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89-633: Insh Marshes are an area of floodplain of the River Spey between Kingussie and Kincraig in Badenoch and Strathspey , Highland , Scotland . The marshes are said to be one of the most important wetlands in Europe. They lie at altitude of approximately 240 to 220 m above sea level, and form one of the largest areas of floodplain mire and fen vegetation in Scotland. The marshes cover around 11 km, and hold

178-407: A channel. Sediments from the crevasse spread out as delta -shaped deposits with numerous distributary channels. Crevasse formation is most common in sections of rivers where the river bed is accumulating sediments ( aggrading ). Repeated flooding eventually builds up an alluvial ridge, whose natural levees and abandoned meander loops may stand well above most of the floodplain. The alluvial ridge

267-491: A critical factor in their success. Subsequently, the range of natural resources that any one protected area may guard is vast. Many will be allocated primarily for species conservation whether it be flora or fauna or the relationship between them, but protected areas are similarly important for conserving sites of (indigenous) cultural importance and considerable reserves of natural resources such as; Annual updates on each of these analyses are made in order to make comparisons to

356-543: A flood-prone property to qualify for government-subsidized insurance, a local community must adopt an ordinance that protects the floodway and requires that new residential structures built in Special Flood Hazard Areas be elevated to at least the level of the 100-year flood. Commercial structures can be elevated or floodproofed to or above this level. In some areas without detailed study information, structures may be required to be elevated to at least two feet above

445-445: A floodplain. The quantity of sediments in a floodplain greatly exceeds the river load of sediments. Thus, floodplains are an important storage site for sediments during their transport from where they are generated to their ultimate depositional environment. When the rate at which the river is cutting downwards becomes great enough that overbank flows become infrequent, the river is said to have abandoned its floodplain. Portions of

534-616: A global network contribute to achieving the three objectives of the Convention and the 2010 target to significantly reduce the current rate of biodiversity loss ." In 2010, protected areas were included in Target 11 of the CBD's Strategic Plan for Biodiversity , known as the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. Target 11 states: In 2018, to complement protected areas across landscapes and seascapes,

623-482: A nationwide survey that compares the biodiversity of Bhutan's protected areas versus that of intervening non-protected areas. The study indicated that Bhutan's protected areas "are effectively conserving medium and large mammal species, as demonstrated through the significant difference in mammal diversity between protected areas, biological corridors, and non-protected areas with the strongest difference between protected areas and non-protected areas". Protected areas had

712-553: A number of conservation designations . 7 km of the area is owned and managed by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB), and forms a national nature reserve . The RSPB have laid out several waymarked trails, and provided two bird hides to allow visitors to appreciate the area and its birdlife. The marshes are dominated by sedge plants, with the boreal species string sedge and water sedge being present. The site

801-708: A protected area or an entire network of protected areas may lie within a larger geographic zone that is recognised as a terrestrial or marine ecoregions (see Global 200 ), or a Crisis Ecoregions for example. As a result, Protected Areas can encompass a broad range of governance types. A wide variety of rights-holders and stakeholders are involved in the governance and management of protected areas, including forest protected areas, such as government agencies and ministries at various levels, elected and traditional authorities, indigenous peoples and local communities, private individuals and non-profit trusts, among others. Most protected-area and forest management institutions acknowledge

890-662: A protected area. Scientific publications have identified 3,749 enacted PADDD events in 73 countries since 1892 which have collectively impacted an area approximately the size of Mexico. PADDD is a historical and contemporary phenomenon. 78% of PADDD events worldwide were enacted since 2000 and governments in at least 14 countries are currently considering at least 46 PADDD proposals. Proximate causes of PADDD vary widely but most PADDD events globally (62%) are related to industrial scale resource extraction and development – infrastructure, industrial agriculture, mining, oil and gas, forestry, fisheries, and industrialization. PADDD challenges

979-520: A source of aesthetic and cultural value for tourism and heritage. Such services are often overlooked by humanity, due to the ecosystem from which they originate being far from urbanized areas. The contamination of ecosystem services within a designated area ultimately degrades their use for society. For example, the protection of a water body inherently protects that water body's microorganisms and their ability to adequately filter pollutants and pathogens, ultimately protecting water quality itself. Therefore,

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1068-482: A specific class of protected area. China, a megadiverse country , has begun implementing various protected areas in recent years. As of the year 2017, China has nearly 10,000 to 12,000 protected areas , 80% of which are nature reserves aiming to foster biodiversity conservation. These newly implemented reserves safeguard a range of ecosystems, from tropical forests to marine habitats. These protected areas encompass nearly 20% of China's land area. Natura 2000

1157-632: A stretch of the River Spey, form a designated Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) entitled "River Spey - Insh Marshes", that covers just under 1160 ha. The area of the SSSI is also designated as both a Special Protection Area (SPA) and a Special Area of Conservation under the Natura 2000 programme, as well as being a listed site under the Ramsar Convention . The Insh Marshes national nature reserve

1246-529: Is a private protected area , also known as a 'Private Reserve' predominantly managed for biodiversity conservation, protected without formal government recognition and is owned and stewarded by the O corporation International. O parks plays a particularly important role in conserving critical biodiversity in a section of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor known as the Paso del Istmo , located along

1335-399: Is a heritage register, a list of national heritage places deemed to be of outstanding heritage significance to Australia, established in 2003. The list includes natural and historic places, including those of cultural significance to Indigenous Australians . Indigenous Protected Areas (IPAs) are formed by agreement with Indigenous Australians, and declared by Indigenous Australians, and form

1424-521: Is a network of protected areas established by the EU across all member states. It is made up of Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) and Special Protection Areas (SPAs) designated respectively under the Habitats Directive and Birds Directive . 787,767 km (304,159 sq mi) are designated as terrestrial sites and 251,564 km (97,129 sq mi) as marine sites. Overall, 18 percent of

1513-546: Is a problem in freshwater systems. Much of the phosphorus in freshwater systems comes from municipal wastewater treatment plants and agricultural runoff. Stream connectivity controls whether phosphorus cycling is mediated by floodplain sediments or by external processes. Under conditions of stream connectivity, phosphorus is better able to be cycled, and sediments and nutrients are more readily retained. Water in freshwater streams ends up in either short-term storage in plants or algae or long-term in sediments. Wet/dry cycling within

1602-406: Is advantageous for the rapid colonization of large areas of the floodplain. This allows them to take advantage of shifting floodplain geometry. For example, floodplain trees are fast-growing and tolerant of root disturbance. Opportunists (such as birds) are attracted to the rich food supply provided by the flood pulse. Floodplain ecosystems have distinct biozones. In Europe, as one moves away from

1691-498: Is any area subject to inundation by a 100-year flood. A problem is that any alteration of the watershed upstream of the point in question can potentially affect the ability of the watershed to handle water, and thus potentially affects the levels of the periodic floods. A large shopping center and parking lot, for example, may raise the levels of 5-year, 100-year, and other floods, but the maps are rarely adjusted and are frequently rendered obsolete by subsequent development. In order for

1780-657: Is classified as a Category IV protected area by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . Floodplain Because of regular flooding, floodplains frequently have high soil-fertility since nutrients are deposited with the flood waters. This can encourage farming ; some important agricultural regions, such as the Nile and Mississippi river basins , heavily exploit floodplains. Agricultural and urban regions have developed near or on floodplains to take advantage of

1869-411: Is currently a developing country that is undergoing infrastructure development and resource collection. The country's economic progression has brought about human-wildlife conflict and increased pressure on the existence of its protected areas. In light of ongoing disputes on the topic of optimal land usage, Dorji (et al.), in a study using camera traps to detect wildlife activity, summarize the results of

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1958-565: Is largely a result of flood control, hydroelectric development (such as reservoirs), and conversion of floodplains to agriculture use. Transportation and waste disposal also have detrimental effects. The result is the fragmentation of these ecosystems, resulting in loss of populations and diversity and endangering the remaining fragments of the ecosystem. Flood control creates a sharper boundary between water and land than in undisturbed floodplains, reducing physical diversity. Floodplain forests protect waterways from erosion and pollution and reduce

2047-425: Is often why many Wildlife Reserves and National Parks face the human threat of poaching for the illegal bushmeat or trophy trades, which are resorted to as an alternative form of substinence. Poaching has thus increased in recent years as areas with certain species are no longer easily and legally accessible. This increasing threat has often led governments to enforce laws and implement new policies to adhere to

2136-524: Is one of only two in Britain for string sedge (the other being Loch Naver at Altnaharra). It also supports many other flowering plants including least water-lily , awlwort , cowbane and shady horsetail . Many rare wetland invertebrates can be found at Insh Marshes, including various species of flies, beetles and moths. It is the only site in Britain at which the spider Wabasso replicatus has been identified. Other notable invertebrate species present include

2225-488: Is recognised not only ecologically, but culturally through further development in the arena of Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas (ICCAs). ICCAs are "natural and/or modified ecosystems containing significant bio - diversity values and ecological services, voluntarily conserved by (sedentary and mobile) indigenous and local communities, through customary laws or other effective means". As of December 2022, 17% of land territory and 10% of ocean territory were protected. At

2314-664: Is the Main Ridge Forest Reserve, established by an ordinance dated 13 April 1776. Other sources mention the 1778 approval of a protected area on then- Khan Uul , a mountain previous protected by local nomads for centuries in Mongolia, by then-ruling Qing China Tenger Tetgegch Khaan . However, the mass protected areas movement did not begin until late nineteenth-century in North America, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, when other countries were quick to follow suit. While

2403-572: Is to protect 30% of the terrestrial and marine territory of the United States by the year 2030. In the United Kingdom, the term conservation area almost always applies to an area (usually urban or the core of a village) of special architectural or historic interest, the character of which is considered worthy of preservation or enhancement. It creates a precautionary approach to the loss or alteration of buildings and/or trees, thus it has some of

2492-708: Is topped by a channel belt formed by successive generations of channel migration and meander cutoff. At much longer intervals, the river may abandon the channel belt and build a new one at another position on the floodplain. This process is called avulsion and occurs at intervals of 10–1000 years. Historical avulsions leading to catastrophic flooding include the 1855 Yellow River flood and the 2008 Kosi River flood . Floodplains can form around rivers of any kind or size. Even relatively straight stretches of river are capable of producing floodplains. Mid-channel bars in braided rivers migrate downstream through processes resembling those in point bars of meandering rivers and can build up

2581-546: Is usually the main reason for constructing protected areas, the protection of biodiversity also protects the ecosystem services society enjoys. Some ecosystem services include those that provide and regulate resources, support natural processes, or represent culture. Provisioning services provide resources to humanity, such as fuel and water, while regulating services include carbon sequestration , climate regulation, and protection against disease. Supporting ecosystem services include nutrient cycling , while cultural services are

2670-470: The 2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference almost 200 countries, signed onto the agreement which includes protecting 30% of land and oceans by 2030 ( 30 by 30 ). In 1992, a protected area was defined in paragraph 2 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) as "a geographically defined area which is designated or regulated and managed to achieve specific conservation objectives." Under Article 8 of

2759-631: The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework at the COP15, which includes the 30 by 30 initiative. Protected areas are implemented for biodiversity conservation , often providing habitat and protection from hunting for threatened and endangered species . Protection helps maintain ecological processes that cannot survive in most intensely managed landscapes and seascapes. Indigenous peoples and local communities frequently criticize this method of fortress conservation for

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2848-474: The Lake District and Yorkshire was identified here. Genevieve Dalley, a RSPB Scotland trainee ecologist discovered and identified two males caught in a moth trap at the marshes near Kingussie : the species had not previously been recorded in Scotland. Arctic charr spawn along the River Spey and its side-streams, and the area provides an ideal habitat for otter . The Insh Marshes are most noted for

2937-501: The Meuse and Rhine Rivers in 1993 found average sedimentation rates in the floodplain of between 0.57 and 1.0 kg/m . Higher rates were found on the levees (4 kg/m or more) and on low-lying areas (1.6 kg/m ). Sedimentation from the overbank flow is concentrated on natural levees, crevasse splays , and in wetlands and shallow lakes of flood basins. Natural levees are ridges along river banks that form from rapid deposition from

3026-523: The Millennium Development Goals and several other fields of analysis are expected to be introduced in the monitoring of protected areas management effectiveness, such as freshwater and marine or coastal studies which are currently underway, and islands and drylands which are currently in planning. The effectiveness of protected areas to protect biodiversity can be estimated by comparing population changes over time. Such an analysis found that

3115-531: The United Nations Environment Programme , the United States had a total of 6770 terrestrial nationally designated (federal) protected areas. These protected areas cover 2,607,131 km (1,006,619 sq mi), or 27.08 percent of the land area of the United States. This is also one-tenth of the protected land area of the world. According to a report from the Center for American Progress ,

3204-638: The World Charter for Nature in 1982, the Rio Declaration at the Earth Summit in 1992, and the Johannesburg Declaration 2002. Recently, the importance of protected areas has been brought to the fore at the threat of human-induced global heating and the understanding of the necessity to consume natural resources in a sustainable manner. The spectrum of benefits and values of protected areas

3293-547: The Yellow River in China – see list of deadliest floods . The worst of these, and the worst natural disaster (excluding famine and epidemics), was the 1931 China floods , estimated to have killed millions. This had been preceded by the 1887 Yellow River flood , which killed around one million people and is the second-worst natural disaster in history. The extent of floodplain inundation depends partly on flood magnitude, defined by

3382-610: The exploitation of natural resources (e.g. firewood, non-timber forest products , water, ...) is limited. The term "protected area" also includes marine protected areas and transboundary protected areas across multiple borders. As of 2016, there are over 161,000 protected areas representing about 17 percent of the world's land surface area (excluding Antarctica). For waters under national jurisdiction beyond inland waters, there are 14,688 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), covering approximately 10.2% of coastal and marine areas and 4.12% of global ocean areas. In contrast, only 0.25% of

3471-647: The return period . In the United States, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) manages the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). The NFIP offers insurance to properties located within a flood-prone area, as defined by the Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM), which depicts various flood risks for a community. The FIRM typically focuses on the delineation of the 100-year flood inundation area, also known within

3560-527: The 12-mile-wide isthmus between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Ocean. On 21 May 2019, The Moscow Times cited a World Wildlife Fund report indicating that Russia now ranks first in the world for its amount of protected natural areas with 63.3 million hectares of specially protected natural areas. However, the article did not contain a link to WWF's report and it may be based on previously gathered data. As of 31 January 2008 , according to

3649-457: The 17th and 18th centuries, protected areas were mostly hunting grounds of rulers and thus, on the one hand, an expression of the absolute personal authority of a monarch, and on the other hand, they were concentrated in certain places and diminished with increasing spatial distance from the seat of power. In the late 19th century, modern territorial states emerged which, thanks to the transport and communication technologies of industrialisation and

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3738-636: The CBD, parties who entered the treaty agreed to, among other things, "establish a system of protected areas." In 2004, the CBD's Conference of the Parties (COP) adopted the Program of Work on Protected Areas (PoWPA) to further develop and promote protected areas. PoWPA's objective was the "establishment and maintenance by 2010 for terrestrial and by 2012 for marine areas of comprehensive, effectively managed, and ecologically representative national and regional systems of protected areas that collectively, inter alia through

3827-514: The EU land mass is designated. Protected areas of India include National parks , Wildlife sanctuaries , biosphere reserves , reserved and protected forests , conservation and community reserves , communal forests , private protected areas and conservation areas . Lebanon, home to one of the highest densities of floral diversity in the Mediterranean basin , hosts tree species with critical biogeographical locations (southernmost limit) on

3916-545: The NFIP as the Special Flood Hazard Area. Where a detailed study of a waterway has been done, the 100-year floodplain will also include the floodway, the critical portion of the floodplain which includes the stream channel and any adjacent areas that must be kept free of encroachments that might block flood flows or restrict storage of flood waters. Another commonly encountered term is the Special Flood Hazard Area, which

4005-513: The United Nations. The categories provide international standards for defining protected areas and encourage conservation planning according to their management aims. IUCN Protected Area Management Categories : Protected areas are cultural artifacts, and their story is entwined with that of human civilization. Protecting places and natural resources is by no means a modern concept, whether it be indigenous communities guarding sacred sites or

4094-400: The abandoned floodplain may be preserved as fluvial terraces . Floodplains support diverse and productive ecosystems . They are characterized by considerable variability in space and time, which in turn produces some of the most species-rich of ecosystems. From the ecological perspective, the most distinctive aspect of floodplains is the flood pulse associated with annual floods, and so

4183-455: The abundance of 2,239 terrestrial vertebrate populations changed at slower rate in protected areas. On average, vertebrate populations declined five times more slowly within protected areas (−0.4% per year) than at similar sites lacking protection (−1.8% per year). Along with providing important stocks of natural resources, protected areas are often major sources of vital ecosystem services , unbeknownst to human society. Although biodiversity

4272-401: The administration of Joe Biden reached a record in conservation. In 3 years of ruling it conserved or in the process of conserving more than 24 millions acres of public land and in 2023 alone more than 12.5 million acres of public land became protected area. It is doing it together with the indigenous people as 200 agreements of co-stewardship with them were signed in 2023 alone. The goal of Biden

4361-511: The advantages provided by the richness of the alluvial soil of the floodplain are severely offset by frequent floods brought on by cyclones and annual monsoon rains. These extreme weather events cause severe economic disruption and loss of human life in the densely-populated region. Floodplain soil composition is unique and varies widely based on microtopography. Floodplain forests have high topographic heterogeneity which creates variation in localized hydrologic conditions. Soil moisture within

4450-401: The aquatic beetle Donacia aquatica , the fly Tipula marginella , the horse-fly Hybomitra lurida and the snipe-fly Thereva inornata . The birch woodlands above the marshes are home to several moth species, including Rannoch sprawler and cousin german . In October 2014, a species of insect called Molanna angustata , a type of caddisfly that inhabits Wales and England up to

4539-473: The closely meshed and well-connected administrative apparatus that came with it, could actually assert claims to power over large contiguous territories. The establishment of nature reserves in mostly peripheral regions thus became possible and at the same time underpinned the new state claim to power. Initially, protected areas were recognised on a national scale, differing from country to country until 1933, when an effort to reach an international consensus on

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4628-534: The convention of European hunting reserves. Over 2000 years ago, royal decrees in India protected certain areas. In Europe, rich and powerful people protected hunting grounds for a thousand years. Moreover, the idea of protection of special places is universal: for example, it occurs among the communities in the Pacific ("tapu" areas) and in parts of Africa (sacred groves). The oldest legally protected reserve recorded in history

4717-519: The draft Global Biodiversity Framework, which is due to be agreed at the 15th Conference of the Parties to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity, which will be held 5 to 17 December in Montreal , Canada. How to manage areas protected for conservation brings up a range of challenges – whether it be regarding the local population, specific ecosystems or the design of the reserve itself – and because of

4806-498: The effectiveness of most of them remains unclear. Scientists advocate that 50% of global land and seas be converted to inter-connected protected areas to sustain these benefits. The Asian country Bhutan achieved this high-reaching target by reserving 51.4% of the country's area as protected areas interconnected through biological corridors . Although these networks are well regulated (local communities are aware of their importance and actively contribute to their maintenance), Bhutan

4895-448: The floodplain ecosystem is defined as the part of the river valley that is regularly flooded and dried. Floods bring in detrital material rich in nutrients and release nutrients from dry soil as it is flooded. The decomposition of terrestrial plants submerged by the floodwaters adds to the nutrient supply. The flooded littoral zone of the river (the zone closest to the river bank) provides an ideal environment for many aquatic species, so

4984-462: The floodplain has a big impact on phosphorus availability because it alters water level, redox state, pH, and physical properties of minerals. Dry soils that were previously inundated have reduced availability of phosphorus and increased affinity for obtaining phosphorus. Human floodplain alterations also impact the phosphorus cycle. Particulate phosphorus and soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) can contribute to algal blooms and toxicity in waterways when

5073-579: The floodplain. Other smaller-scale mitigation efforts include acquiring and demolishing flood-prone buildings or flood-proofing them. In some floodplains, such as the Inner Niger Delta of Mali , annual flooding events are a natural part of the local ecology and rural economy , allowing for the raising of crops through recessional agriculture . However, in Bangladesh , which occupies the Ganges Delta ,

5162-463: The generally violent processes by which the regulations of the areas are enforced. The definition that has been widely accepted across regional and global frameworks has been provided by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in its categorisation guidelines for protected areas. The definition is as follows: A clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve

5251-446: The highest levels of mammal biodiversity. This is made possible by the restriction of commercial activity and regulation of consumptive uses (firewood, timber, etc.). The regulation of such practices has allowed Bhutan's protected areas to thrive with high carnivore diversity and other rare mammals such as Chinese pangolin , Indian pangolin , mountain weasel ( Mustela altaica ) , small-toothed ferret badger , Asian small clawed otter ,

5340-636: The human-caused disconnect between floodplains and rivers exacerbates the phosphorus overload. Floodplain soils tend to be high in eco-pollutants, especially persistent organic pollutant (POP) deposition. Proper understanding of the distribution of soil contaminants is difficult because of high variation in microtopography and soil texture within floodplains. Protected area#IUCN Protected Area Management Categories Protected areas or conservation areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural or cultural values. Protected areas are those areas in which human presence or

5429-452: The idea of protected areas spread around the world in the twentieth century, the driving force was different in different regions. Thus, in North America, protected areas were about safeguarding dramatic and sublime scenery; in Africa, the concern was with game parks; in Europe, landscape protection was more common. The designation of protected areas often also contained a political statement. In

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5518-465: The impact of floodwaters. The disturbance by humans of temperate floodplain ecosystems frustrates attempts to understand their natural behavior. Tropical rivers are less impacted by humans and provide models for temperate floodplain ecosystems, which are thought to share many of their ecological attributes. Excluding famines and epidemics , some of the worst natural disasters in history (measured by fatalities) have been river floods, particularly in

5607-537: The implementation of protected areas is vital to maintaining the quality and consistency of ecosystem services, ultimately allowing human society to function without the interference of human infrastructure or policies. Through its World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA), the IUCN has developed six Protected Area Management Categories that define protected areas according to their management objectives, which are internationally recognised by various national governments and

5696-453: The importance of recognizing the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities, sharing the costs and benefits of protected areas and actively involving them in their governance and management. This has led to the recognition of four main types of governance, defined on the basis of who holds authority, responsibility, and who can be held accountable for the key decisions for protected areas. Indeed, governance of protected areas has emerged

5785-585: The infrastructure and networking needed to substitute consumable resources and substantively protect the area from development or misuse. The soliciting of protected areas may require regulation to the level of meeting demands for food, feed, livestock and fuel, and the legal enforcement of not only the protected area itself but also 'buffer zones' surrounding it, which may help to resist destabilisation. Protected area downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement (PADDD) Protected area downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement (PADDD) events are processes that change

5874-713: The initial goal of protected areas, though many illegal activities are often overlooked. There is increasing pressure to take proper account of human needs when setting up protected areas and these sometimes have to be "traded off" against conservation needs. Whereas in the past governments often made decisions about protected areas and informed local people afterwards, today the emphasis is shifting towards greater discussions with stakeholders and joint decisions about how such lands should be set aside and managed. Such negotiations are never easy but usually produce stronger and longer-lasting results for both conservation and people. In some countries, protected areas can be assigned without

5963-528: The legal status of national parks and other protected areas in both terrestrial and marine environments. Downgrading is a decrease in legal restrictions on human activities within a protected area, downsizing is a decrease in protected area size through a legal boundary change, and degazettement is the loss of legal protection for an entire protected area. Collectively, PADDD represents legal processes that temper regulations, shrink boundaries, or eliminate legal protections originally associated with establishment of

6052-686: The long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values. Protected Areas alleviate climate change effects in a variety of ways: The objective of protected areas is to conserve biodiversity and to provide a way for measuring the progress of such conservation. Protected areas will usually encompass several other zones that have been deemed important for particular conservation uses, such as Important Bird Areas (IBA) and Endemic Bird Areas (EBA), Centres of Plant Diversity (CPD), Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas (ICCA), Alliance for Zero Extinction Sites (AZE) and Key Biodiversity Areas (KBA) among others. Likewise,

6141-430: The longstanding assumption that protected areas are permanent fixtures and highlights the need for decision-makers to consider protected area characteristics and the socioeconomic context in which they are situated to better ensure their permanence. A main goal of protected areas is to prevent loss of biodiversity . However, their effectiveness is limited by their small size and isolation from each other (which influence

6230-424: The maintenance of species), their restricted role in preventing climate change , invasive species , and pollution, their high costs, and their increasing conflict with human demands for nature's resources. In addition, the type of habitat, species composition, legal issues and governance, play important roles. One major problem is that only 18% of the area covered by protected areas have been assessed, hence

6319-617: The makeup towards ash (49%) with maple increasing to 14% and oak decreasing to 25%. Semiarid floodplains have a much lower species diversity. Species are adapted to alternating drought and flood. Extreme drying can destroy the ability of the floodplain ecosystem to shift to a healthy wet phase when flooded. Floodplain forests constituted 1% of the landscape of Europe in the 1800s. Much of this has been cleared by human activity, though floodplain forests have been impacted less than other kinds of forests. This makes them important refugia for biodiversity. Human destruction of floodplain ecosystems

6408-467: The many species of birds that breed here each summer. Breeding species include osprey , ducks such as Eurasian wigeon , shoveler and goldeneye , and waders including redshank , snipe , curlew and lapwing . The marshes also receive winter visitors including greylag geese from Iceland and up 200 whooper swans . In addition to being a national nature reserve (NNR), the marshes hold several other conservation designations . The marshes, together with

6497-479: The many unpredicatable elements in ecology issues, each protected area requires a case-specific set of guidelines. Enforcing protected area boundaries is a costly and labour-heavy endeavour, particularly if the allocation of a new protected region places new restrictions on the use of resources by the native people which may lead to their subsequent displacement. This has troubled relationships between conservationists and rural communities in many protected regions and

6586-492: The meander cuts into higher ground. The overall effect is that, as the river meanders, it creates a level flood plain composed mostly of point bar deposits. The rate at which the channel shifts varies greatly, with reported rates ranging from too slow to measure to as much as 2,400 feet (730 m) per year for the Kosi River of India. Overbank flow takes place when the river is flooded with more water than can be accommodated by

6675-448: The meander. This is described as lateral accretion since the deposition builds the point bar laterally into the river channel. Erosion on the outside of the meander usually closely balances deposition on the inside so that the channel shifts in the direction of the meander without changing significantly in width. The point bar is built up to a level very close to that of the river banks. Significant net erosion of sediments occurs only when

6764-682: The networks that hold regular revisions for the succinct categorisations that have been developed to regulate and record protected areas. In 1972, the Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment endorsed the protection of representative examples of all major ecosystem types as a fundamental requirement of national conservation programmes. This has become a core principle of conservation biology and has remained so in recent resolutions – including

6853-754: The nitrogen-to-phosphorus ratios are altered farther upstream. In areas where the phosphorus load is primarily particulate phosphorus, like the Mississippi River, the most effective ways of removing phosphorus upstream are sedimentation, soil accretion, and burial. In basins where SRP is the primary form of phosphorus, biological uptake in floodplain forests is the best way of removing nutrients. Phosphorus can transform between SRP and particulate phosphorus depending on ambient conditions or processes like decomposition, biological uptake, redoximorphic release, and sedimentation and accretion. In either phosphorus form, floodplain forests are beneficial as phosphorus sinks, and

6942-442: The overbank flow. Most of the suspended sand is deposited on the levees, leaving the silt and clay sediments to be deposited as floodplain mud further from the river. Levees are typically built up enough to be relatively well-drained compared with nearby wetlands, and levees in non-arid climates are often heavily vegetated. Crevasses are formed by breakout events from the main river channel. The river bank fails, and floodwaters scour

7031-405: The rich soil and freshwater. However, the risk of inundation has led to increasing efforts to control flooding . Most floodplains are formed by deposition on the inside of river meanders and by overbank flow. Wherever the river meanders, the flowing water erodes the river bank on the outside of the meander. At the same time, sediments are simultaneously deposited in a bar on the inside of

7120-400: The river channel. Flow over the banks of the river deposits a thin veneer of sediments that is coarsest and thickest close to the channel. This is described as vertical accretion , since the deposits build upwards. In undisturbed river systems, overbank flow is frequent, typically occurring every one to two years, regardless of climate or topography. Sedimentation rates for a three-day flood of

7209-511: The river, the successive plant communities are bank vegetation (usually annuals); sedge and reeds; willow shrubs; willow-poplar forest; oak-ash forest; and broadleaf forest. Human disturbance creates wet meadows that replace much of the original ecosystem. The biozones reflect a soil moisture and oxygen gradient that in turn corresponds to a flooding frequency gradient. The primeval floodplain forests of Europe were dominated by oak (60%) elm (20%) and hornbeam (13%), but human disturbance has shifted

7298-408: The spawning season for fish often coincides with the onset of flooding. Fish must grow quickly during the flood to survive the subsequent drop in water level. As the floodwaters recede, the littoral experiences blooms of microorganisms, while the banks of the river dry out and terrestrial plants germinate to stabilize the bank. The biota of floodplains has high annual growth and mortality rates, which

7387-734: The standards and terminology of protected areas took place at the International Conference for the Protection of Fauna and Flora in London. At the 1962 First World Conference on National Parks in Seattle the effect the Industrial Revolution had had on the world's natural environment was acknowledged, and the need to preserve it for future generations was established. Since then, it has been an international commitment on behalf of both governments and non-government organisations to maintain

7476-459: The surrounding grade. Many State and local governments have, in addition, adopted floodplain construction regulations which are more restrictive than those mandated by the NFIP. The US government also sponsors flood hazard mitigation efforts to reduce flood impacts. California 's Hazard Mitigation Program is one funding source for mitigation projects. A number of whole towns such as English, Indiana , have been completely relocated to remove them from

7565-653: The term ' other effective area-based conservation measures ' was defined as "a geographically defined area other than a Protected Area, which is governed and managed in ways that achieve positive and sustained long-term outcomes for the in situ conservation of biodiversity, with associated ecosystem functions and services and where applicable, cultural, spiritual, socio-economic, and other locally relevant values." Other effective area-based conservation measures complement protected areas across landscapes, seascapes, and river basins. Protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures are referenced together in Target 3 of

7654-506: The tiger, dhole ( Cuon alpinus ), Binturong , clouded leopard and Tibetan fox ( Vulpes ferrilata ) . Also found to be prevalent were the large herbivore species: Asiatic water buffalo Bubalus arnee , golden langur , musk deer , and Asian elephant . The maintenance of these charismatic megafauna and other threatened species can be attributed to the intensity of Bhutan's management of its protected areas and its local communities' commitment to preserving them. The National Heritage List

7743-672: The upper 30 cm of the soil profile also varies widely based on microtopography which affects oxygen availability. Floodplain soil stays aerated for long stretches of time in between flooding events, but during flooding, saturated soil can become oxygen-depleted if it stands stagnant for long enough. More soil oxygen is available at higher elevations farther from the river. Floodplain forests generally experience alternating periods of aerobic and anaerobic soil microbe activity which affects fine root development and desiccation. Floodplains have high buffering capacity for phosphorus to prevent nutrient loss to river outputs. Phosphorus nutrient loading

7832-518: The western slopes of Mount Lebanon’s mountain range and has passed laws to protect environmental sites at the national level, including nature reserves, forests, and Hima (local community-based conservation), with some of these sites having acquired one or more international designations: There are three biosphere reserves in Lebanon that have been designated by the UNESCO : O Parks, Wildlife, and Recreation

7921-566: The world's oceans beyond national jurisdiction are covered by MPAs. In recent years, the 30 by 30 initiative has targeted to protect 30% of ocean territory and 30% of land territory worldwide by 2030; this has been adopted by the European Union in its Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 , Campaign for Nature which promoted the goal during the Convention on Biodiversity 's COP15 Summit and the G7 . In December 2022, Nations have reached an agreement with

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