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114-490: The Incredible Edible project is an urban gardening project which was started in 2008 by Pamela Warhurst , Mary Clear and a group of like minded people in Todmorden , West Yorkshire , UK. The project aims to bring people together through actions around local food and community allotments, helping to change behaviour towards the environment and to build a kinder and more resilient world. In some cases, it also envisions to have

228-478: A "transition town" movement for sustainable urban development. For others, food security , nutrition , and income generation are key motivations for the practice. In either case, the more direct access to fresh vegetable, fruit, and meat products that may be realised through urban agriculture can improve food security and food safety while decreasing food miles , leading to lower greenhouse gas emissions , thereby contributing to climate change mitigation . Some of

342-499: A 300 square meter urban farm built in 2020 was seen as a key player in the city's resilience during the Covid-19 pandemic. Fishermen based in Cebu initiated a hybrid farm to table scheme, connecting isolated farming communities to both national and international markets. In Singapore , hydroponic rooftop farms (which also rely on vertical farming ) are appearing. The goal behind these

456-560: A big influence on soil temperature. Draper et al. (1985), for instance, documented this as well as the effect it had on root growth of outplants (Table 30). The mounds warmed up quickest, and at soil depths of 0.5 cm and 10 cm averaged 10 and 7 °C higher, respectively, than in the control. On sunny days, daytime surface temperature maxima on the mound and organic mat reached 25 °C to 60 °C, depending on soil wetness and shading. Mounds reached mean soil temperatures of 10 °C at 10 cm depth 5 days after planting, but

570-472: A broadcast slash fire in a clearcut does not give a uniform burn over the whole area. Tarrant (1954), for instance, found only 4% of a 140-ha slash burn had burned severely, 47% had burned lightly, and 49% was unburned. Burning after windrowing obviously accentuates the subsequent heterogeneity. Marked increases in exchangeable calcium also correlated with the amount of slash at least 7 cm in diameter consumed. Phosphorus availability also increased, both in

684-448: A general deterioration in site productivity; Endean and Johnstone (1974) describe experiments to test prescribed burning as a means of seedbed preparation and site amelioration on representative clear-felled Picea/Abies areas. Results showed that, in general, prescribed burning did not reduce organic layers satisfactorily, nor did it increase soil temperature, on the sites tested. Increases in seedling establishment, survival, and growth on

798-558: A global scale, their influence is still prevalent. The main website has been viewed by over 14,500 people. 742 people have signed up for their newsletter as well. Their marketplace has shared more than 40 stories of its journey and message, too. More recently, the Incredible Edible received a £500,000 grant from the Big Lottery Fund and a donation of land from Calderdale Council . The majority of this funding has been used to create

912-448: A multiplicity of other benefits and services that are less widely acknowledged and documented. These include recreation and leisure; economic vitality and business entrepreneurship, individual health and well-being; community health and well being; landscape beautification; and environmental restoration and remediation. Modern planning and design initiatives are often more responsive to this model of urban agriculture because they fit within

1026-420: A multitude of other uses. Much attention has been placed on the practice of urban agriculture in connection to food movements such as alternative food networks , sustainable food networks , and local food movements. Alternative food networks seek to redefine food production, distribution, and consumption by considering the sociocultural elements of local communities and economies. Sustainable food networks are

1140-525: A new £750,000 aquaponics unit. This sustainability -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This horticulture article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Urban agriculture Urban agriculture refers to various practices of cultivating , processing, and distributing food in urban areas . The term also applies to the area activities of animal husbandry , aquaculture , beekeeping , and horticulture in an urban context. Urban agriculture

1254-581: A positive impact on their income." -- Mary Clear In 2009, Prince Charles visited the Incredible Edible Todmorden project in support. The group meets regularly at Todmorden Unitarian Church and manages plantings and other food producing projects throughout the town. The Incredible Edible model, developed in Todmorden, revolves around the metaphor of three “spinning plates.” The first, community, refers to growing food on public spaces that anyone

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1368-569: A purpose, job and food to those who would otherwise be without anything during such harsh times. These efforts helped raise spirits and boost economic growth. Over 2.8 million dollars worth of food was produced from the subsistence gardens during the Depression. Public and government support for Victory Gardens waned during the Interwar Period, with most American sites becoming repurposed for various economic development initiatives. By World War II,

1482-539: A related concept, but focus more on ecological concerns. Local food networks focus more on the political responses to globalization or concerns with the environmental impacts of industrialized food transportation. There is no overarching term for agricultural plots in urban areas . Gardens and farms, while not easy to define, are the two main types. According to the USDA, a farm is "any place from which $ 1,000 or more of agricultural products were produced and sold." In Europe,

1596-549: A significantly higher volume (329 cm ) than open plantations (204 cm ). Wang et al. (2000) recommended that sheltered plantation site preparation should be used. Up to 1970, no "sophisticated" site preparation equipment had become operational in Ontario, but the need for more efficacious and versatile equipment was increasingly recognized. By this time, improvements were being made to equipment originally developed by field staff, and field testing of equipment from other sources

1710-459: A similar sturdy animal. Horses are generally unsuitable, though breeds such as the Clydesdale were bred as draft animals. Tilling could at times be very labor-intensive. This aspect is discussed in the 16th-century French agronomic text written by Charles Estienne : A raw, rough, and tough soil is hard to till and will neither bring forth corn, nor any other thing without great labor, however

1824-727: A soil-less environment, ensuring efficient use of resources and optimal plant growth. Climate control systems play a crucial role in maintaining the perfect conditions for crops, regulating temperature, humidity, and lighting. Artificial lighting , often powered by energy-efficient LED technology, ensures that plants receive the right light spectrum for photosynthesis , resulting in healthy and abundant harvests. The ultimate goal of developments includes providing superior agricultural products that meet urban consumers' safety requirements. The Urban Agriculture Network has defined urban agriculture as: An industry that produces, processes, and markets food, fuel, and other outputs, largely in response to

1938-657: A table of slash weight and size distribution on one acre of a hypothetical stand of white spruce. When the diameter distribution of a stand is unknown, an estimate of slash weight and size distribution can be obtained from average stand diameter, number of trees per unit area, and merchantable cubic foot volume. The sample trees in Kiil's study had full symmetrical crowns. Densely growing trees with short and often irregular crowns would probably be overestimated; open-grown trees with long crowns would probably be underestimated. The need to provide shade for young outplants of Engelmann spruce in

2052-462: A whole became seen as blighted, decaying areas. Some American cities, such as Syracuse, NY once more supported urban agriculture programs, not for food security but to make these vacant lots more appealing . Social and environmental justice groups, such as New York City based Green Guerillas , Seattle-based P-Patch , Boston-based Urban Gardeners, and Philadelphia-based Philadelphia Green , continued to shape American urban agricultural practices during

2166-648: Is a central theme to agroecology, so many urban agroecology initiatives address topics of social justice , gender empowerment , ecological sustainability , indigenous sovereignty , and public participation in addition to promoting food access. For example, agroecology has been integral to social movements surrounding public demand for sustainably grown food free from pesticides and other chemicals. Under an agroecological framework, urban agriculture alleviates much more than simply food insecurity by also encouraging discourse about all facets of community wellness from physical and mental health to community connectedness. It has

2280-537: Is a closed-loop farming technique that ingeniously combines aquaculture and hydroponics to create a self-sustaining ecosystem. In this mutually beneficial relationship, fish waste serves as a natural fertilizer for the plants, while the plants filter and purify the water for the fish. This ingenious system not only minimizes water usage but also eliminates the need for chemical fertilizers , making it an eco-friendly and resource-efficient method of food production . The origins of aquaponics can be traced back to

2394-561: Is a method involves cultivating plants indoors, free from the constraints of traditional agriculture such as weather fluctuations and limited land availability. The concept of indoor farming emerged as a solution to the challenges faced by conventional farming methods. With unpredictable weather patterns and urbanization taking up valuable arable land, indoor farming offers a sustainable alternative. In practice, indoor farms utilize advanced techniques like hydroponics , aeroponics , or aquaponics to cultivate plants. These systems provide

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2508-560: Is accompanied by the related movements of food justice and food sovereignty . These movements incorporate urban agriculture in how they address food-resources of a community. Food sovereignty, in addition to promoting food access, also seeks to address the power dynamics and political economy of food; it accounts for the embedded power structures of the food system , ownership of production, and decision-making on multiple levels (i.e. growing, processing, and distribution): Under this framework, representative decision-making and responsiveness to

2622-447: Is allowed to take from. By accomplishing this, it hopes to transform people's relationship to the environment and spark new conversations. The second plate, business, means supporting local-food firms. Whether it is local food producers, distributors, or restaurants, the goal of this plate is to strengthen the local economy through things like vegetable tourism . The third and final plate is learning. The idea of this plate it to incorporate

2736-434: Is commonly used to prepare clearcut sites for planting, e.g., in central British Columbia, and in the temperate region of North America generally. Prescribed burning is carried out primarily for slash hazard reduction and to improve site conditions for regeneration; all or some of the following benefits may accrue: Prescribed burning for preparing sites for direct seeding was tried on a few occasions in Ontario, but none of

2850-462: Is deeper and more thorough is classified as primary, and tillage that is shallower and sometimes more selective of location is secondary. Primary tillage such as ploughing tends to produce a rough surface finish, whereas secondary tillage tends to produce a smoother surface finish, such as that required to make a good seedbed for many crops. Harrowing and rototilling often combine primary and secondary tillage into one operation. "Tillage" can also mean

2964-474: Is distinguished from peri-urban agriculture , which takes place in rural areas at the edge of suburbs. Urban agriculture can appear at varying levels of economic and social development. It can involve a movement of organic growers, " foodies " and " locavores ", who seek to form social networks founded on a shared ethos of nature and community holism. These networks can develop by way of formal institutional support, becoming integrated into local town planning as

3078-601: Is exploring urban agriculture as a means of feeding its growing population; such as in Shanghai and the Megalopolis of the Pearl River Delta . Despite several widespread cultural, architectural, economic, governmental, and social challenges towards implementation, urban agriculture is noted as having numerous positive transformative effects for China ranging from local food security to national economic security. Aquaponics

3192-489: Is often referred to as conventional tillage , but as conservational tillage is now more widely used than intensive tillage (in the United States), it is often not appropriate to refer to this type of tillage as conventional. Intensive tillage often involves multiple operations with implements such as a mold board, disk, or chisel plow . After this, a finisher with a harrow , rolling basket, and cutter can be used to prepare

3306-443: Is part of a larger discussion of the need for alternative agricultural paradigms to address food insecurity, inaccessibility of fresh foods, and unjust practices on multiple levels of the food system; and this discussion has been led by different actors, including food-insecure individuals, farm workers, educators and academics, policymakers, social movements, organizations, and marginalized people globally. The issue of food security

3420-563: Is to rejuvenate areas and workforces that have thus far been marginalized. Simultaneously top level pesticide-free produce will be grown and harvested. As Singapore imports 90+% of its food, urban agriculture is seen as essential to national security, a fact underscored during the Covid-19 pandemic. On the island of Taiwan , local city governments sometimes support urban agriculture as a means of sustainable ecology, such as Taipei's Garden City Initiative. Originally intended to be small-scale,

3534-425: Is undertaken to ameliorate one or more constraints that would otherwise be likely to thwart management objectives. A valuable bibliography on the effects of soil temperature and site preparation on subalpine and boreal tree species has been prepared by McKinnon et al. (2002). Site preparation is the work that is done before a forest area is regenerated. Some types of site preparation are burning. Broadcast burning

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3648-725: The farm tractor was introduced, which made modern large-scale agriculture possible. However, the destruction of the prairie grasses and tillage of the fertile topsoil of the American Midwest caused the Dust Bowl , in which the soil was blown away and stirred up into dust storms that blackened the sky. This prompted re-consideration of tillage techniques, but in the United States as of 2019, 3 trillion pounds of soil were estimated to be lost due to erosion while adoption of improved techniques for controlling erosion are still not widespread. In

3762-469: The forest fire hazard on harvested sites. Forest managers interested in the application of prescribed burning for hazard reduction and silviculture, were shown a method for quantifying the slash load by Kiil (1968). In west-central Alberta, he felled, measured, and weighed 60 white spruce, graphed (a) slash weight per merchantable unit volume against diameter at breast height (dbh), and (b) weight of fine slash (<1.27 cm) also against dbh, and produced

3876-710: The 1970s. These groups - and many others - reinvigorated interest in urban agriculture, aimed not only at community development but also combating environmental crises. American urban agriculture initiatives during the 1980s built upon the previous decade's focus on community engagement. A natural evolution was sites of urban agriculture entering everyday community roles and consequently requiring more funding than grassroots movements could muster. The US government created an Urban Garden Program, which funded programs in twenty-eight cities who in turn produced roughly twenty-one million dollars of produce. Though some sites of urban agriculture were repurposed for other economic development,

3990-621: The American Forestry Association organized campaigns with patriotic messages such as "Sow the Seeds of Victory", with the aim of reducing domestic pressure on food production. In so doing, primary agricultural industries could focus on shipping rations to troops in Europe. So called victory gardens sprouted during World War One (emulated later during World War Two) in the US, as well as Canada &

4104-481: The First World War that US urban agriculture spread widely. During World War One, food production became a major national security concern for several countries, including the US. President Woodrow Wilson called upon all American citizens to utilize any available open food growth, seeing this as a way to pull them out of a potentially damaging situation of food insecurity. The National War Garden Committee under

4218-494: The UK. Along the way, they have provided meaningful social and physical activities for 4,861 people nationwide. A total of 207 events have featured the Incredible Edible, and the organization currently collaborates with 11 other groups, including councils and nonprofits, to enhance their work. From a food standpoint, the organization has increased its total produce output by 37% in the past year. It currently grows food on 9,763 sqm of land. On

4332-470: The US fully embracing industrialized food systems. By the 1950s and 1960s, urban agriculture was more focused on grassroots initiatives spearheaded by politicized social movements, including the African-American Civil Rights . These groups benefited from a great number of vacant lots, left behind during a period of post-war urban to suburban migration . Despite these efforts, vacant lots as

4446-515: The USA's Northern Corn Belt states lacks consistent yield results; however, there is still interest in deep tillage within agriculture. In areas that are not well-drained, deep tillage may be used as an alternative to installing more expensive tile drainage. Plowing: Tilling can damage ancient structures such as long barrows . In the UK, half of the long barrows in Gloucestershire and almost all

4560-565: The United Kingdom. By 1919, American victory gardens numbered 5 million plots country-wide, and over 500 million pounds of produce was harvested. So efficient were the American urban agriculture programs that surplus foodstuffs were shipped to war-ravaged European nations, in addition to American military forces. A very similar practice came into use during the Great Depression that provided

4674-489: The War/Food Administration set up a National Victory Garden Program that set out to systematically establish functioning agriculture within cities. Indeed, these new victory gardens became the "first line of defense for the country". Once more, the government supported and encouraged Victory Gardens as a means of national security: domestic pressure on major agricultural industries would be relieved to further augment

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4788-520: The ancient Aztecs in Mexico , who practiced a form of this method by cultivating crops on floating rafts in nutrient-rich waters. In modern times, researchers like Dr. Mark McMurtry and Dr. James Rakocy further developed and popularized aquaponics during the 1970s and 1980s. In practice, fish are raised in a tank, and their waste releases ammonia. Beneficial bacteria then convert the ammonia into nitrites and nitrates, which serve as essential nutrients for

4902-463: The book "Horse-Hoeing Husbandry: An Essay on the Principles of Vegetation and Tillage," which argued that soil needed to be pulverized into fine powder for plants to make use of it. Tull believed that, since water, air, and heat were clearly not the primary substance of a plant, plants were made of earth, and thus had to consume very small pieces of earth as food. Tull wrote that each subsequent tillage of

5016-551: The burial mounds in Essex have been damaged. According to English Heritage in 2003, ploughing with modern powerful tractors had done as much damage in the last six decades as traditional farming did in the previous six centuries. Modern agricultural science has greatly reduced the use of tillage. Crops can be grown for several years without any tillage through the use of herbicides to control weeds, crop varieties that tolerate packed soil, and equipment that can plant seeds or fumigate

5130-490: The burned sites were probably the result of slight reductions in the depth of the organic layer, minor increases in soil temperature, and marked improvements in the efficiency of the planting crews. Results also suggested that the process of site deterioration has not been reversed by the burning treatments applied. Slash weight (the oven-dry weight of the entire crown and that portion of the stem less than four inches in diameter) and size distribution are major factors influencing

5244-478: The burns was hot enough to produce a seedbed that was adequate without supplementary mechanical site preparation. Changes in soil chemical properties associated with burning include significantly increased pH, which Macadam (1987) in the Sub-boreal Spruce Zone of central British Columbia found persisting more than a year after the burn. Average fuel consumption was 20 to 24 t/ha and the forest floor depth

5358-840: The chain of food distribution . UPA plays an important role in making food more affordable and in providing emergency supplies of food. Research into market values for produce grown in urban gardens has been attributed to a community garden plot a median yield value of between approximately $ 200 and $ 500 (US, adjusted for inflation). Urban agriculture can have a large impact on the social and emotional well-being of individuals. UA can have an overall positive impact on community health , which directly impacts individuals social and emotional well-being. Urban gardens are often places that facilitate positive social interaction , which also contributes to overall social and emotional well-being. Urban agriculture sites have been noted as lowering crime rates generally in local neighborhoods. Many gardens facilitate

5472-400: The city grows around it. City farms/Urban farms are agricultural plots in urban areas , that have people working with animals and plants to produce food. They are usually community-run gardens seeking to improve community relationships and offer an awareness of agriculture and farming to people who live in urbanized areas. Although the name says urban, urban farming does not have to be in

5586-553: The community are core features. Agroecology is a scientific framework, movement, and applied practice of agricultural management systems that seeks to achieve food sovereignty within food systems . In contrast to the dominant model of agriculture, agroecology emphasizes the importance of soil health by fostering connections between the diverse biotic and abiotic factors present. It prioritizes farmer and consumer well-being, traditional knowledge revival, and democratized learning systems. Transdisciplinarity and diversity of knowledge

5700-525: The community group officially became an Ltd for the purposes of fulfilling the legal and financial obligations of the group. In 2010, the first Incredible Edible farm, a one-acre plot, began to supply its fresh produce to local businesses. By 2012, the Incredible Edible Network was formed to help manage and sustain existing groups as well as inspiring new ones. Since its emergence, the Incredible Edible idea has spread to hundreds of communities around

5814-570: The concept of food justice which Alkon and Norgaard (2009; 289) explain that, "places access to healthy, affordable, culturally appropriate food in the contexts of institutional racism , racial formation, and racialized geographies... Food justice serves as a theoretical and political bridge between scholarship and activism on sustainable agriculture, food insecurity, and environmental justice ." Some systematic reviews have already explored urban agriculture contribution to food security and other determinants of health outcomes (see ) Urban agriculture

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5928-401: The control did not reach that temperature until 58 days after planting. During the first growing season, mounds had 3 times as many days with a mean soil temperature greater than 10 °C than did the control microsites. Draper et al.'s (1985) mounds received 5 times the amount of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) summed over all sampled microsites throughout the first growing season;

6042-418: The control treatment consistently received about 14% of daily background PAR, while mounds received over 70%. By November, fall frosts had reduced shading, eliminating the differential. Quite apart from its effect on temperature, incident radiation is also important photosynthetically. The average control microsite was exposed to levels of light above the compensation point for only 3 hours, i.e., one-quarter of

6156-473: The country. Several notable initiatives and organizations include The Philippine Urban Agriculture Network (PUAN), Gawad Kalinga, and the federal government's Urban Agriculture Program. Quezon City , the most populous city in the country, began a "Joy of Farming" program in the 2010s, which to date has implemented 160+ urban farms in backyards, daycare centres, churches and communal spaces as well as purpose-built farm demonstrations. In Metro Manila 's Taguig ,

6270-449: The crop plants. Primary tillage loosens the soil and mixes in fertilizer or plant material, resulting in soil with a rough texture. Secondary tillage produces finer soil and sometimes shapes the rows, preparing the seed bed. It also provides weed control throughout the growing season during the maturation of the crop plants, unless such weed control is instead achieved with low-till or no-till methods involving herbicides . Tilling

6384-499: The crop row. In comparison to no-till, which relies on the previous year's plant residue to protect the soil and aids in postponement of the warming of the soil and crop growth in Northern climates, zone tillage produces a strip approximately five inches wide that simultaneously breaks up plow pans, assists in warming the soil and helps to prepare a seedbed. When combined with cover crops, zone tillage helps replace lost organic matter, slows

6498-440: The current scope of sustainable design . The definition allows for a multitude of interpretations across cultures and time. Frequently it is tied to policy decisions to build sustainable cities. Urban farms also provide unique opportunities for individuals, especially those living in cities, to engage with ecological citizenship actively. By reconnecting with food production and nature, urban community gardening teaches individuals

6612-464: The daily demand of consumers within a town, city, or metropolis , many types of privately and publicly held land and water bodies were found throughout intra-urban and peri-urban areas. Typically urban agriculture applies intensive production methods, frequently using and reusing natural resources and urban wastes, to yield a diverse array of land-, water-, and air-based fauna and flora contributing to food security, health, livelihood, and environment of

6726-454: The daily light period, whereas mounds received light above the compensation point for 11 hours, i.e., 86% of the same daily period. Assuming that incident light in the 100–600 μE/m /s intensity range is the most important for photosynthesis , the mounds received over 4 times the total daily light energy that reached the control microsites. With linear site preparation, orientation is sometimes dictated by topography or other considerations, but

6840-515: The deterioration of the soil, improves soil drainage, increases soil water and nutrient holding capacity, and allows necessary soil organisms to survive. It has been successfully used on farms in the Midwest and West of the USA for over 40 years, and is currently used on more than 36% of the U.S. farmland. Some specific states where zone tillage is currently in practice are Pennsylvania, Connecticut, Minnesota, Indiana, Wisconsin, and Illinois. Its use in

6954-570: The early 19th century as a response to poverty and food insecurity. In the context of the US, urban agriculture as a widely recognized practice took root in response of the 1893–1897 economic depression in Detroit. In 1894, Mayor Hazen S. Pingree called on outlying citizens of a depression-struck Detroit to lend their properties to the city government ahead of the winter season. The Detroit government would in turn develop these lots as makeshift potato gardens - nicknamed Pingree's Potato Patches after

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7068-756: The early 20th century, but its recent popularity has surged due to the challenges posed by urbanization and the growing demand for sustainable food production. Vertical farms have gained significant traction globally as they offer solutions to overcome the limitations associated with traditional agriculture. In practice, vertical farms employ advanced techniques such as hydroponics or aeroponics , allowing plants to grow without soil by using nutrient-rich water or air instead. By utilizing vertical space, these farms achieve higher crop yields per square foot compared to conventional farming methods. The integration of artificial lighting and sophisticated climate control systems ensures optimal conditions for crop growth throughout

7182-531: The economic base of the city through production, processing, packaging, and marketing of consumable products. This results in an increase in entrepreneurial activities and the creation of jobs , as well as reducing food costs and improving quality. UPA provides employment, income, and access to food for urban populations, which helps to relieve chronic and emergency food insecurity. Chronic food insecurity refers to less affordable food and growing urban poverty , while emergency food insecurity relates to breakdowns in

7296-504: The economic security and cultural preservation of immigrants, such as the Hmong American communities in various US states. Other groups incorporate urban agriculture programs as part of wider social justice missions, such as those in the city of Wilmington, Delaware. Still others seek to use urban agriculture as a means of combating community-scale food insecurity, as part of wider goals of rewilding cities and human diets, among

7410-406: The first evidence of urban agriculture comes from early Mesopotamian cultures. Farmers would set aside small plots of land for farming within the city's walls. (3500BC) In Persia 's semi-desert towns, oases were fed through aqueducts carrying mountain water to support intensive food production, nurtured by wastes from the communities. In Machu Picchu , water was conserved and reused as part of

7524-447: The first two plates by educating and passing on skills. It strives to engage with schools, local farmers, and businesses by sharing knowledge and passion for food growing and cooking. On a local scale, Todmorden has experienced a complete transformation. In 2018, 49 new UK Incredible Edible groups took their first steps. Additionally, group members have invested the equivalent of 14.5 years total of their time to give back to communities in

7638-535: The forest floor and in the 0 cm to 15 cm mineral soil layer, and the increase was still evident, albeit somewhat diminished, 21 months after burning. However, in another study in the same Sub-boreal Spruce Zone found that although it increased immediately after the burn, phosphorus availability had dropped to below pre-burn levels within 9 months. Nitrogen will be lost from the site by burning, though concentrations in remaining forest floor were found by Macadam (1987) to have increased in two out of six plots,

7752-421: The form of private enterprises or government funding. The Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST) defines urban agriculture to include aspects of environmental health, remediation, and recreation: Urban agriculture is a complex system encompassing a spectrum of interests, from a traditional core of activities associated with the production, processing, marketing, distribution, and consumption, to

7866-416: The groups become self-sufficient in food production, hence having all food being produced locally. The Incredible Edible Todmorden community group was first established in 2007 in Todmorden, West Yorkshire, UK. Local residents, led by Pamela Warhurst and Mary Clear, came up with the idea in response to increasing global concerns over climate change, food sustainability, and community change. Two years later,

7980-577: The high Rocky Mountains is emphasized by the U.S. Forest Service. Acceptable planting spots are defined as microsites on the north and east sides of down logs, stumps, or slash, and lying in the shadow cast by such material. Where the objectives of management specify more uniform spacing, or higher densities, than obtainable from an existing distribution of shade-providing material, redistribution or importing of such material has been undertaken. Site preparation on some sites might be done simply to facilitate access by planters, or to improve access and increase

8094-408: The improvement of social networks within the communities that they are located. For many neighborhoods, gardens provide a "symbolic focus", which leads to increased neighborhood pride. Urban agriculture increases community participation through diagnostic workshops or different commissions in the area of vegetable gardens. Activities which involve hundreds of people. Cultivating Tillage that

8208-479: The increasing prominence of issues such as unemployment, poverty, access to health, educational and social resources, including a community's access to healthy food. Today, some cities have much vacant land due to urban sprawl and home foreclosures. This land could be used to address food insecurity. One study of Cleveland shows that the city could actually meet up to 100% of its fresh produce need. This would prevent up to $ 115 million in annual economic leakage. Using

8322-594: The individual, household, and community. With rising urbanization, food resources in urban areas are less accessible than in rural areas. This disproportionately affects the poorest communities, and the lack of food access and increased risk of malnutrition has been linked to socioeconomic inequities. Economic barriers to food access are linked to capitalist market structures and lead to "socioeconomic inequities in food choices", "less... healthful foods", and phenomena such as food deserts . Additionally, racialized systems of governance of urban poor communities facilitates

8436-410: The land that is tilled. The word "cultivation" has several senses that overlap substantially with those of "tillage". In a general context, both can refer to agriculture. Within agriculture, both can refer to any kind of soil agitation. Additionally, "cultivation" or "cultivating" may refer to an even narrower sense of shallow, selective secondary tillage of row crop fields that kills weeds while sparing

8550-571: The mayor - as potatoes were weather resistant and easy to grow. He intended for these gardens to produce income, food supply, and boost independence during times of hardship. The Detroit project was successful enough that other US cities adopted similar urban agriculture practices. By 1906, the United States Department of Agriculture estimated that over 75,000 schools alone managed urban agriculture programs to provide children and their families with fresh produce. However, it would not be until

8664-456: The mid 1930s Frank and Herbert Petty of Doncaster, Victoria, Australia developed the Petty Plough . This steerable plough could be pulled by either two horses or a tractor and the disc wheels could be steered in unison, or separately allowing the operator to plough the center of rows as well as between and around orchard trees. Primary tillage is usually conducted after the last harvest, when

8778-652: The mortality of white spruce. Significant difference in height was found between open and sheltered plantations for black spruce but not for white spruce, and root collar diameter in sheltered plantations was significantly larger than in open plantations for black spruce but not for white spruce. Black spruce open plantation had significantly smaller volume (97 cm ) compared with black spruce sheltered (210 cm ), as well as white spruce open (175 cm ) and sheltered (229 cm ) plantations. White spruce open plantations also had smaller volume than white spruce sheltered plantations. For transplant stock, strip plantations had

8892-487: The number of times the farmer travels over the field, significant savings in fuel and labor are made. Conservation tillage is used on over 370 million acres, mostly in South America, Oceania and North America. In most years since 1997, conservation tillage was used in US cropland more than intensive or reduced tillage. However, conservation tillage delays warming of the soil due to the reduction of dark earth exposure to

9006-447: The number or distribution of microsites suitable for planting or seeding. Wang et al. (2000) determined field performance of white and black spruces 8 and 9 years after outplanting on boreal mixedwood sites following site preparation (Donaren disc trenching versus no trenching) in 2 plantation types (open versus sheltered) in southeastern Manitoba. Donaren trenching slightly reduced the mortality of black spruce but significantly increased

9120-498: The oldest continually farmed land in Victoria , farmed since 1838. In 2010, New York City saw the building and opening of the world's largest privately owned and operated rooftop farm , followed by an even larger location in 2012. Both were a result of municipal programs such as The Green Roof Tax Abatement Program and Green Infrastructure Grant Program. The Philippines has numerous urban farms and other types of UA sites throughout

9234-469: The opportunity to learn about horticulture through trial and error and get a better understanding of the process of producing food and other plants. All while still being able to feed those people in need from the community. It holds as both a learning experience as well as a means of help for those people in need. A community gardening program that is well-established is Seattle's P-Patch . The grassroots permaculture movement has been hugely influential in

9348-586: The orientation can often be chosen. It can make a difference. A disk-trenching experiment in the Sub-boreal Spruce Zone in interior British Columbia investigated the effect on growth of young outplants ( lodgepole pine ) in 13 microsite planting positions: berm, hinge, and trench in each of north, south, east, and west aspects, as well as in untreated locations between the furrows. Tenth-year stem volumes of trees on south-, east-, and west-facing microsites were significantly greater than those of trees on north-facing and untreated microsites. However, planting spot selection

9462-491: The others showing decreases. Nutrient losses may be outweighed, at least in the short term, by improved soil microclimate through the reduced thickness of forest floor where low soil temperatures are a limiting factor. The Picea/Abies forests of the Alberta foothills are often characterized by deep accumulations of organic matter on the soil surface and cold soil temperatures, both of which make reforestation difficult and result in

9576-495: The overall trend of the 1980s was an expansion of the practice. The 1990s continued this growth of urban agriculture sites in the US, while also expanding their purposes. A result of this broadening was the division of urban agriculture practitioners based on motivations, organizational structure, and a host of other operational concerns. Throughout the 2000s, 2010s, and 2020s, urban agriculture sites and usages of these sites have continued to grow. Groups managing some sites focus on

9690-578: The plants. As the plants take up these nutrients, they cleanse the water, which is recirculated back to the fish tank, completing the sustainable loop. Vertical farming has emerged as a solution for sustainable urban agriculture, enabling crops to be cultivated in vertically stacked layers or inclined surfaces, within controlled indoor environments. This approach maximizes space utilization and facilitates year-round cultivation, making it an ideal choice for densely populated urban areas with limited land availability. The concept of vertical farming dates back to

9804-598: The policy of seeking and obtaining for field testing new equipment from Scandinavia and elsewhere that seemed to hold promise for Ontario conditions, primarily in the north. Thus, testing was begun of the Brackekultivator from Sweden and the Vako-Visko rotary furrower from Finland. Site preparation treatments that create raised planting spots have commonly improved outplant performance on sites subject to low soil temperature and excess soil moisture. Mounding can certainly have

9918-431: The potential to play a role as a "public space, as an economic development strategy, and as a community-organizing tool" while alleviating food insecurity. In general, Urban and peri urban agriculture (UPA) contributes to food availability, particularly of fresh produce, provides employment and income and can contribute to the food security and nutrition of urban dwellers. Urban and Peri-urban agriculture (UPA) expands

10032-400: The program was met with unanticipated enthusiasm, for example, 200+ schools were approved for its trial phase out of planned 22. While certain challenges exist towards implementation and management, the program covers multiple types of urban agricultural sites governed by a variety of independent actors and institutions. Like many countries experiencing rapid (urban) population growth, China

10146-459: The renaissance of urban agriculture throughout the world. During the 1960s a number of community gardens were established in the United Kingdom, influenced by the community garden movement in the United States. Bristol's Severn Project was established in 2010 for £2500 and provides 34 tons of produce per year, employing people from disadvantaged backgrounds. The first urban agriculture method of growing occurs when family farms maintain their land as

10260-424: The rooftop space of New York City would also be able to provide roughly twice the amount of space necessary to supply New York City with its green vegetable yields. Space could be even better optimized through the usage of hydroponic or indoor factory production of food. Growing gardens within cities would also cut down on the amount of food waste . In order to fund these projects, it would require financial capital in

10374-494: The seasons be temperate in moisture and dryness   ... you must labor it most exquisitely, harrow it and manure it very oft with great store of dung, so you shall make it better   ... but especially desire that they may not be watered with rain, for water is as good as poison to them. The popularity of tillage as an agricultural technique in early modern times had to do with theories about plant biology proposed by European thinkers. In 1731, English writer Jethro Tull published

10488-538: The seed bed. There are many variations. Conservation tillage leaves at least 30% of crop residue on the soil surface, or at least 1,000 lb/ac (1,100 kg/ha) of small grain residue on the surface during the critical soil erosion period. This slows water movement, which reduces the amount of soil erosion. Additionally, conservation tillage has been found to benefit predatory arthropods that can enhance pest control. Conservation tillage also benefits farmers by reducing fuel consumption and soil compaction. By reducing

10602-417: The skills necessary to participate in a democratic society. Decisions must be made on a group-level basis to run the farm. Most effective results are achieved when community residents are asked to take on more active roles in the farm. Access to nutritious food, both economically and geographically, is another perspective in the effort to locate food and livestock production in cities. The tremendous influx of

10716-473: The slash. The S.F.I. scarifier, after strengthening, had been "quite successful" for 2 years, promising trials were under way with the cone scarifier and barrel ring scarifier, and development had begun on a new flail scarifier for use on sites with shallow, rocky soils. Recognition of the need to become more effective and efficient in site preparation led the Ontario Department of Lands and Forests to adopt

10830-461: The soil is wet enough to allow plowing but also allows good traction. Some soil types can be plowed dry. The objective of primary tillage is to attain a reasonable depth of soft soil, incorporate crop residues, kill weeds, and to aerate the soil. Secondary tillage is any subsequent tillage, to incorporate fertilizers, reduce the soil to a finer tilth , level the surface, or control weeds. Reduced tillage leaves between 15 and 30% crop residue cover on

10944-445: The soil or 500 to 1000 pounds per acre (560 to 1100 kg/ha) of small grain residue during the critical erosion period. This may involve the use of a chisel plow, field cultivators, or other implements. See the general comments below to see how they can affect the amount of residue. Intensive tillage leaves less than 15% crop residue cover or less than 500 pounds per acre (560 kg/ha) of small grain residue. This type of tillage

11058-581: The soil without really digging it up. This practice, called no-till farming , reduces costs and environmental change by reducing soil erosion and diesel fuel usage. Site preparation is any of the various treatments applied to a site to ready it for seeding or planting. The purpose is to facilitate the regeneration of that site by the chosen method. Site preparation may be designed to achieve, singly or in any combination, improved access by reducing or rearranging slash and ameliorating adverse forest floor, soil, vegetation, or other biotic factors. Site preparation

11172-540: The soil would increase its fertility, and that it was impossible to till the soil too much. However, scientific observation has shown that the opposite is true; tillage causes soil to lose structural qualities that allow plant roots, water, and nutrients to penetrate it, accelerates soil loss by erosion , and results in soil compaction . The steel plow allowed farming in the American Midwest , where tough prairie grasses and rocks caused trouble. Soon after 1900,

11286-432: The state of site preparation in Ontario noted that blades and rakes were found to be well suited to post-cut scarification in tolerant hardwood stands for natural regeneration of yellow birch . Plows were most effective for treating dense brush prior to planting, often in conjunction with a planting machine. Scarifying teeth, e.g., Young's teeth, were sometimes used to prepare sites for planting, but their most effective use

11400-645: The stepped architecture of the city, and vegetable beds were designed to gather sun in order to prolong the growing season. Elsewhere in the Americas, well-documented examples of pre-Columbian Amerindian urban agriculture include the Aztecs' lake-based chinampas which were crucial to population growth in Mexico Valley's cities; Cahokia 's maize-based economy in the Mississippi River near present-day St. Louis; and

11514-518: The term "city farm" is used to include gardens and farms. Any plot with produce being grown in it can be considered an urban farm. Size does not matter, it is more about growing produce on your own in your personal plot or garden. Many communities make community gardening accessible to the public, providing space for citizens to cultivate plants for food, recreation and education. In many cities, small plots of land and also rooftops are used for community members to garden. Community gardens give citizens

11628-465: The thriving mesa agricultural plots of the cliff-based Pueblo cultures such as Mesa Verde of today's Four Corners region, among others. The idea of supplemental food production beyond rural farming operations and distant imports is not new. It was used during war and depression times when food shortage issues arose, as well as during times of relative abundance. Allotment gardens emerged in Germany in

11742-630: The urban area, it can be in the backyard of a house, or the rooftop of an apartment building. They are important sources of food security for many communities around the globe. City farms vary in size from small plots in private yards to larger farms that occupy a number of acres. In 1996, a United Nations report estimated there are over 800 million people worldwide who grow food and raise livestock in cities. Although some city farms have paid employees, most rely heavily on volunteer labour, and some are run by volunteers alone. Other city farms operate as partnerships with local authorities . An early city farm

11856-423: The war economy. With this new plan in action, as many as 5.5 million Americans took part in the victory garden movement and over nine million pounds of fruit and vegetables were grown a year, accounting for 44% of US-grown produce throughout that time. In the post-war period, the US government gradually stopped assisting urban agriculture programs, partially due to the lack of need of war supplies and partially due to

11970-426: The warmth of the spring sun, thus delaying the planting of the next year's spring crop of corn. Zone tillage is a form of modified deep tillage in which only narrow strips are tilled, leaving soil in between the rows untilled. This type of tillage agitates the soil to help reduce soil compaction problems and to improve internal soil drainage . It is designed to only disrupt the soil in a narrow strip directly below

12084-600: The world population to urban areas has increased the need for fresh and safe food. The Community Food Security Coalition (CFSC) defines food security as: All persons in a community having access to culturally acceptable, nutritionally adequate food through local, non-emergency sources at all times. Areas faced with food security issues have limited choices, often relying on highly processed fast food or convenience store foods that are high in calories and low in nutrients, which may lead to elevated rates of diet-related illnesses such as diabetes. These problems have brought about

12198-414: The world. Today, there are 120 official Incredible Edible groups in the UK and over 700 worldwide. In the UK, the success of these collective groups has directly influenced policies on both a local and national level. "At first, we had trouble getting people to help themselves, because we're from a country where people say, 'Get off my land', so we had to tell people it was OK .... nearly 50% said it had had

12312-615: The year. Singapore stands at the forefront of the vertical farming movement, embracing this technology-driven agriculture to address its limited land availability and secure food sustainability. As a densely populated city-state, Singapore's adoption of vertical farming showcases how innovative approaches to agriculture can effectively tackle the challenges of urban living while promoting sustainable food production . The obstacles that vertical farming must overcome include; training/indoor farming expertise, commercial feasibility and resistance from city people/politicians. Indoor farming

12426-587: Was first performed via human labor, sometimes involving slaves . Hoofed animals could also be used to till soil by trampling, in addition to pigs, whose natural instincts are to root the ground regularly if allowed to. The wooden plow was then invented. ( It is difficult to pinpoint the exact date of its invention . However, the earliest evidence of plow usage dates back to around 4000 BCE in Mesopotamia ( modern-day Iraq ) . It could be pulled with human labor, or by mule , ox , elephant , water buffalo , or

12540-434: Was found to be preparing sites for seeding, particularly in backlog areas carrying light brush and dense herbaceous growth. Rolling choppers found application in treating heavy brush but could be used only on stone-free soils. Finned drums were commonly used on jack pine–spruce cutovers on fresh brushy sites with a deep duff layer and heavy slash, and they needed to be teamed with a tractor pad unit to secure good distribution of

12654-621: Was increasing. According to J. Hall (1970), in Ontario at least, the most widely used site preparation technique was post-harvest mechanical scarification by equipment front-mounted on a bulldozer (blade, rake, V-plow, or teeth), or dragged behind a tractor (Imsett or S.F.I. scarifier, or rolling chopper). Drag type units designed and constructed by Ontario's Department of Lands and Forests used anchor chain or tractor pads separately or in combination, or were finned steel drums or barrels of various sizes and used in sets alone or combined with tractor pad or anchor chain units. J. Hall's (1970) report on

12768-431: Was reduced by 28% to 36%. The increases correlated well with the amounts of slash (both total and ≥7 cm diameter) consumed. The change in pH depends on the severity of the burn and the amount consumed; the increase can be as much as 2 units, a 100-fold change. Deficiencies of copper and iron in the foliage of white spruce on burned clearcuts in central British Columbia might be attributable to elevated pH levels. Even

12882-471: Was seen to be more important overall than trench orientation. In a Minnesota study, the N–S strips accumulated more snow but snow melted faster than on E–W strips in the first year after felling. Snow-melt was faster on strips near the centre of the strip-felled area than on border strips adjoining the intact stand. The strips, 50 feet (15.24 m) wide, alternating with uncut strips 16 feet (4.88 m) wide, were felled in

12996-711: Was set up in 1972 in Kentish Town , London. It combines farm animals with gardening space, an addition inspired by children's farms in the Netherlands. Other city farms followed across London and the United Kingdom. In Australia, several city farms exist in various capital cities. In Melbourne, the Collingwood Children's Farm was established in 1979 on the Abbotsford Precinct Heritage Farmlands (the APHF),

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