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122-606: Indian Moors shared a similar history to Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka , however due to their decline and smaller numbers the Indian Moors have either returned to India or have declared themselves as being classified as Sri Lankan Moors . The Indian Moors trace their origins back to immigrants in search of business opportunities during the British colonial period , however some can trace their origins as far back as Portuguese times . They came from various parts of India . Indian Moors have

244-495: A British colonial era project. According to Professor Bertram Bastianpillai, workers around the Tamil Nadu cities of Thirunelveli , Tiruchi , Madurai and Tanjore were recruited in 1827 by Governor Sir Edward Barnes on the request of George Bird , a pioneering planter. There is also a trading community of Indian Tamils who were not part of the plantation economy. As soon as these migrant workers were brought to Mannar ,

366-414: A 9th-century Ethiopian goatherd, first observed the coffee plant after seeing his flock energized by chewing on the plant. This legend does not appear before 1671, first being related by Antoine Faustus Nairon, a Maronite professor of Oriental languages and author of one of the first printed treatises devoted to coffee, De Saluberrima potione Cahue seu Cafe nuncupata Discurscus (Rome, 1671), indicating

488-537: A coffee berry and lays 35 to 50 eggs. Inside, the offspring grow, mate, and then emerge from the commercially ruined berry to disperse, repeating the cycle. Pesticides are mostly ineffective because the beetle juveniles are protected inside the berry nurseries, but they are vulnerable to predation by birds when they emerge. When groves of trees are nearby, the American yellow warbler , rufous-capped warbler , and other insectivorous birds have been shown to reduce by 50 percent

610-460: A concern of parliamentary politicians. The plantation workers were thus forgotten from 1948 to 1964. They were unable to profit by any progressive legislation. The housing, health and education of the plantation workers was neglected. Infant mortality was highest in the country. Although since the introduction of universal franchise in 1931, strong traditions of social welfare in Sri Lanka have given

732-564: A cupful. It is composed of water and the fruit from a bush called bunnu. Thriving trade brought many goods, including coffee, from the Ottoman Empire to Venice. From there it was introduced to the rest of Europe. Coffee became more widely accepted after it was deemed a Christian beverage by Pope Clement VIII in 1600, despite appeals to ban the "Muslim drink". The first European coffee house opened in Venice in 1647. The Dutch East India Company

854-577: A greater interest in the health, housing and general well-being of the labourers. Hence estate schools were nationalized and brought into the general educational system. With the grant of the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA), many schools were built. This helped the slight growth of literacy rates . With the increased unemployment, plantation sector youths looked for other avenues. A considerable number of Indian Tamil girls are employed in garment factories. Some work in

976-520: A mulch. They are especially appreciated by worms and acid-loving plants such as blueberries. Climate change may significantly impact coffee yields during the 21st century, such as in Nicaragua and Ethiopia which could lose more than half of the farming land suitable for growing (Arabica) coffee. As of 2016, at least 34% of global coffee production was compliant with voluntary sustainability standards such as Fairtrade , UTZ , and 4C (The Common Code for

1098-435: A place is decided to be settled, the settlers would institute, under a banyan or bo tree, a triangular shaped stone or figure of a deity, plant a weapon of a popularly worshipped god such as a spear, trident or sword and worshipped these. The main deities worshipped are, in order of popularity, the goddess Mariamman , Murugan and his consorts, Valli and Theivanai, Pillayar , Siva , Parvathi , Vishnu and Laxmi , and

1220-414: A previous gang of workers or clear land to establish new ones. Many died during their first few months of employment. They were instrumental in the establishment of tea , rubber , coffee and coconut plantations. They formed the bulk of the labour force of the plantation sector. The community was a closed community confining themselves to the plantations, while actively contributed and contributes to

1342-648: A similar history to that of the Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka . These people served primarily as plantation labor during the 125 years preceding the independence of Sri Lanka in 1948. Though they did not sever their connections with the land of their birth. In 1930, the Indian Government imposed a ban on the emigration of unskilled Indian labor to Sri Lanka. The country's own immigrants Act of 1948, restricted entry into Sri Lanka only to those who had already been in Sri Lanka and held valid travel documents. With respect to

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1464-549: A student of Balliol College from Crete named Nathaniel Conopios of Crete. Oxford's Queen's Lane Coffee House , established in 1654, is still in existence today. Coffee was introduced in France in 1657 and in Austria and Poland after the 1683 Battle of Vienna , when coffee was captured from supplies of the defeated Turks. When coffee reached North America during the Colonial period, it

1586-428: A third are beetles , and over a quarter are bugs . Some 20 species of nematodes , 9 species of mites, and several snails and slugs also attack the crop. Birds and rodents sometimes eat coffee berries, but their impact is minor compared to invertebrates. In general, arabica is the more sensitive species to invertebrate predation overall. Each part of the coffee plant is assailed by different animals. Nematodes attack

1708-476: A variety of ways (e.g., espresso , French press , caffè latte , or already-brewed canned coffee ). Sugar, sugar substitutes, milk, and cream are often added to mask the bitter taste or enhance the flavor. There are also various coffee substitutes . Though coffee is now a global commodity, it has a long history tied closely to food traditions around the Red Sea. The earliest credible evidence of coffee drinking as

1830-542: Is below that of the national average and they are described as one of the poorest and most neglected groups in Sri Lanka. In 1964 a large percentage were repatriated to India, but left a considerable number as stateless people. By the 1990s most of these had been given Sri Lankan citizenship. Most are Hindus with a minority of Christians and Muslims amongst them. There are also a small minority followers of Buddhism among them. Politically they are supportive of trade union -based political parties that have supported most of

1952-475: Is generally in places where the humidity is very high. An Asian coffee known as kopi luwak undergoes a peculiar process made from coffee berries eaten by the Asian palm civet , passing through its digestive tract, with the beans eventually harvested from feces . Coffee brewed from this process is among the most expensive in the world, with bean prices reaching $ 160 per pound or $ 30 per brewed cup. Kopi luwak coffee

2074-536: Is induced by the fungal pathogen Gibberella xylarioides . It can affect several Coffea species, and could potentially threaten production worldwide. Mycena citricolor , American leaf spot, is a fungus that can affect the whole coffee plant. It grows on leaves, resulting in leaves with holes that often fall from the plant. It is a threat primarily in Latin America. Over 900 species of insect have been recorded as pests of coffee crops worldwide. Of these, over

2196-404: Is massive and worth $ 495.50 billion as of 2023. In the same year, Brazil was the leading grower of coffee beans, producing 35% of the world's total, followed by Vietnam and Colombia. While coffee sales reach billions of dollars annually worldwide, coffee farmers disproportionately live in poverty. Critics of the coffee industry have also pointed to its negative impact on the environment and

2318-403: Is often simpler and less labor-intensive, and a wet process method, which incorporates batch fermentation, uses larger amounts of water in the process, and often yields a milder coffee. Then they are sorted by ripeness and color, and most often the flesh of the berry is removed, usually by machine, and the seeds are fermented to remove the slimy layer of mucilage still present on the seed. When

2440-414: Is said to have a uniquely rich, slightly smoky aroma and flavor with hints of chocolate, resulting from the action of digestive enzymes breaking down bean proteins to facilitate partial fermentation . In Thailand, black ivory coffee beans are fed to elephants whose digestive enzymes reduce the bitter taste of beans collected from dung. These beans sell for up to $ 1,100 a kilogram ($ 500 per lb), achieving

2562-399: Is to raise seedlings in nurseries that are then planted outside after six to twelve months. Coffee is often intercropped with food crops, such as corn, beans, or rice during the first few years of cultivation as farmers become familiar with its requirements. Coffee plants grow within a defined area between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, termed the bean belt or coffee belt. In 2020,

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2684-413: Is used as an inexpensive substitute for arabica in many commercial coffee blends. Good quality robusta beans are used in traditional Italian espresso blends to provide a full-bodied taste and a better foam head (known as crema ). Additionally, robusta is less susceptible to disease than arabica and can be cultivated in lower altitudes and warmer climates where arabica does not thrive. The robusta strain

2806-466: Is vulnerable, hastened the uptake of the resistant robusta. The pathogen and results in light, rust-colored spots on the undersides of coffee plant leaves. It grows exclusively on the leaves of coffee plants. Coffee leaf rust is found in virtually all countries that produce coffee. Beans from different countries or regions can usually be distinguished by differences in flavor, aroma, body, and acidity. These taste characteristics are dependent not only on

2928-657: The Middle East as housemaids. There is net migration towards urban areas as well as foreign countries. Prior to the commencement of the Sri Lankan civil war many had migrated to the Northern Province. Now the plantation communities have the Plantation Human Development Trust, developed to protect their rights and ensure adequate facilities are provided such as crèches and toilets. Other NGOs work towards

3050-514: The Nattukotai Chettiars introduced the worship of Murugan in his form as Lord Kathiresan at Matale and was to subsequently build the Kathiresan temple at Matale. The annual festival of this temple is celebrated in the month of July. Devotees of the plantation sector walk from the tea estates and hometowns they live in to Kathirkamam , a place considered sacred by both Buddhists and Hindus, in

3172-732: The Nuwara Eliya District, 153 in Kandy region and 62 in Matale in 2001. Religious schools or araa nerri padasaligal are conducted throughout the Central Province and registered schools of such nature are, Nuwara Eliya 22, Kandy 54 and Matale 11. A considerable number of Hindu associations and institutions have been established and are functioning actively. There is a serious effort at conversions to other religions as well. Many have converted to Christianity and Islam . Hindu organizations such as

3294-545: The Rainforest Alliance have led a campaign for 'shade-grown' and organic coffees , which can be sustainably harvested. Shaded coffee cultivation systems show greater biodiversity than full-sun systems, and those more distant from continuous forest compare rather poorly to undisturbed native forest in terms of habitat value for some bird species. Coffee production uses a large volume of water. On average it takes about 140 litres (37  US gal ) of water to grow

3416-476: The United National Party (UNP). The first prime minister , D.S. Senanayake of the conservative UNP, reacting to the possibilities of losing power to leftist political parties, commenced the task of weakening the leftist parties and their associate organizations. Indian Tamil labour had overwhelmingly supported these organizations. According to opposition parties he was also influenced by segments of

3538-490: The Vishva Hindu Parishad try to stem the tide of conversions. Based on the cultivation of cash crops, labour is the dominant sector in the country's economy. It is a major earner of foreign exchange and the largest employer. Cheap labour is one of the essential ingredients of its success. Hence these immigrants were bonded and underpaid. In 1921 workers were empowered to break these bonds of indebtedness tying them to

3660-611: The clearing of land for coffee-growing and water use. The word coffee entered the English language in 1582 via the Dutch koffie , borrowed from the Ottoman Turkish kahve ( قهوه ), borrowed in turn from the Arabic qahwah ( قَهْوَة ). Medieval Arab lexicographers traditionally held that the etymology of qahwah meant 'wine', given its distinctly dark color, and was derived from

3782-685: The 18th century, coffee consumption declined in Britain, giving way to tea drinking. Tea was simpler to make, and had become cheaper with the British conquest of India and the tea industry there. During the Age of Sail, seamen aboard ships of the British Royal Navy made substitute coffee by dissolving burnt bread in hot water. The Frenchman Gabriel de Clieu took a coffee plant to the French territory of Martinique in

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3904-505: The 1940s the trade union movement had galvanized the plantation workers into a militant working class. They joined hands with the Lanka Sama Samaja (or Trotskyist ) Party, which carried the message of a working-class struggle for liberation from the exploitation by the mainly-British plantation companies. Sri Lanka became independent in 1948 and the community believes that it became the first community marked out for discrimination by

4026-518: The 19th and 20th centuries. Rapid growth in coffee production in South America during the second half of the 19th century was matched by an increase in consumption in developed countries, though nowhere has this growth been as pronounced as in the United States, where a high rate of population growth was compounded by doubling of per capita consumption between 1860 and 1920. Though the United States

4148-748: The 19th century. After that, much of the Ethiopian coffee was exported to Aden via Berbera. By the 16th century, coffee had reached the rest of the Middle East and North Africa. The first coffee seeds were smuggled out of the Middle East by Sufi Baba Budan from Yemen to India during the time. Before then, all exported coffee was boiled or otherwise sterilized. Portraits of Baba Budan depict him as having smuggled seven coffee seeds by strapping them to his chest. The first plants from these smuggled seeds were planted in Mysore . Coffee had spread to Italy by 1600 and then to

4270-518: The 2012 Census 61.5% or 412,685 Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka also spoke Sinhala and 13.0% or 87,435 Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka also spoke English. The social structure of the plantations resembles the South Indian rural social structure. The community is generally bound by the caste system. In a plantation, the tea factory is the centre of activities and it stands in the central part of the plantation. The office adjoins this and these are surrounded by

4392-686: The British colonial government, and that the Kandyan peasants had been driven from their traditional lands and those injustices would be compounded if the Indian workers were legitimized. Governor Stanley, by an order in council introduced restrictions on the citizenship of Indian workers to make the Donoughmore proposals acceptable to the Ceylonese leaders. Thus the first state council of 1931, which consisted of many Tamil and Sinhalese members, agreed to not to enfranchise

4514-855: The Caribbean in the 1720s, from which much of the world's cultivated arabica coffee is descended. Coffee thrived in the climate and was conveyed across the Americas. Coffee was cultivated in Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) from 1734, and by 1788 it supplied half the world's coffee. The conditions that the enslaved people worked in on coffee plantations were a factor in the soon to follow Haitian Revolution . The coffee industry never fully recovered there. Meanwhile, coffee had been introduced to Brazil in 1727, although its cultivation did not gather momentum until independence in 1822. After this time, massive tracts of rainforest were cleared for coffee plantations, first in

4636-473: The Coffee Community). Coffee berries are traditionally selectively picked by hand, which is labor-intensive as it involves the selection of only the berries at the peak of ripeness. More commonly, crops are strip picked, where all berries are harvested simultaneously regardless of ripeness by person or machine. After picking, green coffee is processed by one of two types of method—a dry process method which

4758-566: The Hebrew qehe(h) 'dulling' and the Aramaic qahey ('give acrid taste to'). Although etymologists have connected it with a word meaning ' wine ' , it is also thought to be from the Kaffa region of Ethiopia. The terms coffee pot and coffee break originated in 1705 and 1952, respectively. There are multiple anecdotal origin stories which lack evidence. In a commonly repeated legend, Kaldi ,

4880-516: The Island... this condition will be of particular importance in its application to the Indian immigrant population. Secondly, we consider that the registration of voters should not be compulsory or automatic but should be restricted to those who apply for it. However, the very concept of universal franchise was anathema to most of the political leaders of that era. Ponnambalam Ramanathan , a highly respected leader, opposed universal franchise as he felt that

5002-756: The Marxist groups as well as by the pro-Sri Lankan Tamil Federal Party , it branded Ponnambalam a "traitor", and Senanayake a "Sinhalese extremist". S. J. V. Chelvanayakam , the leader of the Tamil Arasu Katchi, contested the citizenship act before the Supreme Court, and then in the Privy Council in England, on grounds of discrimination towards minorities but the decision concluded that the citizenship act stipulated conditions well in line with those of European states. As

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5124-564: The Marxist parties and their associate organizations. Thus the newly independent first cabinet introduced the Ceylon Citizenship Act of 1948, the Indian-Pakistani Citizenship act of 1949 and amended the parliamentary elections act. The requirements of "ten years of residence for married persons, and seven years for unmarried persons", stipulations in the 1949 act were in line with the legislation used by European nations at

5246-621: The Red Sea. One account credits Muhammad Ibn Sa'd for bringing the beverage to Aden from the African coast, other early accounts say Ali ben Omar of the Shadhili Sufi order was the first to introduce coffee to Arabia. 16th-century Islamic scholar Ibn Hajar al-Haytami notes in his writings that a beverage called qahwa developed from a tree in the Zeila region located in the Horn of Africa. Coffee

5368-619: The Sinhalese and accept Sri Lankan leadership in the trade union movement. In the general election of 1977 they were able to elect 11 candidates. This helped the emergence of the plantation people as a political force, but they were faced with communal violence in 1977 , 1983 and in 2000. In 1984–85, to stop India's intervention in Sri Lankan affairs, the UNP government granted citizenship right to all stateless persons. The late Savumiamoorthy Thondaman

5490-599: The Sinhalese nationalist groups led by S. W. R. D Bandaranaike , the Kandyan Sinhalese, Senanayake had to find a compromise formula. The 1947 elections had returned six representatives from the Ceylon Indian Congress (CIC), based on the votes of the franchised Indian workers and Hill Country Tamils. Although this worried the Kandyans, the main reason for Senanayake and others to review their attitude to Indian workers

5612-683: The South of Sri Lanka, where Murugan is worshipped in the form of Skanda. Deepavali , Pongal and Tamil New Year are commonly celebrated as festivals. Each caste has its own deity based on caste predecessors and are worshipped as guardian angels, such as the Kallar caste had Nallananpillai Perumal as their guardian angel to whom vows and sacrifices are made. Deities such as Madasamy, Muniandi , Kali , Madurai Veeran , Sangili Karuppan, Vaalraja, Vairavar , Veerabathran, Sudalai Madan , and Roda Mini are also worshipped. There were 104 registered Hindu temples in

5734-586: The Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) in the 1960 elections; after the victory of the SLFP he was appointed to the House of Representatives as a nominated member of Parliament. However, he opposed the 1964 Sirima-Shastri Indo-Ceylon citizenship act. After the victory of the UNP in 1965, S. Thondaman was named as appointed member of Parliament by the UNP. The J.R.Jayawardene government that came to power in 1977 rectified

5856-471: The Sri Lankan census, since 1981, due to their small numbers. With the beginning of the Sri Lankan Censuses by the British administration, population and ethnicity was conducted using the term "Nationality" until 1901. The Census Reports classified the population into seven groups viz. Europeans, Sinhalese, Tamils, Moors, Malays, Veddahs and others. From the 1911 onwards "Nationality" was replaced with

5978-505: The berries have only one; these are called peaberries . Arabica berries ripen in six to eight months, while robusta takes nine to eleven months. Coffea arabica is predominantly self-pollinating, and as a result, the seedlings are generally uniform and vary little from their parents. In contrast, Coffea canephora , and C. liberica are self-incompatible and require outcrossing . This means that useful forms and hybrids must be propagated vegetatively . Cuttings, grafting, and budding are

6100-487: The caste system was an integral part of the Hindu way of life, and led a delegation to London seeking to legally enshrine the caste hierarchy, and dethrone universal franchise. The Kandyan Sinhalese also objected to the enfranchisement of the Indian estate workers as they feared that their electoral base would be diluted by a large influx of Indian Tamil votes. They also argued that the tea estates were built on land confiscated by

6222-524: The central highlands, also known as the Malayakam or Hill Country, yet others are also found in major urban areas and in the Northern Province . Although they are all termed as Tamils today, some have Telugu and Malayalee origins as well as diverse South Indian caste origins. They are instrumental in the plantation sector economy of Sri Lanka. In general, socio-economically their standard of living

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6344-441: The clearing of trees and increased use of fertilizer and pesticides, which damage the environment and cause health problems. Unshaded coffee plants grown with fertilizer yield the most coffee, although unfertilized shaded crops generally yield more than unfertilized unshaded crops: the response to fertilizer is much greater in full sun. While traditional coffee production causes berries to ripen more slowly and produce lower yields,

6466-452: The coffee beans needed to produce one cup of coffee. Growing the plants needed to produce 1 kg (2.2 lb) of roasted coffee in Africa, South America or Asia requires 26,400 litres (7,000  US gal ) of water. As with many other forms of agriculture, often much of this is rainwater, much of which would otherwise run off into rivers or coastlines, while much water actually absorbed by

6588-448: The coffee's growing region but also on genetic subspecies ( varietals ) and processing. Varietals are generally known by the region in which they are grown, such as Colombian , Java , and Kona . Arabica coffee beans are cultivated mainly in Latin America, eastern Africa or Asia, while robusta beans are grown in central Africa, southeast Asia, and Brazil. Coffee can also be blended with medicinal or functional mushrooms, of which some of

6710-409: The coffee, and then the coffee is mixed by hand. The drying that then takes place is more uniform, and fermentation is less likely. Most African coffee is dried in this manner and certain coffee farms around the world are starting to use this traditional method. Next, the coffee is sorted, and labeled as green coffee. Some companies use cylinders to pump in heated air to dry the coffee seeds, though this

6832-438: The development of the plantation communities such as Shining Life Children's Trust and Hanguranketha Women's Foundation. Coffee Coffee is a beverage brewed from roasted, ground coffee beans . Darkly colored, bitter, and slightly acidic, coffee has a stimulating effect on humans, primarily due to its caffeine content. It has the highest sales in the world market for hot drinks. Coffee production begins when

6954-487: The economic well-being of Sri Lanka but the socio-economic indicators of the community was among the worst in the country. The community in general was isolated, living in ghettos within the central region as well as linguistically isolated from the majority Sinhalese villagers who live in the valleys. They were captive labour whose life in its entirety was decided by their employers. Any social relationships or cultural ties were only among themselves or with South India . In

7076-406: The estates. The minimum wages ordinance was extended to plantation labour in 1927 marginally raising the wages that had not changed since the 19th century. This daily wages was 41 Cts. in 1933. Owing to trade union activities it was raised to Rs 17/83 in 1983, Rs 72/24 in 1993 and became Rs 101 in 1998. The wages of female workers was less than males but has been equalized since 1984. Even though there

7198-738: The exception of the Bohras , who are Shiites. Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka are Tamil people of Indian origin in Sri Lanka . They are also known as Malayaga Tamilar , Hill Country Tamils , Up-Country Tamils or simply Indian Tamils . They predominantly descend from workers sent during the British Raj from Southern India to Sri Lanka in the 19th and 20th centuries to work in coffee , tea and rubber plantations. Some also migrated on their own as merchants and as other service providers. These Tamil speakers mostly live in

7320-612: The existing shortcomings of the Indian citizenship act and granted citizenship to all Indian estate workers (see below). Even at that time, Thondaman was the leader of the Ceylon Workers Congress , the party of the Hill Country Tamils, and had become a skilful player of minority-party politics. He had avoided joining with the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) resolutions of 1974, which had continued with

7442-475: The fall was the repatriation of Indian citizens to India. Another fact is that many Indian Tamils, after acquiring Sri Lankan citizenship, declared themselves as Sri Lankan Tamils. Some Tamils who migrated to urban areas and also to the north and the east also followed this same example. Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka predominantly speak Tamil , however depending on where they live in the country, they may also additionally speak Sinhala and or English . According to

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7564-412: The fermentation is finished, the seeds are washed with large quantities of fresh water to remove the fermentation residue, which generates massive amounts of coffee wastewater . Finally, the seeds are dried. The best (but least used) method of drying coffee is using drying tables. In this method, the pulped and fermented coffee is spread thinly on raised beds, which allows the air to pass on all sides of

7686-542: The first row of line rooms. They perform respectable jobs such as factory work and grinding of tea as minor labour work. Even though they belong to the labour category they are influential among conductors, tea makers, kanganies (or supervisors) and other officials. The workers considered low caste live in the dwellings that are away from the centre and these dwellings are called distant or lower lines . This group consists of Pallar , Paraiyars , Sakkiliar , washers and barbers. The yard sweepers and changers of clothes are in

7808-588: The goddess of wisdom Saraswati . In 1981 about 90 percent of the Indian Tamils were Hindus. They have little contact with Buddhism , and they worship the Hindu pantheon of gods. Their religious myths, stories of saints , literature, and rituals are distinct from the cultural sources of the Sinhalese. Furthermore, a minority of the Indian Tamils- 7.6 percent are converts to Christianity , with their own places of worship and separate cultural lives. In this way,

7930-409: The ground, which causes scale parasites to not only attack the scale on the fallen branches but in the plant as well. The 2-mm-long coffee borer beetle ( Hypothenemus hampei ) is the most damaging insect pest of the world's coffee industry, destroying up to 50 percent or more of the coffee berries on plantations in most coffee-producing countries. The adult female beetle nibbles a single tiny hole in

8052-461: The harbingers of the destruction of this community, which had evolved into a composite group with a distinct culture of its own. In the 1950s and 1960s this community was clamouring for education and recognition of its distinctive culture. This brought in the emergence of a community consciousness and the artisan of a distinct community. An educated middle class made up of teachers, trade unionists and other professional began to make its appearance. There

8174-399: The house was levelled by Tamil members of the upper chamber (senate), like Senator Natesan, who pointed out that Senanayake had supported the franchise of the Indian Tamils till recently, and had "caved in" more recently. As the first prime minister , D.S. Senanayake , leader of the UNP, feared the strong possibilities of Marxist disruption of government and commenced the task of weakening

8296-401: The island very high indicators of physical well-being. Impressive national statistics tended to hide the existence of deprived pockets within the population and the most deprived population group has been the plantation labour, which had been economically, politically and socially deprived. The Donoughmore Commission of 1928 recommended universal franchise, and this was also meant to include

8418-434: The large Tamil minority in Sri Lanka is effectively separated from the mainstream Sinhalese culture and is fragmented into two major groups with their own Christian minorities. The first known temple was built in Matale. It began as a stone an icon of the goddess Mariamman . At this very location where the worship of her began in 1820, the now-famous Matale Sri Muthumariamman Temple was built in 1852. The trading community of

8540-774: The large family Rubiaceae . They are evergreen shrubs or trees that may grow 5 m (15 ft) tall when unpruned. The leaves are dark green and glossy, usually 10–15 cm (4–6 in) long and 6 cm (2.4 in) wide, simple, entire, and opposite. Petioles of opposite leaves fuse at the base to form interpetiolar stipules , characteristic of Rubiaceae . The flowers are axillary , and clusters of fragrant white flowers bloom simultaneously. Gynoecium consists of an inferior ovary, also characteristic of Rubiaceae. The flowers are followed by oval berries of about 1.5 cm (0.6 in). When immature, they are green, and they ripen to yellow, then crimson, before turning black on drying. Each berry usually contains two seeds, but 5–10% of

8662-399: The latter half of the 19th century, and almost all were involved in the large-scale displacement and exploitation of the indigenous people . Harsh conditions led to many uprisings, coups, and bloody suppression of peasants. The notable exception was Costa Rica, where lack of ready labor prevented the formation of large farms. Smaller farms and more egalitarian conditions ameliorated unrest over

8784-734: The lowest rank. These groups follow the customs, traditions, and festivities of their South Indian Tamil ancestors . The traditional musical instruments such as thappu and parai are used and folk dances such as the kavadi , kummi and karaga attam are performed. Folk dramas called koothu in their various forms such as ponnar koothu , sangaran koothu , arujunan thabas and kaman koothu are still prevalent among them along with silambadi as an important feature. In general they use Hindu beliefs to guide their day-to-day lives. There are number of temples and places of worship for deities on estates and in villages, towns and other places within Sri Lanka to which they have migrated. When

8906-680: The majority Sinhalese population who felt their voting strength was diluted due to Indian Tamils. He introduced the Ceylon Citizenship Act of 1948 , the Indian-Pakistani Citizenship Act of 1949 and amended the Parliamentary Elections Act and disfranchised the Indian Tamils along with many persons of Indian and Pakistani ancestry. As they had no means of electing anyone to the Parliament they ceased to be

9028-670: The majority of the Indian estate workers. A decade later, the Soulbury Commission , which paved the way for the independence of Ceylon recognized the "anxieties arising out of the likelihood of large-scale enfranchisement of the Indian immigrants", The Commission, therefore, left the existing basis of franchise in Sri Lanka undisturbed. D. S. Senanayake had led the 1941 talks with Sir G. S. Bajpai of India and had reached agreement on modalities of repatriation and citizenship, although they were finally not ratified by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru . D. S. Senanayake had expressed

9150-453: The middle of the 15th century in the accounts of Ahmed al-Ghaffar in Yemen, where coffee seeds were first roasted and brewed in a similar way to how it is prepared now. Coffee was used by Sufi circles to stay awake for their religious rituals. Accounts differ on the origin of the coffee plant before its appearance in Yemen. From Ethiopia, coffee could have been introduced to Yemen via trade across

9272-564: The modern beverage appears in modern-day Yemen in southern Arabia in the middle of the 15th century in Sufi shrines, where coffee seeds were first roasted and brewed in a manner similar to how it is now prepared for drinking. The coffee beans were procured by the Yemenis from the Ethiopian Highlands via coastal Somali intermediaries, and cultivated in Yemen. By the 16th century, the drink had reached

9394-480: The molecular level and are close to commercialization. Of the two main species grown, arabica coffee (from C. arabica ) is generally more highly regarded than robusta coffee (from C. canephora ). Robusta coffee tends to be bitter and has less flavor but a better body than arabica. For these reasons, about three-quarters of coffee cultivated worldwide is C. arabica . Robusta strains also contain about 40–50% more caffeine than arabica. Consequently, this species

9516-526: The most frequently used include: lion's mane, chaga, cordyceps and reishi. Mushroom coffee has about half the caffeine of standard coffee. However, drinking mushroom coffee can result in digestive issues and high amounts can result in liver toxicity. There is little clinical evidence for the benefits of mushroom coffee. Coffee wilt disease or tracheomycosis is a common vascular wilt found in Eastern and Central Africa that can kill coffee trees it infects. It

9638-481: The most highly regarded species, is native to the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia and the Boma Plateau in southeastern Sudan and Mount Marsabit in northern Kenya. C. canephora is native to western and central Subsaharan Africa, from Guinea to Uganda and southern Sudan. Less popular species are C. liberica , C. stenophylla , C. mauritiana , and C. racemosa . All coffee plants are classified in

9760-489: The nativity of the island, and due to caste level differences as well. In 1949, the United National Party (UNP) government stripped the Indian Tamils of their nationality, including their right to vote. Prominent Tamil political leaders such as S. J. V. Chelvanayakam and his Tamil opposition party opposed this move. Under an agreement between the Sri Lankan and Indian governments in the 1960s, around 40% of Hill Country Tamils were granted Sri Lankan nationality and many of

9882-467: The new state of Ceylon in 1948. In the elections to the first parliament of Ceylon, seven Indian Tamil representatives were returned to Parliament. The plantation workers voted either for Indian Tamil candidates or for Lanka Sama Samaja Party candidates. Dr. N.M. Perera was the leader of the opposition in the first parliament and the Lanka Sama Samaja Party was the second largest party after

10004-427: The nitrogen-fixing non-legume sheoaks of the genus Casuarina , and the silky oak Grevillea robusta . This method is commonly called " shade-grown coffee ". Starting in the 1970s, many farmers switched their production method to sun cultivation, in which coffee is grown in rows under full sun with little or no forest canopy. This causes berries to ripen more rapidly and bushes to produce higher yields, but requires

10126-474: The number of coffee berry borers in Costa Rica coffee plantations. Originally, coffee was grown in the shade of trees that provided a habitat for many animals and insects. Remnant forest trees were used for this purpose, but many species have been planted as well. These include leguminous trees of the genera Acacia , Albizia , Cassia , Erythrina , Gliricidia , Inga , and Leucaena , as well as

10248-531: The only other ethnic group besides the Indian Tamils which had declined from the previous Census figure. Their decline was partly due to their returning to India and others declaring themselves and being enumerated as Sri Lankan Moors. Indian Moors were mostly found in the Colombo and Kandy Districts . With more than 75% of the Indian Moors found in Colombo District situated in Colombo city. The Indian Moors

10370-450: The plantation workers as well. Page 57 of the report proposed: In the first place we consider it very desirable that a qualification of five years residence in the Island (allowing the temporary absence not exceeding eight months in all during the five years period) should be introduced in order that the privilege of voting should be confined to those who have an abiding interest in the country or who may be regarded as permanently settled in

10492-405: The plants is transpired straight back into the local environment through the plants' leaves (especially for cooling effects); broad estimates aside, consequential margins vary considerably based on details of local geography and horticultural practice. Coffee is often grown in countries where there is a water shortage, such as Ethiopia . Used coffee grounds may be used for composting or as

10614-492: The policies of the ITAK. Thus the Hill Country Tamils had successfully charted a course of cooperating with successive Sri Lankan governments. The Sirima-Shastri Pact of 1964 and Indira-Sirimavo supplementary agreement of 1974 paved the way for the repatriation of 600,000 persons of Indian origin to India. Another 375,000 persons were accepted as citizens of Sri Lanka, which made them enter the polity. These repatriation agreements were

10736-466: The population, whereas Sri Lankan Tamils formed 12.8 per cent; in 1921, 13.4 per cent and 11.5 per cent; in 1931, 15.2 and 11.3; in 1946, 11.7 and 11.0; in 1953, 12.0 and 10.9; in 1963, 10.6 and 11.0; in 1971, 11.6 and 11.2; and in 1981, 5.5 per cent and 12.7 per cent respectively. The statistics reveal a more than 50 per cent fall in the Indian Tamil population between 1971 and 1981. The main reason for

10858-457: The port at which they landed on their arrival by boat from South India, they were moved via Kurunegala to camps in the town of Matale . There they were quarantined for a period of a week or more, examined for infectious diseases such as small pox , cholera or typhoid and vaccinated against those diseases before they were sent to Kandy , from where they were dispersed to locations where they would either work on estates already established by

10980-486: The president of the Ceylon Indian Congress (CIC), S. Thondaman had contested the Nuwara Eliya seat in the 1947 general election and won. His party put forward seven candidates in the plantation electorates and six of them were returned. Thus Thondaman became the spokesperson of the plantation workers. The CIC sat with the opposition, which included the Marxist parties. He opposed the 1948 citizenship act. Thondaman supported

11102-406: The primary export and economic backbone for African countries like Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, and Ethiopia, as well as many Central American countries. Several species of shrub of the genus Coffea produce the berries from which coffee is extracted. The two main species commercially cultivated are Coffea canephora (predominantly a form known as 'robusta') and C. arabica . C. arabica ,

11224-479: The quality of the coffee is allegedly superior. In addition, the traditional shaded method provides living space for many wildlife species. Proponents of shade cultivation say environmental problems such as deforestation, pesticide pollution, habitat destruction, and soil and water degradation are the side effects of the practices employed in sun cultivation. The American Birding Association , Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center , National Arbor Day Foundation , and

11346-415: The quarters of the staff members such as clerks, tea makers, conductors, petty accountants or kanakkupillais , and supervisors. The bungalows of the planter and his assistants are in an isolated areas. These will be in close proximity to the office. The dwellings of the workers called line rooms are situated a little further away from the factories. Those who are considered to be of higher castes occupy

11468-451: The recruits came as they were recruited by the head man in their villages, mostly by high caste Tamils. Sri Lankan Tamils mostly live in the Northern and Eastern Provinces and in the capital of Colombo , whereas Hill Country Tamils largely live in the central highlands. The Hill Country Tamils and Ceylon Tamils historically have seen themselves as separate communities, particularly due to

11590-581: The remainder were repatriated to India. However, the ethnic conflict has led to the growth of a greater sense of common Tamil identity, and the two groups are now more supportive of each other. By the 1990s most Indian Tamils had received Sri Lankan citizenship and some were not granted Sri Lankan citizenship until 2003, during the peace talks between the Tamil Tigers and the Sri Lankan Government . The Hill Country Tamils derive their origins from

11712-457: The rest of Europe, Indonesia, and the Americas. In 1583, Leonhard Rauwolf , a German physician, gave this description of coffee after returning from a ten-year trip to the Near East: A beverage as black as ink, useful against numerous illnesses, particularly those of the stomach. Its consumers take it in the morning, quite frankly, in a porcelain cup passed around and from which each one drinks

11834-423: The rest of the Middle East and North Africa, later spreading to Europe. The two most commonly grown coffee bean types are C. arabica and C. robusta . Coffee plants are cultivated in over 70 countries , primarily in the equatorial regions of the Americas, Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and Africa. Green, unroasted coffee is traded as an agricultural commodity. The global coffee industry

11956-542: The roots, coffee borer beetles burrow into stems and woody material, and the foliage is attacked by over 100 species of larvae (caterpillars) of butterflies and moths. Mass spraying of insecticides has often proven disastrous, as predators of the pests are more sensitive than the pests themselves. Instead, integrated pest management has developed, using techniques such as targeted treatment of pest outbreaks, and managing crop environment away from conditions favoring pests. Branches infested with scale are often cut and left on

12078-501: The ruling coalitions since the 1980s. The Tamils in Sri Lanka can be divided into two groups, the Sri Lankan Tamils , who are native to the island of Sri Lanka and the Indian Tamils or Hill Country Tamils , who are descendants of bonded labourers sent from Tamil Nadu to Sri Lanka in the 19th century to work in tea plantations. Many came as laborers to work in the plantations, but few of them came as business people. Most of

12200-454: The seeds of the Coffea plant's fruits (coffee cherries) are separated to produce unroasted green coffee beans . The beans are roasted and then ground into fine particles. Coffee is brewed from the ground roasted beans, which are typically steeped in hot water before being filtered out. It is usually served hot, although chilled or iced coffee is common. Coffee can be prepared and presented in

12322-492: The status and future of the Indian immigrants in Sri Lanka, an agreement had already been reached between the two countries and had been implemented as the following by the date of 30 October 1964: — In 1971, Indian Moors numbered 29,416 declining from 55,400 in 1963. Their decline was partly due to much of the population returning to India and some declaring themselves and being enumerated as Sri Lankan Moors. The presently remaining population have been categorized as "others" in

12444-413: The story is likely apocryphal. Another legend attributes the discovery of coffee to a Sheikh Omar. Starving after being exiled from Mokha (a port city in what is now Yemen), Omar found berries. After attempting to chew and roast them, Omar boiled them, which yielded a liquid that revitalized and sustained him. The earliest credible evidence of coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in

12566-665: The taste of the beverage by changing the coffee bean both physically and chemically. The bean decreases in weight as moisture is lost and increases in volume, causing it to become less dense. The density of the bean also influences the strength of the coffee and the requirements for packaging. The actual roasting begins when the temperature inside the bean reaches approximately 200 °C (392 °F), though different varieties of seeds differ in moisture and density and therefore roast at different rates. During roasting, caramelization occurs as intense heat breaks down starches , changing them to simple sugars that begin to brown, which darkens

12688-559: The time. It also allowed citizenship to “a person born in Ceylon prior to the date of the Act coming into force, of a father born in Ceylon”. However, this was in effect a continuation of the older, somewhat harsher status quo of the Indian workers in the 1930s, prior to the Donoughmore constitution, which called for only five years' residence. However, Ponnambalam and Senanayake were strongly criticized by

12810-452: The usual methods of vegetative propagation. On the other hand, there is great scope for experimentation in search of potential new strains. The traditional method of planting coffee is to place 20 seeds in each hole at the beginning of the rainy season . This method loses about 50% of the seeds' potential, as about half fail to sprout. A more effective process of growing coffee, used in Brazil,

12932-450: The verb qahiya ( قَهِيَ ), ' to have no appetite '. The word qahwah most likely meant 'the dark one', referring to the brew or the bean; qahwah is not the name of the bean, which are known in Arabic as bunn and in Cushitic languages as būn . Semitic languages have the root qhh , 'dark color', which became a natural designation for the beverage. Its cognates include

13054-517: The vicinity of Rio de Janeiro and later São Paulo. Brazil went from having essentially no coffee exports in 1800 to being a significant regional producer in 1830, to being the largest producer in the world by 1852. In 1910–1920, Brazil exported around 70% of the world's coffee, Colombia, Guatemala, and Venezuela exported 15%, and Old World production accounted for less than 5% of world exports. Many countries in Central America took up cultivation in

13176-485: The wish to "embrace all Indian workers who integrate into the country as members of the Ceylonese nation", and had been relatively sympathetic, as early as 1928, and as late as 1941, to the granting of citizenship to Indian workers who wished to become permanent residents of the island. The Soulbury constitution came into effect in 1946. In trying to cobble an all-party cabinet inclusive of the Tamils, led by G. G. Ponnambalam ,

13298-612: The word "race", and it had recognition in all official and unofficial records. At the 1881 Census, Moors numbered 184,500 which increased to 228,000 in the 1901 Census. The 1911 Census separated the Tamils into Ceylon Tamils and Indian Tamils and the Moors into Ceylon Moors and Indian Moors. This was due to the influx of Indian Laborers, that comprised both Moors and Tamils, into the plantation regions of Sri Lanka, who had to be distinguished separately. By 1971, Indian Moors numbered 29,416, declining from 55,400 in 1963. The Indian Moors were

13420-424: The world production of green coffee beans was 175,647,000 60 kg bags, led by Brazil with 39% of the total, followed by Vietnam, Colombia, and Indonesia. Brazil is the largest coffee exporting nation, accounting for 15% of all world exports in 2019. As of 2021, no synthetic coffee products are publicly available but multiple bioeconomy companies have reportedly produced first batches that are highly similar on

13542-409: The world's most expensive coffee, three times costlier than palm civet coffee beans. The next step in the process is the roasting of green coffee. Coffee is usually sold in a roasted state, and with rare exceptions, such as infusions from green coffee beans, coffee is roasted before it is consumed. It can be sold roasted by the supplier, or it can be home roasted . The roasting process influences

13664-691: Was a collective of ethnic groups, identified by their Islamic faith and similar geographic origin. The Largest of those groups being Tamils from South India . Others included the Memons , originally from Gujarat , who first arrived in 1870; however in the 1980s they numbered only about 3,000. The Bohras and the Khojas who also came from Gujarat (after 1880); in the 1980s they collectively numbered fewer than 2,000. Indian Moors are predominantly followers of Islam , hence their cultural identity being defined by their religion. Most Indian Moor groups follow Sunni Islam , with

13786-441: Was a vigorous campaign for social amelioration and increased educational facilities. There was a growing spirit of resistance. People destroyed Indian passports and refused to go to India. Repatriation was resisted. International opinion was canvassed against deprivation of citizenship rights. The plantation people who were not prepared to leave, destitute, the land whose property they had built. They were prepared to fraternize within

13908-570: Was an increase in wages, the living wages are not sufficient to meet their day-to-day needs. The plantations were nationalized under the 1972 land reform law and its 1975 amendment. The state owned plantations are managed by the Sri Lanka Plantation Corporation and the Janatha Estate Development Board. The nationalization did not result in any basic change on the plantation sector. The state has been forced to take

14030-716: Was first collected in 1890 from the Lomani River , a tributary of the Congo River, and was conveyed from the Congo Free State (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) to Brussels to Java around 1900. From Java, further breeding resulted in the establishment of robusta plantations in many countries. In particular, the spread of the devastating coffee leaf rust (caused by the fungal pathogen Hemileia vastatrix ), to which arabica

14152-526: Was first exported from Ethiopia to Yemen by Somali merchants from Berbera and Zeila in modern-day Somaliland, which was procured from Harar and the Abyssinian interior. According to Captain Haines, who was the colonial administrator of Aden (1839–1854), Mokha historically imported up to two-thirds of its coffee from Berbera-based merchants before the coffee trade of Mokha was captured by British-controlled Aden in

14274-545: Was initially not as successful as in Europe, as alcoholic beverages remained more popular. During the Revolutionary War, the demand for coffee increased so much that dealers had to hoard their scarce supplies and raise prices dramatically; this was also due to the reduced availability of tea from British merchants, and a general resolution among many Americans to avoid drinking tea following the 1773 Boston Tea Party . During

14396-545: Was instrumental in using this electoral strength in improvement of the socioeconomic conditions of Hill Country Tamils. The plight of the repatriated persons in India has not been good. Census operations started in Sri Lanka in 1871. The Census of 1871, 1881, 1891 and 1901 had lumped together Sri Lankan Tamils and Indian Tamils. Since 1911, Indian Tamils have been shown as a separate category. The population statistics are revealing. In 1911, Indian Tamils constituted 12.9 per cent of

14518-646: Was not the heaviest coffee-drinking nation at the time (Belgium, the Netherlands and Nordic countries all had comparable or higher levels of per capita consumption), due to its sheer size, it was already the largest consumer of coffee in the world by 1860, and, by 1920, around half of all coffee produced worldwide was consumed in the US. Coffee has become a vital cash crop for many developing countries. Over one hundred million people in developing countries have become dependent on coffee as their primary source of income. It has become

14640-402: Was regarded as the harbinger of such dangers. The fear of left-wing politics began to grow in the minds of Sri Lankan politicians of the era. The colonial government responded to the agitation of the leftists by imprisoning N. M. Perera , Colvin R. de Silva and other left leaders. Anti Marxist feelings were shared by the mainstream Sinhalese and Tamil leaders alike. (, Ch. 36). The criticism in

14762-526: Was the first to import coffee on a large scale. The Dutch later grew the crop in Java and Ceylon. The first exports of Indonesian coffee from Java to the Netherlands occurred in 1711. Through the efforts of the British East India Company , coffee also became popular in England. In a diary entry of May 1637, John Evelyn recorded tasting the drink at Oxford in England, where it had been brought by

14884-453: Was the growing threat of Marxist infiltration into estate trade unions. In this he had won the concurrence of G. G. Ponnambalam for the second citizenship act, which required ten years of residence in the island as a condition for becoming citizens of the new nation. Senanayake, who had been very favourable to easy citizenship for Indian workers had increasingly modified his views in the face of Marxist trade union activity. The Bracegirdle affair

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