreme Court upheld the lower court judgment and declared the Standard Oil group to be an "unreasonable" monopoly under the Sherman Antitrust Act , Section II. It ordered Standard to break up into 39 independent companies with different boards of directors, the biggest two of the companies being Standard Oil of New Jersey (which became Exxon ) and Standard Oil of New York (which became Mobil ). Standard's president, John D. Rockefeller, had long since retired from any management role. But, as he owned

6486-505: The Yangtze River , the largest of which were Mei Ping (1,118  gross register tons  (GRT)), Mei Hsia (1,048 GRT), and Mei An (934 GRT). All three were destroyed in the 1937 USS Panay incident . Mei An was launched in 1901 and was the first vessel in the fleet. Other vessels included Mei Chuen , Mei Foo , Mei Hung , Mei Kiang , Mei Lu , Mei Tan , Mei Su , Mei Hsia , Mei Ying , and Mei Yun . Mei Hsia ,

6624-475: The 10-year development plan for the Port of Antwerp , the municipalities of Berendrecht-Zandvliet-Lillo were integrated into the city territory and lost their administrative independence. During the 1983 merger of municipalities, conducted by the Belgian government as an administrative simplification, the municipalities of Berchem , Borgerhout , Deurne , Ekeren , Hoboken , Merksem and Wilrijk were merged into

6762-415: The 1570s, the city's banking business declined: England ceased its borrowing in Antwerp in 1574. Fernand Braudel states that Antwerp became "the centre of the entire international economy, something Bruges had never been even at its height." Antwerp had the highest growth rate and was the richest city in Europe at the time. Antwerp's Golden Age is tightly linked to the " Age of Exploration ". During

6900-425: The 1860s, the von Der Becke firm became an important importer of petroleum products from Pennsylvania to Antwerp in American and Belgian ships. Clement Action Griscom, who rose rapidly from clerk to partner at Peter Wright & Sons, was a leader in the firm's shipping affairs and the chief force behind the creation of both INN and the chief negotiator with Belgian's King Leopold, von Der Becke, and Marsily to establish

7038-451: The 1990s, Antwerp rebranded itself as a world-class fashion centre. Emphasizing the avant-garde, it tried to compete with London , Milan , New York and Paris . It emerged from organized tourism and mega-cultural events. The municipality comprises the city of Antwerp proper and several towns. It is divided into nine entities (districts): (km ) in residential areas In 1958, in preparation of

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7176-401: The American Line only paid its first dividend in 1900. The mail contract of $ 750,000 per year was not sufficient to offset the higher costs of operating US-flagged vessels. Griscom was a close associate of Ohio Senator Marcus Hanna , who stayed at Griscom's house outside Philadelphia during the 1900 Republican convention. Hanna was the power broker behind President William McKinley , and when

7314-465: The Belgian flag, thereby avoiding the obligation of employing far more expensive American personnel. In January, 1874, the board of directors of the American Line, a Philadelphia-based passenger and cargo service to Liverpool that was also backed by the Pennsylvania Railroad and was facing possible bankruptcy, passed management of the steamship line to Peter Wright & Sons. Clement Griscom

7452-512: The Cunard Line and White Star. He sailed for Europe with a commitment of $ 2 million from the Pennsylvania Railroad to finance the new ship. Scottish shipbuilders were suffering a depression at the time and offered to build two liners at the bargain price of $ 1,850,000 apiece. The PRR agreed and Griscom ordered what were to become the two largest and fastest ships on the Atlantic, the 20 knot City of New York and City of Paris . He also ordered

7590-650: The Inman Line abandoned Philadelphia as its American terminus and switched its operations to New York. Various interests in Philadelphia, including the Pennsylvania Railroad, recognized the need to reestablish steamship service directly to Europe. In 1870, PRR backed the creation of two shipping companies, the US-flagged American Steamship Company and the foreign flagged International Navigation Company. Chartered on May 5, 1871, International Navigation

7728-548: The Portuguese Community Ben Moshe. Antwerp has an extensive network of synagogues, shops, schools and organizations. Significant Hasidic movements in Antwerp include Pshevorsk , based in Antwerp, as well as branches of Satmar , Belz , Bobov , Ger , Skver , Klausenburg , Vizhnitz and several others. Rabbi Chaim Kreiswirth , chief rabbi of the Machsike Hadas community, who died in 2001, was arguably one of

7866-516: The Portuguese had established Antwerp as one of their main shipping bases, bringing in spices from Asia and trading them for textiles and metal goods. The city's trade expanded to include cloth from England, Italy and Germany, wines from Germany, France and Spain, salt from France, and wheat from the Baltic . The city's skilled workers processed soap, fish, sugar, and especially cloth. Banks helped finance

8004-567: The Republicans were reelected, Hanna pushed a new mail subsidy bill. The legislation cleared the Senate in 1902, but stalled in the House of Representatives. Congress was opposed to subsidizing rich financiers even though this meant that relatively fewer Americans were employed as merchant ship builders and sailors. As early as the 1880s, Griscom believed that the major shipping lines should be combined into

8142-515: The Spanish honorific señor or French seigneur , "lord", referring to the Spanish noblemen who ruled the city in the 17th century. The city's population is very diverse, including about 180 nationalities; as of 2019, more than 50% of its population had a parent that was not a Belgian citizen at birth. A notable community is the Jewish one , as Antwerp is one of the only two cities in Europe (together with London and its Stamford Hill neighbourhood) that

8280-545: The Spanish port of Bilbao collapsed and became impossible. On 4 November 1576, Spanish soldiers sacked the city during the so-called Spanish Fury : 8,000 citizens were massacred, several houses burnt down, and over £2 million sterling of damage was done. Subsequently, the city joined the Union of Utrecht in 1579 and became the capital of the Dutch Revolt . In 1585, Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza , captured it after

8418-490: The Standard Oil Co. charges altogether excessive prices where it meets no competition, and particularly where there is little likelihood of competitors entering the field, and that, on the other hand, where competition is active, it frequently cuts prices to a point which leaves even the Standard little or no profit, and which more often leaves no profit to the competitor, whose costs are ordinarily somewhat higher. On May 15, 1911,

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8556-475: The Standard into markets, or they have been made high to keep its competitors out of markets. Trifling differences in distances are made an excuse for large differences in rates favorable to the Standard Oil Co., while large differences in distances are ignored where they are against the Standard. Sometimes connecting roads prorate on oil—that is, make through rates which are lower than the combination of local rates; sometimes they refuse to prorate; but in either case

8694-449: The UK. However, this amount was not sufficient to attract firms to acquire the liners required under the act, and Griscom's two new 20-knot Atlantic speedsters could not qualify, because they were built in the UK. Therefore, Griscom and the Pennsylvania Railroad lobbied Congress to allow the reflagging of Inman's two record-breakers. Griscom also offered to build a second pair of 20-knot liners in

8832-408: The best-known leader of the First Crusade (1096–1099), Godfrey of Bouillon , was originally Margrave of Antwerp , from 1076 until his death in 1100, though he was later also Duke of Lower Lorraine (1087–1100) and Defender of the Holy Sepulchre (1099–1100). In the 12th century, Norbert of Xanten established a community of his Premonstratensian canons at St. Michael's Abbey at Caloes. Antwerp

8970-502: The better known personalities to have been based in Antwerp. An attempt to have a street named after him has received the support of the Town Hall and is in the process of being implemented. The Jains in Belgium are estimated to be around about 1,500 people. The majority live in Antwerp, mostly involved in the very lucrative diamond business. Belgian Indian Jains control two-thirds of the rough diamonds trade and supplied India with roughly 36% of their rough diamonds. A major temple, with

9108-416: The center was Antwerp Belgium. Griscom immediately left for Europe and met with Antwerp officials about the necessary improvements to modernize the old port into the terminus for a steamship line. When he was told that Leopold II must also approve, Griscom left for Brussels where he received the King's strong support including a postal subsidy and port improvements. On September 27, 1872, the Red Star Line

9246-424: The city was captured by the Belgian insurgents, but the citadel continued to be held by a Dutch garrison under General David Hendrik Chassé . For a time, Chassé subjected the town to periodic bombardment which inflicted much damage, and at the end of 1832, the citadel itself was besieged by the French Northern Army commanded by Marechal Gerard . During this attack, the town was further damaged. In December 1832, after

9384-404: The city. At that time the city was also divided into the districts mentioned above. Simultaneously, districts received an appointed district council; later district councils became elected bodies. The neighboring municipality of Borsbeek has declared the intention to become the tenth district of the city of Antwerp. However, the final decision has not been made and a non-binding citizens vote on

9522-546: The combined operation used the US Line name. The US Line emerged from the war as one of the largest international shippers and in the 1950s was the second largest transatlantic passenger carrier after Cunard. Passenger sailings were terminated in 1969 when the US government withdrew the operating subsidy for the United States . The US Lines failed in 1986 when it over expanded in the container cargo business and its operations were liquidated. The shell of United States Lines emerged from bankruptcy in 1990 and eventually entered into

9660-482: The company began viewing export markets. In the 1890s, Standard Oil began marketing kerosene to China's large population of close to 400 million as lamp fuel. For its Chinese trademark and brand, Standard Oil adopted the name Mei Foo ( Chinese : 美孚 ) as a transliteration. Mei Foo also became the name of the tin lamp that Standard Oil produced and gave away or sold cheaply to Chinese farmers, encouraging them to switch from vegetable oil to kerosene. The response

9798-475: The company built two additional express liners in the US to create a premium weekly service, now routed to Southampton. Griscom believed that the major lines should be merged to control capacity and avoid rate wars. In 1899, he became acquainted with J. P. Morgan , an investment banker who was responsible for many of the large mergers during the period. With financing from Morgan's syndicate, in 1902 Griscom and Morgan expanded International Navigation by acquiring

9936-706: The company include Henry Flagler, developer of the Florida East Coast Railway and resort cities, and Henry H. Rogers , who built the Virginian Railway . In 1885, Standard Oil of Ohio moved its headquarters from Cleveland to its permanent headquarters at 26 Broadway in New York City . Concurrently, the trustees of Standard Oil of Ohio chartered the Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey (SOCNJ) to take advantage of New Jersey's more lenient corporate stock ownership laws. In 1890, Congress overwhelmingly passed

10074-565: The company together) and the Rockefeller family controlled a majority of the stock during all the history of the company up to the present time." These families reinvested most of the dividends in other industries, especially railroads. They also invested heavily in the gas and the electric lighting business (including the giant Consolidated Gas Co. of New York City ). They made large purchases of stock in U.S. Steel , Amalgamated Copper , and even Corn Products Refining Co. Weetman Pearson ,

10212-572: The company's business practices, but consumers liked the lower prices. Standard Oil, being formed well before the discovery of the Spindletop oil field (in Texas, far from Standard Oil's base in the Midwest) and a demand for oil other than for heat and light, was well placed to control the growth of the oil business. The company was perceived to own and control all aspects of the trade. In 1872, Rockefeller joined

10350-476: The company's expansion could not have been worse. The major shipping companies including the American Line entered into an agreement to control sailing frequency and prices. However, the agreement broke down in the fall of 1893 over a dispute between the German and British lines over Scandinavian business, resulting in a fare war. This situation was compounded by the depression of 1894 and several weaker firms including

10488-579: The company's main office in Cleveland, but decisions in the office were made cooperatively. The company grew by increasing sales and through acquisitions. After purchasing competing firms, Rockefeller shut down those he believed to be inefficient and kept the others. In a seminal deal, in 1868, the Lake Shore Railroad, a part of the New York Central , gave Rockefeller's firm a going rate of one cent

10626-510: The corner of Bloedberg and Burchtgracht. Steen castle on the Scheldt-quai is the gate wing of the demolished castle of the Dukes of Brabant. It was partly reconstructed in the 19th century. Antwerp's development as a fortified city is documented between the 10th and the 20th century. The fortifications were developed in different phases: This is the population of the city of Antwerp only, not of

10764-619: The demand for shipping during W.W.I. During the 1920s and 30s, IMM sold its foreign flagged subsidiaries to focus on US operations. In 1930, the Roosevelt Steamship Company purchased 51% of IMM. The next year, Roosevelt IMM became the manager of the government owned United States Lines when the line's purchaser defaulted on the payments. In 1934, Roosevelt IMM acquired a majority of the US Line stock for $ 1.1 million. All US Line, Roosevelt Line and IMM operations were merged in 1943 and

10902-411: The early 1880s. In 1886, with the backing of the Pennsylvania Railroad, Griscom offered £205,000 for Inman's five liners and name. Under the deal, Griscom was able to deduct the debt owed INC from the purchase price. With no real alternative, Inman's directors accepted the offer. Griscom realized that the renamed Inman and International Line required a new express steamer to compete against its rivals,

11040-643: The end of the 3rd century. In the 4th century, Antwerp was first named, having been settled by the Germanic Franks . The Merovingian Antwerp was evangelized by Saint Amand in the 7th century. Het Steen Castle has its origins in the Carolingian period in the 9th century. The castle may have been built after the Viking incursions in the early Middle Ages; in 879 the Normans invaded Flanders. The surviving structure

11178-441: The entire war combined), causing severe damage to the city but failed to destroy the port due to poor accuracy. After the war, Antwerp, which had already had a sizeable Jewish population before the war, once again became a major European centre of Haredi (and particularly Hasidic ) Orthodox Judaism . A Ten-Year Plan for the port of Antwerp (1956–1965) expanded and modernized the port's infrastructure with national funding to build

11316-460: The firm had an initial capitalization of $ 120 million plus the proceeds of a $ 50 million bond offering. The old International Navigation was valued at $ 14.2 million including $ 2.5 million in cash and stock paid as commissions to Griscom and his close associates. By the end of 1903, the value of the IMM preferred stock dropped from $ 85 to $ 18 and the bonds were not selling. Morgan was unable to sell much of

11454-518: The first half of the 16th century, Antwerp grew to become the second-largest European city north of the Alps. Many foreign merchants were resident in the city. Francesco Guicciardini , the Florentine envoy, stated that hundreds of ships would pass in a day, and 2,000 carts entered the city each week. Portuguese ships laden with pepper and cinnamon would unload their cargo. According to Luc-Normand Tellier "It

11592-474: The foreign trading houses were transferred from Bruges to Antwerp, and the building assigned to the association of English merchants active in the city is specifically mentioned in 1510. During this time, the old Mediterranean trade routes were gradually losing importance and the discovery of new sea routes via Africa to Asia and via the Atlantic to America helped push Antwerp to a position of prominence. By 1504,

11730-506: The government for war service. Griscom also ordered new vessels and after the war refinanced the company. In 1899, J.P. Morgan underwrote $ 20 million in 5% bonds. $ 12 million was used to retire existing 6% bonds and $ 6 million was earmarked for expansion. By 1902, International Navigation's fleet consisted of 26 ships totaling 181,000 tons and carried more passengers than either Cunard or White Star. While International Navigation's Belgian and British subsidiaries were consistently profitable,

11868-567: The harbour by constructing a new dock (still named the Bonaparte Dock), an access-lock and mole , and deepening the Scheldt to allow larger ships to approach Antwerp. Napoleon hoped that by making Antwerp's harbour the finest in Europe he would be able to counter the Port of London and hamper British growth. However, he was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo before he could see the plan through. In 1830,

12006-567: The hotel business and is now known as Janus Hotels & Resorts. Antwerp Antwerp ( / ˈ æ n t w ɜːr p / ; Dutch : Antwerpen [ˈɑntʋɛrpə(n)] ; French : Anvers [ɑ̃vɛʁs] ) is a city and a municipality in the Flemish Region of Belgium . It is the capital and largest city of Antwerp Province , and the third largest city in Belgium by area at 204.51 km (78.96 sq mi) after Tournai and Couvin . With

12144-524: The inner city are: Antwerpen-Noord or synonymously 2060 is a densely populated part of the city, and the most diverse one as well. This is not a neighborhood by itself, but is the postal code for the remaining quarters of the district that lie between de Leien and the ringway. United with the city in 1923, Linkeroever ("Left bank") consists of the former polders of Zwijndrecht and Burcht . Antwerp-Berchem : Vibrant district, rich history, lively streets, major transportation hub. Antwerp's architecture

12282-694: The larger current municipality of the same name. In 2010, 36% to 39% of the inhabitants of Antwerp had foreign origins. A study projected that in 2020, 55% of the population would be of immigrant background, either first, second, or third generation. After the Holocaust and the murder of its many Jews, Antwerp became a major centre for Orthodox Jews. At present, about 15,000 Haredi Jews, many of them Hasidic , live in Antwerp. The city has three official Jewish Congregations: Shomrei Hadass, headed by Rabbi Dovid Moishe Lieberman, Machsike Hadass, headed by Rabbi Aron Schiff (formerly by Chief Rabbi Chaim Kreiswirth ) and

12420-652: The largest public oil company in the world. Many of the companies disassociated from Jersey Standard in 1911 remained powerful businesses through the twentieth century. These included the Standard Oil Company of New York , Standard Oil Company (Indiana) , Standard Oil Company (California) , Ohio Oil Company , Continental Oil Company , and Atlantic Refining Company . Standard Oil's prehistory began in 1863, as an Ohio partnership formed by industrialist John D. Rockefeller , his brother William Rockefeller , Henry Flagler , chemist Samuel Andrews , silent partner Stephen V. Harkness , and Oliver Burr Jennings , who had married

12558-559: The major trading center for the region. The religious revolution of the Reformation erupted in violent riots in August 1566, as in other parts of the Low Countries . The regent Margaret, Duchess of Parma , was swept aside when Philip II sent the Duke of Alba at the head of an army the following summer. When the Dutch revolt against Spain broke out in 1568, commercial trading between Antwerp and

12696-413: The matter is scheduled for September 2023. With the exception of Ekeren and Berendrecht-Zandvliet-Lillo, all the districts form together one contiguous inhabited area. The former town halls have been converted into district halls and the former town centers are now local main streets within the larger urban agglomeration. The historical city of Antwerp consists nowadays of the following neighborhoods. For

12834-424: The middle of the decade. Further, the anticipated economies of scale from the merger did not materialize. In 1904, management was reorganized and IMM focused on White Star, the most profitable subsidiary. However, by 1915 the company was forced into bankruptcy court when IMM was unable to make debt service payments because the war disrupted cash flow from foreign subsidiaries. IMM survived and by 1917 profited from

12972-518: The new company owned 118 ships totaling 810,000 tons. This represented 20% of the total shipping on the Atlantic and a third of the passenger business. They also entered into revenue sharing arrangements with Hamburg America and North German Lloyd . On October 1, 1902, Morgan and Griscom announced that International Navigation was to be reorganized as the International Mercantile Marine Corporation of New Jersey and that

13110-414: The new enterprises. The timing appeared right for a large shipping merger. In 1902, another price war broke out when the Boer War ended and new vessels entered service. Backed by financing from Morgan's syndicate, Morgan and Griscom acquired the Atlantic Transport Line , the Leyland Line, the White Star Line , the Dominion Line, and half of Holland America . When combined with International Navigation,

13248-564: The next few decades, both companies grew significantly. Jersey Standard, led by Walter C. Teagle , became the largest oil producer in the world. It acquired a 50 percent share in Humble Oil & Refining Co. , a Texas oil producer. Socony purchased a 45 percent interest in Magnolia Petroleum Co. , a major refiner, marketer, and pipeline transporter. In 1931, Socony merged with Vacuum Oil Co. , an industry pioneer dating back to 1866, and

13386-540: The northeastern United States. A. Barton Hepburn was directed by the New York State Legislature in 1879, to investigate the railroads' practice of giving rebates to their largest clients within the state . Merchants without ties to the oil industry had pressed for the hearings. Prior to the committee's investigation, few knew of the size of Standard Oil's control and influence on seemingly unaffiliated oil refineries and pipelines—Hawke (1980) cites that only

13524-662: The northern quays, in 1891. During World War II , the city also suffered considerable damage from V-bombs . Here are some of the most notable examples of Antwerp's diverse architecture: Antwerp is also home to a wealth of historic Gothic, Baroque and Renaissance-style buildings, such as the Antwerp City Hall , the Cathedral of Our Lady , the St. James' Church , the Vleeshuis Museum and the St. Charles Borromeo Church . Antwerp offers

13662-709: The oil reserves in the Middle East. In 1906, SOCONY (later Mobil) opened its first fuel terminals in Alexandria. It explored in Palestine before the World War broke out, but ran into conflict with the local authorities. By 1890, Standard Oil controlled 88 percent of the refined oil flows in the United States. The state of Ohio successfully sued Standard, compelling the dissolution of the trust in 1892. But Standard simply separated Standard Oil of Ohio and kept control of it. Eventually,

13800-740: The okapi, the Przewalski horse, the Congo peafowl, the bonobo, the golden-headed lion tamarin, the European otter, and the Knysna seahorse. They take part in the European Endangered Species Programme . On 1 January 1983 the entire park (architecture and garden) was listed as a monument. Other well-known parks include: Antwerp has an oceanic climate ( Köppen : Cfb ), with cool winters, warm summers and frequent, though light, precipitation throughout

13938-399: The open arrangement of rates; (3) discriminations in classification and rules of shipment; (4) discriminations in the treatment of private tank cars. The government alleged: Almost everywhere the rates from the shipping points used exclusively, or almost exclusively, by the Standard are relatively lower than the rates from the shipping points of its competitors. Rates have been made low to let

14076-427: The period of 1904 to 1906 and concluded that "beyond question ... the dominant position of the Standard Oil Co. in the refining industry was due to unfair practices—to abuse of the control of pipe-lines, to railroad discriminations, and to unfair methods of competition in the sale of the refined petroleum products". Because of competition from other firms, their market share gradually eroded to 70 percent by 1906 which

14214-426: The points where necessary to suppress competition; [and] espionage of the business of competitors, the operation of bogus independent companies, and payment of rebates on oil, with the like intent. The lawsuit argued that Standard's monopolistic practices had taken place over the preceding four years: The general result of the investigation has been to disclose the existence of numerous and flagrant discriminations by

14352-577: The railroads in behalf of the Standard Oil Co. and its affiliated corporations. With comparatively few exceptions, mainly of other large concerns in California, the Standard has been the sole beneficiary of such discriminations. In almost every section of the country that company has been found to enjoy some unfair advantages over its competitors, and some of these discriminations affect enormous areas. The government identified four illegal patterns: (1) secret and semi-secret railroad rates; (2) discriminations in

14490-510: The reporting of Ida Tarbell , who wrote The History of the Standard Oil Company . The net value of companies severed from Jersey Standard in 1911 was $ 375 million, which constituted 57 per cent of Jersey's value. After the dissolution, Jersey Standard became the United States' second largest corporation after United States Steel . The Standard Oil Company (New Jersey), which was renamed Exxon in 1973 and ExxonMobil in 1999, remains

14628-599: The result of their policy is to favor the Standard Oil Co. Different methods are used in different places and under different conditions, but the net result is that from Maine to California the general arrangement of open rates on petroleum oil is such as to give the Standard an unreasonable advantage over its competitors. The government said that Standard raised prices to its monopolistic customers but lowered them to hurt competitors, often disguising its illegal actions by using bogus, supposedly independent companies it controlled. The evidence is, in fact, absolutely conclusive that

14766-463: The river. This is unlikely to be the true origin, but it is celebrated by a statue (illustrated further below) in the city's main market square, the Grote Markt . Historical Antwerp allegedly had its origins in a Gallo-Roman vicus . Excavations carried out in the oldest section near the Scheldt in 1952–1961 (ref. Princeton), produced pottery shards and fragments of glass from mid-2nd century to

14904-577: The same time, the American Keystone Line was not profitable because of its higher cost structure. When the hoped for subsidy never came from Congress, PRR decided to reorganize American Steamship. In 1884, PRR offered to purchase 14,500 new shares in International Navigation for $ 725,000 to finance INC's purchase of American Steamship's four vessels as well as its name and good will. The money never actually left PRR's account because it

15042-782: The scale of companies, Rockefeller and his associates developed innovative ways of organizing to effectively manage their fast-growing enterprise. On January 2, 1882, they combined their disparate companies, spread across dozens of states, under a single group of trustees. By a secret agreement, the existing 37 stockholders conveyed their shares "in trust" to nine trustees: John and William Rockefeller, Oliver H. Payne , Charles Pratt , Henry Flagler , John D. Archbold , William G. Warden, Jabez Bostwick , and Benjamin Brewster . "Whereas some state legislatures imposed special taxes on out-of-state corporations doing business in their states, other legislatures forbade corporations in their state from holding

15180-468: The sister of William Rockefeller's wife. In 1870, Rockefeller abolished the partnership and incorporated Standard Oil in Ohio. Of the initial 10,000 shares, John D. Rockefeller received 2,667, Harkness received 1,334, William Rockefeller, Flagler, and Andrews received 1,333 each, Jennings received 1,000, and the firm of Rockefeller, Andrews & Flagler received 1,000. Rockefeller chose the "Standard Oil" name as

15318-657: The state of New Jersey changed its incorporation laws to allow a company to hold shares in other companies in any state. So, in 1899, the Standard Oil Trust, based at 26 Broadway in New York, was legally reborn as a holding company , the Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey (SOCNJ), which held stock in 41 other companies, which controlled other companies, which in turn controlled yet other companies. According to Daniel Yergin in his Pulitzer Prize-winning The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power (1990), this conglomerate

15456-418: The stock and bonds issued to finance IMM and was forced to remain active in IMM's management. Instead of the $ 10 million profit he expected, he lost money on the transaction. The problem was that IMM paid too much for the companies it acquired and struggled under the debt payments. The hoped for subsidy from Congress did not materialize and the company was impacted by the economic depression that lasted through

15594-493: The stock of companies based elsewhere. (Legislators established such restrictions in the hope that they would force successful companies to incorporate—and thus pay taxes—in their state.)" Standard Oil's organizational concept proved so successful that other giant enterprises adopted this "trust" form. By 1882, Rockefeller's top aide was John Dustin Archbold , whom he left in control after disengaging from business to concentrate on philanthropy after 1896. Other notable principals of

15732-445: The textiles industry. At the beginning of the 16th century, Antwerp accounted for 40% of world trade. The boom-and-bust cycles and inflationary cost-of-living squeezed less-skilled workers. In the century after 1541, the city's economy and population declined dramatically. The Portuguese merchants left in 1549, and there was much less trade in English cloth. Numerous financial bankruptcies began around 1557. Amsterdam replaced Antwerp as

15870-628: The trade, the merchants, and the manufacturers. The city was a cosmopolitan center; its bourse opened in 1531, "To the merchants of all nations." Antwerp became the sugar capital of Europe, importing the raw commodity from Portuguese and Spanish plantations on both sides of the Atlantic, where it was grown by a mixture of free and forced labour, increasingly with enslaved Africans as the century progressed. The city attracted Italian and German sugar refiners by 1550, and shipped their refined product to Germany, especially Cologne . Antwerp also had an unusually high number of painters, around 360 in 1560, in

16008-415: The trust. Jersey Standard operated a near monopoly in the American oil industry from 1899 until 1911 and was the largest corporation in the United States. In 1911, the landmark Supreme Court case Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States found Jersey Standard guilty of anticompetitive practices and ordered it to break up its holdings. The charge against Jersey came about in part as a consequence of

16146-514: The year. Due to the influence of the Gulf Stream , Antwerp has a relatively mild climate throughout the year, with the average temperature fluctuating between 4 °C (39 °F) and 19 °C (66 °F) throughout the year. Although Antwerp was formerly a fortified city, hardly anything remains of the former enceinte , only some remains of the city wall can be seen near the Vleeshuis museum at

16284-467: Was a Standard company only from 1908 until 1911. One of the original " Muckrakers " Ida M. Tarbell , was an American author and journalist whose father was an oil producer whose business had failed because of Rockefeller's business dealings. After extensive interviews with a sympathetic senior executive of Standard Oil, Henry H. Rogers , Tarbell's investigations of Standard Oil fueled growing public attacks on Standard Oil and monopolies in general. Her work

16422-449: Was also refinanced with a $ 6 million bond issue to enable Griscom to order the two new 20 knot express liners required under the US mail contract and additional new vessels for Red Star. About half of these bonds were purchased by representatives of Standard Oil. When St Louis and St Paul were delivered, the American Line had the only weekly 20 knot service on the Atlantic. The timing for

16560-500: Was also the headquarters of Edward III during his early negotiations with Jacob van Artevelde , and his son Lionel , the Duke of Clarence , was born there in 1338. After the silting-up of the Zwin and the consequent decline of Bruges , Antwerp, then part of the Duchy of Brabant , grew in importance, with the city doubling its population between 1500 and 1569. At the end of the 15th century,

16698-410: Was associated with Standard Oil. He then admitted to being a director of Standard Oil. The committee's final report scolded the railroads for their rebate policies and cited Standard Oil as an example. This scolding was largely moot to Standard Oil's interests since long-distance oil pipelines were now their preferred method of transportation. In response to state laws that had the result of limiting

16836-508: Was built between 1200 and 1225 as a gateway to a larger castle of the Dukes of Brabant which was demolished in the 19th century. It is Antwerp's oldest building. At the end of the 10th century, the Scheldt became the boundary of the Holy Roman Empire . Antwerp became a margraviate in 980, by the German emperor Otto II , a border province facing the County of Flanders . In the 11th century,

16974-435: Was charged by the firm to manage the American Line as well as the Red Star Line. The former company, known as the American “Keystone” Line was unprofitable because of the substantially higher costs associated with operating American-flagged vessels. In 1884, the assets of the American Line were acquired by International Navigation. Two years later, INC also acquired the assets of the financially troubled Inman Line , operator of

17112-457: Was chartered in Belgium as the “Societe Anonyme de Navigation Belge-Americaine”. In addition to Griscom, the board included Thomas Scott, who in two years would become President of the Pennsylvania Railroad. Red Star's Antwerp–Philadelphia Service started in January 1873. Red Star took delivery of three new steamers built in England and supplemented its fleet with chartered tonnage. Red Star

17250-460: Was created by the Philadelphia ship brokerage of Peter Wright & Sons. A $ 1 million bond issue was guaranteed by PRR and the initial $ 1.5 million stock offering was largely purchased by a small group of Peter Wright partners and PRR executives. The new firm's affairs were turned over to a 30-year-old Peter Wright partner, Clement A. Griscom, who was also a close associate of Edgar Thompson, President of PRR. International Navigation's original plan

17388-458: Was dissolved in 1962. Rockefeller's original company, Standard Oil Company of Ohio ( Sohio ), effectively ceased to exist when it was purchased by BP in 1987. BP continued to sell gasoline under the Sohio brand until 1991. Other Standard oil entities include "Standard Oil of Indiana" which became Amoco after other mergers and a name change in the 1980s, and "Standard Oil of California" which became

17526-475: Was forced into bankruptcy when the war disrupted cash flow, but later was able to profit from the wartime demand for shipping. In the 1920s and 1930s, IMM gradually sold off its foreign subsidiaries. In 1931, it acquired the United States Lines , and merged all operations under that name in 1943. The company failed in 1986 and was liquidated when it over expanded in the cargo container business. In 1858,

17664-597: Was formed in 1933. To distribute its products, Standard Oil constructed storage tanks, canneries (bulk oil from large ocean tankers was re-packaged into 5-US-gallon (19 L; 4.2 imp gal) tins), warehouses, and offices in key Chinese cities. For inland distribution, the company had motor tank trucks and railway tank cars, and for river navigation, it had a fleet of low-draft steamers and other vessels. Stanvac's North China Division, based in Shanghai, owned hundreds of vessels, including motor barges, steamers, launches, tugboats, and tankers. Up to 13 tankers operated on

17802-552: Was in better position to survive the depression of 1873 than the US-flagged American “Keystone” Line because operating as a US carrier resulted in about 30% higher costs. At the end of 1873, Griscom took over management of the American Keystone Line. In 1874, Red Star also started an Antwerp-New York service under a mail contract from the Belgian Government. Red Star thrived and by 1881 carried over 40,000 passengers. At

17940-507: Was initially established through an emphasis on efficiency and responsibility. While most companies dumped gasoline in rivers (this was before the automobile was popular), Standard used it to fuel its machines. While other companies' refineries piled mountains of heavy waste, Rockefeller found ways to sell it. For example, Standard bought the company that invented and produced Vaseline , the Chesebrough Manufacturing Co. , which

18078-574: Was officially merged into the American Line. To strengthen the company's finances, International Navigation was reorganized in June 1893. The original Pennsylvania chartered company was replaced by a new corporate entity, the International Navigation Corporation of New Jersey with capitalization of $ 15 million. In July, International Navigation Limited was formed in the UK to hold title to the remaining British flagged vessels. The company

18216-599: Was positive, sales boomed and China became Standard Oil's largest market in Asia. Prior to Pearl Harbor, Stanvac was the largest single U.S. investment in Southeast Asia . The North China Department of Socony (Standard Oil Company of New York) operated a subsidiary called Socony River and Coastal Fleet, North Coast Division, which became the North China Division of Stanvac (Standard Vacuum Oil Company) after that company

18354-637: Was published in 19 parts in McClure's magazine from November 1902 to October 1904, then in 1904 as the book The History of the Standard Oil Co . The Standard Oil Trust was controlled by a small group of families. Rockefeller stated in 1910: "I think it is true that the Pratt family, the Payne– Whitney family (which were one, as all the stock came from Colonel Payne), the Harkness-Flagler family (which came into

18492-449: Was seen by the public as all-pervasive, controlled by a select group of directors, and completely unaccountable. In 1904, Standard controlled 91 percent of production and 85 percent of final sales. Most of its output was kerosene , of which 55 percent was exported around the world. After 1900 it did not try to force competitors out of business by selling at a loss. The federal Commissioner of Corporations studied Standard's operations from

18630-720: Was the first city to host the World Gymnastics Championships , in 1903. During World War I , the city became the fallback point of the Belgian Army after the defeat at Liège . The Siege of Antwerp lasted for 11 days, but the city was taken after heavy fighting by the German Army, and the Belgians were forced to retreat westwards. Antwerp remained under German occupation until the Armistice. A few years later, Antwerp hosted

18768-434: Was the year when the antitrust case was filed against Standard. Standard's market share was 64 percent by 1911 when Standard was ordered broken up. At least 147 refining companies were competing with Standard including Gulf, Texaco, and Shell. It did not try to monopolize the exploration and extraction of oil (its share in 1911 was 11 percent). In 1909, the U.S. Justice Department sued Standard under federal antitrust law,

18906-600: Was to operate UK flagged steamers on the Liverpool–;Philadelphia route and to coordinate sailings with the American Steamship Company, operating as the American “Keystone” Line. Since Peter Wright & Sons was also involved in the early transport of oil from the Pennsylvania petroleum fields, Griscom had the support of the Standard Oil Company for his new steamship line. INC ordered its first steamer as

19044-538: Was used to repay the railroad for the American Steamship bonds it guaranteed. When the transaction was completed, the American Keystone Line became INC's second operating subsidiary. International Navigation's Liverpool agent was Richardson and Spence, who was also the agent for the Inman Line, one of the big three British flagged companies on the Liverpool–New York route. INC became a major creditor of Inman when that company suffered financial difficulties in

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