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112-547: Victor H. Mair , Professor of Chinese Language and Literature at the University of Pennsylvania , has noted that there are many advantages of the IDP providing high resolution digital images of Dunhuang manuscripts online for access to all. Whereas in years gone by scholars often needed to travel long distances to access the original manuscripts, or could only access them by means of low quality reproductions, now anyone can access images from

224-420: A polyester film base that is very stable but extremely easy to scratch, therefore special care must be used in the handling of Kodak HIE throughout the development and printing/scanning process to avoid damage to the film. Kodak HIE was sensitive to 900 nm. Other infrared black-and-white films include: Like HIE, the most commonly used infrared color reversal film , also called transparency or slide film,

336-464: A relational database using the 4th Dimension database management tool. Records can be searched for by means of an online search form that allows users to restrict the search on the basis of a number of different criteria, such as type of artefact, holding institute, archaeological site, and language or script. The database was updated to support Unicode in 2010, and the IDP website is now fully encoded using UTF-8 , allowing characters from most of

448-498: A 50 mm prime lens may have more contrast than the same image taken at 50 mm with a 28–80 zoom. Many conventional cameras can be used for near-infrared photography, where the portion of the infrared is light of a wavelength only slightly longer than that of visible light. Photography of the far-infrared spectrum with longer wavelengths is called thermography and requires special equipment. With some patience and ingenuity, most film cameras can be used. However, some cameras of

560-554: A bribery scandal, and much of his collection was moved to Ōtani's villa in Lüshun , China. His collection was later dispersed to various libraries, museums and collections across Japan, Korea, and China. Four German expeditions to Turpan were made in the years 1902–1903, 1904–1905, 1905–1907, and 1913–1914, the first and third expeditions led by Albert Grünwedel (1856–1935), and the second and fourth expeditions led by Albert von Le Coq (1860–1930). These expeditions brought back to Berlin

672-406: A collection of over 1,500 archaeological artefacts collected from various Silk Road sites by Stein, as well as non-literary items from Dunhuang Cave 17, comprising more than 240 paintings on silk or paper, 200 textiles, and about 30 woodblock prints. The museum also holds over 4,000 coins collected by Stein, about three quarters of which are Chinese, and most of the rest are Islamic. Images of all of

784-470: A color transparency film that could be developed in standard E-6 chemistry, although more accurate results were obtained by developing using the AR-5 process. Like HIE, EIR uses a clear polyester film base and must be loaded in complete darkness. In general, color infrared does not need to be refocused to the infrared index mark on the lens. Kodak EIR loses its infrared sensitivity as it ages, giving photographs

896-414: A cyan cast, as fewer grains in the infrared-sensitive (cyan-forming) layer will be sensitized. Anecdotally, EIR is most sensitive up to approximately 21 days after purchase, and stabilizes at a decreased sensitivity thereafter. Kodak discontinued production of HIE Infrared 35 mm film at the end of 2007, stating that, "Demand for these products has been declining significantly in recent years, and it

1008-506: A different set of wavelengths; for instance, a standard color reversal film has red-, green-, and blue-sensitive layers. During the modern E-6 process of development, grains of silver halide that were sensitized by the appropriate wavelengths of light in each layer react with a reducing agent to form metallic silver particles. The unexposed grains are then sensitized chemically during a second development step and produce oxidized developer, which react with dye coupler compounds embedded in

1120-485: A digital camera without internal infrared blocking is such that a variety of artistic results can be obtained with more conventional filtration. For example, a very dark neutral density filter can be used (such as the Hoya ND400) which passes a very small amount of visible light compared to the near-infrared it allows through. Wider filtration permits an SLR viewfinder to be used and also passes more varied color information to

1232-456: A digitisation project such as the IDP benefits both the institutions involved, who are often able to obtain more substantial funding than they would for an internal project, and also the scholarly community, who are given access through the digital images to fragile and often inaccessible items that might previously have been difficult or impossible to view. Catalogue records are stored in XML format on

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1344-514: A false-color image by translating or remapping the captured spectrum (from green through infrared) to the visible spectrum: Infrared wavelengths are mapped to the red color, even though the infrared wavelengths are not normally visible. Similarly, visible red wavelengths are remapped to green, and visible green band wavelengths are remapped to blue. The filter and color remapping means visible blue and violet wavelengths are not captured. The infrared-sensitive layer will form cyan dyes (negative-red), while

1456-639: A few infrared photographs in Portugal in 1910, which are now in the Kodak archives. Infrared-sensitive photographic plates were developed in the United States during World War I for spectroscopic analysis, and infrared sensitizing dyes were investigated for improved haze penetration in aerial photography. After 1930, new emulsions from Kodak and other manufacturers became useful to infrared astronomy . Infrared photography became popular with photography enthusiasts in

1568-454: A few millimeters into skin and give a milky look to portraits, although eyes often look black. Until the early 20th century, infrared photography was not possible because silver halide emulsions are not sensitive to longer wavelengths than that of blue light (and to a lesser extent, green light) without the addition of a dye to act as a color sensitizer. The first infrared photographs (as distinct from spectrographs) to be published appeared in

1680-589: A huge amount of material, including murals and other artefacts, as well as about 40,000 manuscript and woodblock fragments written in more than twenty different scripts and languages. The items collected during these four expeditions are now divided between two institutions in Berlin. The IDP has digitised over 14,000 items from these collection, mostly the Chinese, Brahmi and Sanskrit fragments. The Middle Persian, Old Turkic and Mongolian fragments have been digitised as part of

1792-632: A large number of manuscripts that he acquired from the 'Library Cave' (Cave 17) of the Mogao Caves at Dunhuang during his second expedition. Some of the material that he collected, including murals, paintings, artefacts and manuscripts, was sent to India as his first three expeditions had been sponsored by the Indian government. Most of this material is now held at the National Museum of India in New Delhi , but

1904-808: A more pure-infrared photo with a more pronounced contrast. Instead of the Wratten number, some manufacturers embed the transition or cutoff wavelength in the name of the filter. For example, Hoya markets the R72 (720 nm cutoff, 750 nm 50% transition) and RM90 (900 nm cutoff) filters for infrared photography. B+W ( Schneider Kreuznach ) and Heliopan sell filters using glass sourced from Schott AG , including types RG695 (695 nm transition, considered approximately equivalent to Wratten #89B), RG715 (715 nm, #88A), RG780 (780 nm, #87), RG830, RG850, and RG1000. Many manual focus lenses for 35 mm single-lens reflex cameras (SLR) and medium format SLR have

2016-450: A normal camera. Metering works but is not always accurate because of the difference between visible and infrared refraction. When the IR blocker is removed, many lenses which did display a hotspot cease to do so, and become perfectly usable for infrared photography. Additionally, because the red, green and blue micro-filters remain and have transmissions not only in their respective color but also in

2128-467: A red dot, line or diamond, often with a red "R" called the infrared index mark, which can be used to achieve proper infrared focus; many autofocus lenses no longer have this mark. For these lenses, after visual focus is achieved for the intended subject, the distance indicated by the visual focusing mark is then re-set to the infrared index mark. Without refocusing, a sharp infrared photograph can be taken by proper hyperfocal settings, which generally requires

2240-401: A shift from red (healthy) towards magenta (unhealthy). Several Sony cameras had a feature branded as Night Shot, which physically moves the blocking filter away from the light path, making the cameras very sensitive to infrared light. Soon after its development, this facility was 'restricted' by Sony to make it difficult for people to take photos that saw through clothing. To do this the iris

2352-722: A small amount of the material from his first expedition is held at the Indian Museum in Calcutta , and at Lahore Museum in Pakistan. The rest of the material collected by Stein was taken to England, and is now shared between the British Library, British Museum, and the Victoria and Albert Museum. The British Library holds over 45,000 items collected by Stein, mostly comprising manuscripts, printed texts, and inscribed pieces of wood, written in

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2464-506: A tripod, a narrow aperture (like f /8 ); however, wider apertures like f /2.0 can produce sharp photos when the lens is meticulously refocused to the infrared index mark, and only if this index mark is the correct one for the filter and film in use. Diffraction effects inside a camera are greater at infrared wavelengths so that stopping down the lens too far may actually reduce sharpness. Some lens manufacturers such as Leica never put IR index marks on their lenses. The reason for this

2576-611: A variety of technologies which may not resemble common camera or filter designs. Cameras sensitive to longer infrared wavelengths including those used in infrared astronomy often require cooling to reduce thermally induced dark currents in the sensor (see Dark current (physics) ). Lower cost uncooled thermographic digital cameras operate in the Long Wave infrared band (see Thermographic camera ). These cameras are generally used for building inspection or preventative maintenance but can be used for artistic pursuits as well, such as this image of

2688-423: A wavelength shorter than around 450 nm. Color infrared reversal films share a similar three-layer emulsion structure with conventional color reversal films, with the blue-sensitive layer replaced by an infrared-sensitive layer, and different dyes used for each of the layers. An external yellow photographic filter is used ( Wratten #12 or equivalent) to block the blue and violet wavelengths, which results in

2800-459: A wide variety of scripts and languages, including Chinese , Tibetan , Sanskrit , Tangut , Khotanese , Tocharian , Sogdian , Uyghur , Turkic and Mongolian : The British Library Stein Collection also includes some artefacts such as textile fragments, sutra wrappers and paste brushes, as well as over 10,000 photographs, negatives and lantern slides taken by Stein. The British Museum holds

2912-642: Is an American sinologist currently serving as a professor of Chinese at the University of Pennsylvania . Among other accomplishments, Mair has edited the standard Columbia History of Chinese Literature and the Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature . Mair is the series editor of the Cambria Sinophone World Series ( Cambria Press ), and his book coauthored with Miriam Robbins Dexter (published by Cambria Press ), Sacred Display: Divine and Magical Female Figures of Eurasia , won

3024-441: Is easier if one knows the character's appearance or radical but not its pronunciation) or under baba in single-sort alphabetic ordering (which is easier if one knows the pronunciation). In 1990, after unsuccessfully trying to obtain financial support for an alphabetically collated Chinese-English dictionary, Mair organized an international team of linguists and lexicographers who were willing to work as part-time volunteers. Under

3136-416: Is no blue-sensitive layer, color infrared films also omit the internal yellow filter layer built into conventional color films to protect the following layers. This requires photographers to use an external blue-blocking filter to absorb blue and violet wavelengths of light, which gives the filter a yellow color. Early color infrared films were developed in the older E-4 process , but Kodak later manufactured

3248-454: Is no longer practical to continue to manufacture given the low volume, the age of the product formulations and the complexity of the processes involved." At the time it was discontinued, HIE Infrared 135-36 was available at a street price of around $ 12.00 a roll at US mail order outlets. Also in 2007, Kodak announced that production of the 35 mm version of their color infrared film (Ektachrome Professional Infrared/EIR) would cease as there

3360-448: Is opened fully and exposure duration is limited to long times of more than 1/30 second or so. It is possible to shoot infrared but neutral density filters must be used to reduce the camera's sensitivity and the long exposure times mean that care must be taken to avoid camera-shake artifacts. Fuji have produced digital cameras for use in forensic criminology and medicine which have no infrared blocking filter. The first camera, designated

3472-413: Is placed behind the blue-sensitive layer, in front of the green and red-sensitive layers. This serves to minimize undesired passthrough of shorter wavelengths that are not supposed to expose the bottom layers. During development, each emulsion layer forms a negative image in the appropriate subtractive color (cyan-magenta-yellow): the blue-sensitive layer forms a yellow-dyed ("minus-blue") negative image,

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3584-573: Is planned to open an IDP centre in Sweden, and digitise the Central Asian collections held in Swedish institutions. The IDP database includes material from a number of important collections held by participating institutions of the IDP. Aurel Stein (1862–1943) made four expeditions to Central Asia (1900–1901, 1906–1908, 1913–1916, and 1930–1931), during which he collected a vast amount of material, including

3696-448: Is that any index mark is only valid for one particular IR filter and film combination, and may lead to user error. Even when using lenses with index marks, focus testing is advisable as there may be a large difference between the index mark and the subject plane . Most apochromatic ('APO') lenses do not have an Infrared index mark and do not need to be refocused for the infrared spectrum because they are already optically corrected into

3808-417: Is to remove the infrared blocker in front of the sensor and replace it with a glass cover that either removes or restricts visible light (infrared-only conversion) or one that passes infrared wavelengths ("full spectrum" conversion). This filter is behind the mirror of DSLRs , so the camera can be used normally - handheld, normal shutter speeds, normal composition through the viewfinder, and focus, all work like

3920-415: Is to swap blue and red channels in software (e.g. Adobe Photoshop ) which retains much of the characteristic 'white foliage' while rendering skies a glorious blue. Phase One digital camera backs can be ordered in an infrared modified form. The health of foliage can be determined from the relative strengths of green and infrared light reflected using color infrared film; this shows in color infrared as

4032-501: Is written with a single Chinese character . Following a two-millennia tradition, Chinese dictionaries – even modern pinyin-based ones like the Xinhua Zidian – are regularly ordered in "sorted-morpheme arrangement" based on the first morpheme (character) in a word. For instance, a Chinese dictionary user who wanted to look up the word Bābāduōsī 巴巴多斯 " Barbados " could find it under ba 巴 in traditional sorted-morpheme ordering (which

4144-946: The Digital Turfan Archive hosted by the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, and the Tocharian fragments have been digitised as part of the TITUS project of the Goethe University Frankfurt . The following are some of the notable items in the IDP database. In November 2010 the IDP was awarded the Casa Asia Award by the Spanish governmental consortium, Casa Asia , for its work in digitizing and preserving manuscripts. Victor H. Mair Victor Henry Mair ( / m ɛər / ; born March 25, 1943)

4256-1001: The Institute of Oriental Manuscripts and the Hermitage Museum . The Institute of Oriental Manuscripts holds the more than 19,000 manuscript fragments and 365 manuscript scrolls collected from Dunhuang by Oldenburg, as well as about thirty manuscripts collected by Sergey Malov during an expedition to Khotan during 1909–1910, and some 183 Uyghur manuscripts collected by N. N. Krotkov, the Russian Consul in Urumqi and Ghulja . The Hermitage Museum holds artefacts from both of Oldenburg's expeditions, including 66 Buddhist banners and banner-tops, 137 fragments of Buddhist silk paintings, 43 fragments of Buddhist paintings on paper, 24 murals, 38 pieces of textile, and eight manuscript fragments. Oldenburg's personal papers, diaries, maps and photographs relating to

4368-885: The Mellon Foundation , work started on the digitisation of manuscripts held at collections in Paris and Beijing, and in 2003 digital images of Dunhuang paintings held at the British Museum were added to the database. By 2004 the IDP database included images of some 50,000 manuscripts, paintings, artefacts, and historical photographs. IDP Centres were opened in Beijing in 2001, in St. Petersburg and Kyoto in 2004, in Berlin in 2005, in Dunhuang in 2007, in Paris in 2008, and in Seoul in 2010. The first director of

4480-589: The Mogao Caves at Dunhuang a year after Stein, where he acquired thousands of manuscripts from the ' Library Cave ' (Cave 17), as well as hundreds of manuscripts and printed texts from Caves 464 and 465. The items collected by Pelliot are held at the Bibliothèque nationale de France , and are divided into the following sub-collections: Pyotr Kozlov (1863–1935) made an expedition to the Tangut fortress city of Khara-Khoto during 1907–1909. The city had been abandoned in

4592-478: The Sigma SD10 DSLR has a removable IR blocking filter and dust protector, which can be simply omitted or replaced by a deep red or complete visible light blocking filter. The Sigma SD14 has an IR/UV blocking filter that can be removed/installed without tools. The result is a very sensitive digital IR camera. While it is common to use a filter that blocks almost all visible light, the wavelength sensitivity of

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4704-642: The University of Pennsylvania , where he has remained ever since. He is also founder and editor of Sino-Platonic Papers , an academic journal examining Chinese, East Asian and Central Asian linguistics and literature. Mair specializes in early written vernacular Chinese , and is responsible for translations of the Dao De Jing (the Mawangdui Silk Texts version), the Zhuangzi and The Art of War . He has also collaborated on interdisciplinary research on

4816-723: The archeology of Eastern Central Asia . The American Philosophical Society awarded him membership in 2007. In 1969, Mair married Chang Li-ch'ing ( Chinese : 張立青 ; pinyin : Zhāng Lìqīng ; 1936–2010), a Chinese-Taiwanese scholar who taught Mandarin Chinese at the University of Washington, Tunghai University , Bryn Mawr College , Harvard University, the University of Pennsylvania, and Swarthmore College . Together they had one son, Thomas Krishna Mair. Three of Mair's former students characterize his wide-ranging scholarship. Victor has always cast his nets widely, and he could routinely amaze us with observations far afield from

4928-494: The autofocus calculations, because infrared light wavelengths may focus at a different point than visible light wavelengths, or by softening the image, if the red channel becomes oversaturated. Also, some clothing is transparent in the infrared, leading to unintended (at least to the manufacturer) uses of video cameras . Thus, to improve image quality and protect privacy, many digital cameras have infrared blockers or hot mirrors installed in front of their sensors. Depending on

5040-402: The first issue of Sino-Platonic papers (1986), he suggested the publication of a Chinese dictionary arranged in the same familiar way as English, French, or Korean dictionaries: "single-sort alphabetical arrangement" purely based on the alphabetic spelling of a word, regardless of its morphological structure. Most Chinese words are multisyllabic compounds , where each syllable or morpheme

5152-446: The photographic film or image sensor used is sensitive to infrared light. The part of the spectrum used is referred to as near-infrared to distinguish it from far-infrared, which is the domain of thermal imaging . Wavelengths used for photography range from about 700  nm to about 900 nm. Film is usually sensitive to visible light too, so an infrared-passing filter is used; this lets infrared (IR) light pass through to

5264-588: The tombs of Astana outside the ancient city of Gaochang , taking back to Japan nine mummies and many grave goods and funerary texts. The three Ōtani expeditions produced a large collection of manuscripts (especially Buddhist sutras ), woodslips, murals, sculptures, textiles, coins, and seals. These items were originally deposited in the Nishi Honganji Monastery, and later at Ōtani's residence, Villa Niraku in Kobe , but in 1914 Ōtani resigned as abbot due to

5376-430: The 1930s when suitable film was introduced commercially. The Times regularly published landscape and aerial photographs taken by their staff photographers using Ilford infrared film. By 1937, 33 kinds of infrared film were available from five manufacturers including Agfa , Kodak and Ilford. Infrared movie film was also available and was used to create day-for-night effects in motion pictures. A notable example being

5488-490: The 1960s but has been since discontinued. Infrared photography became popular with a number of 1960s recording artists, because of the unusual results; Jimi Hendrix , Donovan , Frank Zappa and the Grateful Dead all issued albums with infrared cover photos. The unexpected colors and effects that infrared film can produce fit well with the psychedelic aesthetic that emerged in the late 1960s. Infrared light lies between

5600-455: The 1990s that used 35mm film have infrared sprocket-hole sensors that can fog infrared film (their manuals may warn against the use of infrared film for this reason). Other film cameras are not completely opaque to infrared light. Arguably the greatest obstacle to infrared film photography has been the difficulty of obtaining infrared-sensitive film. Kodak typically manufactured just one or two batches of infrared films per year. In addition,

5712-412: The 700 to 900 nm near infrared spectrum , and most also have an inherent sensitivity to blue light wavelengths. Kodak High-Speed Infrared (HIE), which produced negatives for photographic prints, was one of the most common black-and-white infrared films used. Because HIE was so prevalent, black-and-white infrared photographs have been associated with a notable halation effect or glow often seen in

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5824-605: The Asiatic Museum in 1911. They are now held at the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts in St Petersburg. In addition to the several thousand Tangut texts, the Kozlov Collection includes about 660 manuscripts and printed books in Chinese, mostly Buddhist texts. The site of Khara-Khoto was excavated by Aurel Stein in 1917, during his third expedition, and several thousand Tangut manuscript fragments recovered by Stein are in

5936-509: The Brahmi script. During his second expedition Oldenburg surveyed the Mogao Caves at Dunhuang, and revisited some of the sites in Turpan that he had visited during his first expedition. He found a large number of artefacts and manuscript fragments (nearly 20,000 fragments, some of them tiny) at Dunhuang, and also purchased about 300 scrolls from local people. Oldenburg's collections are shared between

6048-533: The British Library). Susan Whitfield was appointed to edit the newsletter. The first meeting of the IDP steering group was held on 11 April 1994, when the name International Dunhuang Project was adopted. The first newsletter was published on 16 May 1994. The IDP was initially founded with 3-year grant from the Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation , and had only one member of staff. The following year

6160-805: The British Museum in 1902. A further ten consignments were sent to Hoernle in London after his retirement in 1899. The Hoernle Collection, which comprises over 2,000 Sanskrit manuscripts, 1,200 Tocharian manuscripts, and about 250 Khotanese manuscripts, as well as a few Chinese, Persian and Uyghur manuscripts, is now held by the British Library. Paul Pelliot (1878–1945) led an expedition to Kucha and Dunhuang between 1906 and 1908. In Kucha and elsewhere in Chinese Turkestan he collected hundreds of woodslips with inscriptions in Sanskrit and Tocharian. Pelliot arrived at

6272-528: The Chinese Embassy in London stated that "[l]ittle by little, we will expect to see the return of items taken from Dunhuang — they should go back to their original place". The Hoernle Collection, named after Augustus Hoernle (1841–1918), is a collection of Central Asian manuscripts collected by the Indian government. 22 consignments were sent to Hoernle in Calcutta between 1895 and 1899, and these were sent to

6384-603: The Chinese text we were reading in class. Today people often attempt to simulate this cosmopolitanism under the rubric of interdisciplinary study, but for Victor, it was quite untrendy: he simply had an insatiable appetite for knowledge and pushing boundaries. Indeed, border-crossing has been our mentor's dominant mode of scholarship, a mode that has constantly interrogated where those very borders are both geographically and categorically. Though never sporting fashionable jargon, Victor has always taken on phenomena and issues that engage aspects of multiculturalism, hybridity , alterity, and

6496-832: The February 1910 edition of The Century Magazine and in the October 1910 edition of the Royal Photographic Society Journal to illustrate papers by Robert W. Wood , who discovered the unusual effects that now bear his name. The RPS co-ordinated events to celebrate the centenary of this event in 2010. Wood's photographs were taken on experimental film that required very long exposures; thus, most of his work focused on landscapes. A further set of infrared landscapes taken by Wood in Italy in 1911 used plates provided for him by C. E. K. Mees at Wratten & Wainwright. Mees also took

6608-616: The IDP database was designed and implemented, and in 1996 a grant from the British Academy allowed the hiring of a part-time research assistant to input catalogue data into the database. In 1997, with funding of £148,000 from the Heritage Lottery Fund , the IDP started to digitise manuscripts held at the British Library, and in 1998 the database went online with an initial 20,000 catalogue entries and about 1,000 images of digitised manuscripts. In 2001, with substantial support from

6720-449: The IDP has supported a number of conservation projects (such as the analysis of paper and textile fibres), and has organised regular conferences on conservation issues at venues across the world. In addition to developing techniques for the conservation and preservation of documents and artefacts, the IDP hopes to foster good conservation practices and common standards amongst participating institutes, ensuring that artefacts are stored under

6832-457: The IDP organised a major exhibition entitled "The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith", which was held at the British Library. This was the most successful exhibition ever held at the British Library, and attracted 155,000 visitors. The foundations for the project were laid in October 1993 when an international conference on Dunhuang Cave 17 was held at Sussex University . This conference brought together curators and conservators from across

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6944-543: The IDP was Susan Whitfield, who retired from the position in July 2017. The following institutions are participating in the project. The International Dunhuang Project has centres in seven countries. The London centre, based at the British Library, acts as the directorate for the IDP, and is responsible for maintaining the IDP database and the main English-language website. The other centres maintain local-language versions of

7056-436: The IDP website, currently Chinese , French , German , Japanese , Korea , and Russian . Each centre is responsible for the conservation, cataloguing, and digitisation of manuscripts in its country. The staff at these centres help train participating institutions in the use of digitisation equipment and computer software, as well as providing training in conservation and research techniques. In addition to these centres, it

7168-636: The IS-1, a modified version of the FujiFilm FinePix S9100. Unlike the S3 PRO UVIR, the IS-1 does not offer UV sensitivity. FujiFilm restricts the sale of these cameras to professional users with their EULA specifically prohibiting "unethical photographic conduct". Remote sensing and thermographic cameras are sensitive to longer wavelengths of infrared (see Infrared spectrum § Commonly used sub-division scheme ). They may be multispectral and use

7280-640: The Ministry of Education, but soon after the Xinhai Revolution in 1911 the manuscripts were deposited in the newly founded Metropolitan Library (later to become the National Library of China ). The 8,697 manuscripts that Fu Baoshu brought back from Dunhuang form the core of the Dunhuang collection in the National Library of China, but they have since been augmented by various purchases and donations over

7392-513: The New Zealand scholar Patrick Hanan . He received a Ph.D. in 1976 with a doctoral dissertation entitled "Popular Narratives From Tun-huang", a study and translation of folk literature discovered among the Dunhuang manuscripts . After completing his Ph.D., Mair joined the faculty at Harvard as an assistant professor and taught there for three years. In 1979, Mair left Harvard to join the faculty of

7504-679: The Peace Corps in 1967, Mair returned to the United States and enrolled in the Buddhist Studies program at the University of Washington , where he began studying Buddhism , Sanskrit , and Classical Tibetan . In 1968, Mair won a Marshall Scholarship and moved to the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London to further study Chinese and Sanskrit, receiving a B.A. (Hons) in 1972 and an M.Phil. in 1974. He then went to Harvard University to pursue doctoral studies in Chinese under

7616-537: The S3 PRO UVIR, also had extended ultraviolet sensitivity (digital sensors are usually less sensitive to UV than to IR). Optimum UV sensitivity requires special lenses, but ordinary lenses usually work well for IR. In 2007, FujiFilm introduced a new version of this camera, based on the Nikon D200/ FujiFilm S5 called the IS Pro , also able to take Nikon lenses. Fuji had earlier introduced a non-SLR infrared camera,

7728-802: The Sarasvati Award for the Best Nonfiction Book in Women and Mythology. Victor H. Mair was born on March 25, 1943, in East Canton, Ohio . After high school, Mair attended Dartmouth College , where, in addition to his studies, he was a member of the Dartmouth Big Green men's basketball team. He graduated with an A.B. in 1965, then joined the Peace Corps and served in Nepal for two years. After leaving

7840-559: The Stein Collection of the British Library. Sergey Oldenburg (1863–1934), who was the first director of the Institute of Oriental Studies (formerly the Asiatic Museum) in St Petersburg, made two expeditions to Central Asia (1909–1910 and 1914–1915), which were to become known as the 'Russian Turkestan expeditions'. During the first expedition Oldenburg explored a number of sites around Turpan , including Shikchin , Yarkhoto and Kucha , and collected murals, paintings, terracottas, and about one hundred manuscripts, mostly fragments written in

7952-413: The ancient and modern scripts found in the manuscripts to be added to the catalogue records. Each online catalogue record incorporates a physical description of the item, catalogue records from existing print sources, translations if available, and bibliographic references. The IDP also encourages scholarly users to submit their own catalogue entries and research results on individual items for addition to

8064-441: The anti-halation layer in conventional films. In addition, the clear backing means that Kodak HIE must only be loaded and unloaded in total darkness. Infrared black-and-white films require special development times but exposed film can be processed using standard black-and-white photographic developers and chemicals, including D-76; the choice of chemical may affect the characteristic exposure/density curve. Kodak HIE film has

8176-455: The camera, but blocks all or most of the visible light spectrum; these filters thus look black (opaque) or deep red. When these filters are used together with infrared-sensitive film or sensors, " in-camera effects " can be obtained; false-color or black-and-white images with a dreamlike or sometimes lurid appearance known as the "Wood Effect," an effect mainly caused by foliage (such as tree leaves and grass) strongly reflecting infrared in

8288-436: The center of the image as their coatings are optimized for visible light and not for IR. There is no currently available digital camera that will directly produce the same results as Kodak color infrared film although equivalent images can be produced using a full spectrum converted infrared digital camera and a Kolari Vision Color IR Chrome lens filter. Similar effects can be achieved by taking two exposures, one infrared and

8400-404: The collections material from Dunhuang and other Eastern Silk Road sites held by participating institutions. Digitised images of the items in the IDP database are made available to the public on the IDP website. The digital images are intended to be at least as legible as the original manuscripts, and allow scholars to access the material from anywhere in the world without causing any more damage to

8512-600: The color filters on the photo sites, further amended by the Bayer filtering. While this makes such images unsuitable for the kind of applications for which the film was used, such as remote sensing of plant health, the resulting color tonality has proved popular artistically. Color digital infrared, as part of full spectrum photography is gaining popularity. The ease of creating a softly colored photo with infrared characteristics has found interest among hobbyists and professionals. One method of infrared photography using digital cameras

8624-508: The convenience of their computer, wherever they are in the world. This not only makes research into these manuscripts easier, but helps in their conservation as there is far less need for them to be handled in person. Moreover, the high quality images provided by the IDP often show up details that would be difficult to see with the human eye. The main activities of the IDP are the conserving, cataloguing, and digitising of manuscripts, woodblock prints, paintings, photographs and other artefacts in

8736-457: The database. To facilitate the locating of items on the IDP database the project has also digitised a large number of catalogues and bibliographic sources, and made them available online, with links from the original catalogue entries to the corresponding online catalogue entry in the IDP database. In order to better understand how to conserve the fragile materials that most of the items in the IDP database are made from (paper, textile, and wood),

8848-489: The editorial leadership of John DeFrancis , they published the first general Chinese-English single-sort dictionary in 1996. According to the "Acknowledgments" (1996:ix), "This dictionary owes its genesis to the initiative of Victor H. Mair of Pennsylvania." A revised and expanded edition was published in 2000. Works listed in Library of Congress (Chronological order) Infrared photography In infrared photography ,

8960-679: The expedition divided into two groups, Ōtani and two others travelling to Srinagar and India, before returning to Japan; and the two others exploring the region of Khotan and Turpan , and excavating the previously unexplored site of Kucha , before returning to Japan in 1904. Ōtani became abbot of the Nishi Honganji Monastery in Kyoto on his father's death in 1903, and so was unable to personally take part in any further expeditions, but he financed further expeditions to Chinese Turkestan in 1908–1909 and 1910–1914. The final expedition excavated

9072-420: The film emulsion layers to form negative images in various color dyes , respective to how the silver halide was originally sensitized for each layer. In conventional color films, the topmost (blue-sensitive) layer gets exposed to light prior to the green- and red-sensitive layers stacked behind it. Since the green- and red-sensitive layers also retain an inherent sensitivity to blue light, a yellow filter layer

9184-452: The film, and thus lower the contrast. The majority of black-and-white infrared art, landscape, and wedding photography is done using orange (Wratten #15 or 21), red (#23, 25, or 29) or visually opaque (#72) filters over the lens to block the blue visible light from the exposure. Very dark-red (#29) filters block out almost all blue, and visually opaque (#70, 89b, 87c, 72) filters block out all blue and also visible red wavelengths, resulting in

9296-486: The fragile items themselves. The central core of the project is the online database of catalogue records and images. This is intended to serve three main purposes: In 2002, Lynne Brindley , Chief Executive Officer of the British Library, put forward the International Dunhuang Project as a good example of the sort of complex, collaborative, and international digitisation projects that the British Library

9408-424: The green-sensitive layer forms a magenta-dyed negative image, and the red-sensitive layer forms a cyan-dyed negative image. When the slide is viewed or projected by passing white light through these stacked layers, the visible wavelengths are filtered correspondingly with the reversed colors. For example, blue light will result in no yellow dye formation in the blue-sensitive layer, but cyan and magenta dye will form in

9520-400: The green-sensitive layer will form yellow dyes (negative-blue) and the red-sensitive layer will form magenta dyes (negative-green). The external yellow filter is used because each emulsion layer in color films (both conventional and infrared) has an inherent sensitivity for short-wavelength radiation (blue and violet visible wavelengths of light) due to the silver halide chemistry. Since there

9632-400: The highlights, similar to the soft focus effect of uncorrected spherical aberration . This halation is an artifact of the clear polyester film base used for HIE and not inherent to infrared photography; it is caused by the absence of an anti-halation layer on the back side of Kodak HIE film, which results in a scattering or blooming around the highlights that would usually be absorbed by

9744-447: The infrared, enhanced infrared color may be recorded. Since the Bayer filters in most digital cameras may also absorb a significant fraction of the infrared light, converted cameras are sometimes not very sensitive to infrared wavelengths and can sometimes produce false colors in the images. An alternative approach is to use a Foveon X3 sensor , which does not have absorptive filters on it;

9856-437: The late 14th century, and had been largely buried in sand for several hundred years. Kozlov unearthed thousands of manuscripts and woodblock prints, mostly written in the dead Tangut language , which had been preserved beneath the sands of Khara-Khoto. The collection of Tangut texts that Kozlov brought back from Khara-Khoto were originally housed in the museum of Alexander III of Russia in St Petersburg, but were transferred to

9968-570: The library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences have been added to the IDP database. The removal by Stein of so much cultural and archaeological material from China has caused anger in China, and there have been calls for the texts and artefacts collected by Stein from Dunhuang that are now in the British Museum and British Library to be repatriated to China. Although the Chinese government has not formally requested their return, in 2003 an official at

10080-546: The most suitable conditions, and are handled as little as possible. The IDP centre at the British Library set up a digitisation studio in 2001, and now similar studios have been established at IDP centres across Europe and Asia. In addition to making high-quality digital images of items, infrared photography is used for manuscripts with faded ink or which are otherwise hard to read in normal light. The IDP also engages in various educational activities, organising exhibitions, workshops, and educational events for schools. In 2004

10192-411: The near-infrared spectrum. Catadioptric lenses do not often require this adjustment because their mirror containing elements do not suffer from chromatic aberration and so the overall aberration is comparably less. Catadioptric lenses do, of course, still contain lenses, and these lenses do still have a dispersive property. When a SLR camera is fitted with a filter that is opaque to visible light,

10304-459: The other full-color, and combining in post-production . A yellow (minus-blue) filter can also be used, which produces a single image that can also be post-processed to emulate the Ektachrome look. The color images produced by digital still cameras using infrared-pass filters are not equivalent to those produced on color infrared film. The colors result from varying amounts of infrared passing through

10416-632: The paintings and some of the artefacts are now included in the IDP database, and the coins may be added at a future date. The Victoria and Albert Museum holds a collection of more than 650 textiles collected by Stein from various Silk Road sites, all of which have now been added to the IDP database. Many of Stein's personal papers and diaries are held at the Western Manuscript Department of the Bodleian Library at Oxford University . A collection of personal papers and photographs held at

10528-507: The photograph to infrared wavelengths only. Without filters, infrared negative films look much like conventional negative films because the blue sensitivity lowers the contrast and effectively counteracts the infrared look of the film. Typically, a red filter ( Wratten #25) is recommended as the best compromise, which removes blue wavelengths while still passing enough visible light for focusing. Some photographers use orange or red filters to allow slight amounts of blue wavelengths to reach

10640-425: The popularity of digital photography has pushed film manufacturers to discontinue niche film products, including infrared-sensitive films. The discontinuance of Konica Infrared 750 (2006), Kodak High-Speed Infrared (2007), and Efke IR820 Aura (2012) has now narrowed the selection for black and white infrared film to Rollei Infrared 400 film. Black-and-white infrared negative films are sensitive to wavelengths in

10752-525: The pseudo-night aerial sequences in the James Cagney/Bette Davis movie, The Bride Came C.O.D. False-color infrared photography became widely practiced with the introduction of Kodak Ektachrome Infrared Aero Film and Ektachrome Infrared EIR. The first version of this, known as Kodacolor Aero-Reversal-Film, was developed by Clark and others at the Kodak for camouflage detection in the 1940s. The EIR film became more widely available in 35mm form in

10864-583: The red- and green-sensitive layers. By projecting white light through the combined layers, blue is produced: cyan (aka negative-red) removes red and passes blue and green, and magenta (aka negative-green) removes green and passes blue and red; when these layers are stacked, only blue light is passed. Since silver halides are sensitive to wavelengths of light outside of the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum , longer wavelengths corresponding with infrared light can be captured by using suitable dyes. Without specialized dyes, silver halides are only sensitive to

10976-404: The reflex system becomes useless for both framing and focusing, one must compose the picture without the filter and then attach the filter. This requires the use of a tripod to prevent the composition from changing. Zoom lenses may scatter more light through their more complicated optical systems than prime lenses , that is, lenses of fixed focal length; for example, an infrared photo taken with

11088-451: The renowned scholar and antiquarian Luo Zhenyu (1866–1940) persuaded the Ministry of Education to recover the 8,000 or so remaining manuscripts. In 1910 Fu Baoshu 傅寶書 was dispatched to Dunhuang to bring the remaining manuscripts back to Beijing, although he left the Tibetan manuscripts behind. Some of the manuscripts were stolen by the minister Li Shengduo 李盛鐸 shortly after they had arrived at

11200-755: The same way visible light is reflected from snow. There is a small contribution from chlorophyll fluorescence , but this is marginal and is not the real cause of the brightness seen in infrared photographs. The effect is named after the infrared photography pioneer Robert W. Wood , and not after the material wood, which does not strongly reflect infrared. The other attributes of infrared photographs include very dark skies and penetration of atmospheric haze, caused by reduced Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering , respectively, compared to visible light. The dark skies, in turn, result in less infrared light in shadows and dark reflections of those skies from water, and clouds will stand out strongly. These wavelengths also penetrate

11312-452: The sensor without necessarily reducing the Wood effect. Wider filtration is however likely to reduce other infrared artefacts such as haze penetration and darkened skies. This technique mirrors the methods used by infrared film photographers where black-and-white infrared film was often used with a deep red filter rather than a visually opaque one. Another common technique with near-infrared filters

11424-400: The size of a pin head and the shorter, near infrared ones are the size of cells, or are microscopic. Historically, black-and-white infrared films are sensitive to near infrared wavelengths shorter than approximately 860 nm, and retain significant sensitivity to blue wavelengths. Infrared-passing filters are used in black-and-white infrared photography to block blue wavelengths and limit

11536-531: The subaltern, while remarkably grounding his work in painstaking philological analysis. Victor demonstrates the success of philology, often dismissed as a nineteenth-century holdover, for investigating twenty-first-century concerns. (Boucher, Schmid, and Sen 2006:1) Mair is a contributor to the linguistics blog Language Log . Mair is a long-time advocate for writing Mandarin Chinese in an alphabetic script (viz., pinyin ), which he considers advantageous for Chinese education, computerization, and lexicography. In

11648-404: The subject matter, adding a infrared-passing filter to the lens may not be practical with these cameras because the exposure times become overly long, often in the range of 30 seconds, creating noise and motion blur in the final image. However, for some subject matter the long exposure does not matter or the motion blur effects actually add to the image. Some lenses will also show a 'hot spot' in

11760-507: The two expeditions are also held at the Hermitage. During 1907–1908 Stein and Pelliot had visited Dunhuang, and had both purchased large quantities of manuscripts from Wang Yuanlu (c.1849–1931), a Taoist priest and self-proclaimed guardian of the Mogao Caves. News of the discovery of these manuscripts was brought to the attention of Chinese scholars when Pelliot visited Beijing in 1909, and

11872-485: The visible and microwave portions of the electromagnetic spectrum . Infrared light has a range of wavelengths, just like visible light has wavelengths that range from red light to violet. "Near infrared" light is closest in wavelength to visible light, ranging from approximately 700 to 5000 nm and "far infrared" is closer to the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum , ranging from approximately 25 to 350  μm . The longer, far infrared wavelengths are about

11984-616: The world, including the British Library, the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts of the Russian Academy of Sciences , Bibliothèque nationale de France , and the National Library of China , and in its aftermath an IDP Steering Group was set up by Graham Shaw (Deputy Director of the Oriental & India Office Collection at the British Library), Frances Wood (Head of the Chinese Section at the British Library), and Peter Lawson (Conservator at

12096-550: The years, so that the library collection now amounts to some 16,000 items, including 4,000 small manuscript fragments. Ōtani Kōzui (1876–1948) was a hereditary Buddhist abbot from Kyoto , Japan, but he had studied in London, and after meeting the explorers Aurel Stein and Sven Hedin (1865–1952) he decided to explore Central Asia himself from a Buddhist perspective. In 1902 he left England to return to Japan overland via St Petersburg, and together with four other returning Japanese students he made his way to Kashgar . From Kashgar

12208-405: Was adopted by the military and scientific communities after the war. It was not marketed to consumers until the 1960s. To improve camouflage paint, companies began incorporating infrared-reflecting materials. The structure of all color reversal films (both standard and infrared-sensitive) contains at least three separate photosensitive layers. Each layer is specifically sensitized to respond to

12320-439: Was increasingly engaged in. She explained that none of the individual institutions participating in the project had the resources or facilities to allow scholars full access to all of the manuscripts in their collections, but by joining together and sharing knowledge and resources the institutions would be able to offer access to the combined collections of all the institutions by means of high-quality digital images. She noted that

12432-621: Was insufficient demand. In 2008, Los Angeles photographer, Dean Bennici started cutting and hand rolling Aerochrome color Infrared film. All Aerochrome medium and large format which exists today came directly from his lab. The trend in infrared photography continues to gain momentum with the success of photographer Richard Mosse and multiple users all around the world. Since 2011, all formats of color infrared film have been discontinued. Specifically, Aerochrome 1443 and SO-734. Digital camera sensors are inherently sensitive to infrared light, which could interfere with normal photography by confusing

12544-468: Was manufactured by Kodak and sold as Ektachrome Infrared (EIR), under code 2236, packaged as a 36-exposure roll; in addition, Kodak made EIR in bulk lengths (for the motion picture industry) and the similar Aerochrome III Infrared for aerial photography (codes 1443 and SO-734). EIR originally was developed during World War II as a means to detect camouflaged objects, taking advantage of the difference in infrared reflectance between plants and green paint, and

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