104-614: Imperial Constitution can refer to: Germany's Paulskirchenverfassung Japan's Meiji Constitution Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Imperial Constitution . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Imperial_Constitution&oldid=932889021 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
208-513: A Senate and Council of State which were effectively nominated by the executive. The new constitution was approved by plebiscite on 7 February 1800. The official count was over three million in favour and 1,562 against. Lucien, however, had doubled the count of the "yes" vote to give the false impression that a majority of those eligible to vote had approved the constitution. Historians have variously described Bonaparte's new regime as "dictatorship by plebiscite," "absolutist rule decked out in
312-412: A Corsican accent and his French spelling was poor. In May, he transferred to the military academy at Brienne-le-Château where he was routinely bullied by his peers for his accent, birthplace, short stature, mannerisms, and poor French. He became reserved and melancholic, applying himself to reading. An examiner observed that Napoleon "has always been distinguished for his application in mathematics. He
416-776: A French presence in the Middle East and join forces with Tipu Sultan , the Sultan of Mysore , an enemy of the British. Bonaparte assured the Directory that "as soon as he had conquered Egypt, he will establish relations with the Indian princes and, together with them, attack the English in their possessions". The Directory agreed in order to secure a trade route to the Indian subcontinent . In May 1798, Bonaparte
520-735: A brig, landed in France with a thousand men, and marched on Paris, again taking control of the country. His opponents responded by forming a Seventh Coalition , which defeated him at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815. Napoleon was exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died of stomach cancer in 1821, aged 51. Napoleon is considered one of the greatest military commanders in history and Napoleonic tactics are still studied at military schools worldwide. His legacy endures through
624-680: A civil ceremony. Bonaparte now habitually styled himself "Napoleon Bonaparte" rather than using the Italian form "Napoleone di Buonaparte." Two days after the marriage, Bonaparte left Paris to take command of the Army of Italy. He went on the offensive, hoping to defeat the Kingdom of Sardinia in Piedmont before their Austrian allies could intervene. In a series of victories during the Montenotte campaign , he knocked
728-526: A coastal battery. In July 1793, he published a pamphlet, Le souper de Beaucaire (Supper at Beaucaire ), demonstrating his support for the National Convention which was now heavily influenced by the Jacobins. In September, with the help of his fellow Corsican Antoine Christophe Saliceti , Bonaparte was appointed artillery commander of the republican forces sent to recapture the port of Toulon which
832-612: A confederation of states that would include Austria . Because of the opposition, elections to the new Reichstag never took place, and the National Assembly was unable to enforce the Constitution. With the failure of the 1848 revolution, the Frankfurt Constitution was not implemented. It was nevertheless Germany's first democratic constitution and the first to encompass the entire nation. In the years and decades that followed,
936-508: A constitution for the whole of Germany. It would then be agreed on by the individual states. The duly elected Frankfurt Parliament convened on 18 May 1848. The parliament formed a 30-member constitutional committee on 24 May to draft a constitution. The committee decided to deal first with the basic rights of the German people. It was later accused of having delayed the adoption of the full constitution by its long discussion of basic rights and that
1040-509: A difficult crossing over the Alps, the French captured Milan on 2 June. The French confronted an Austrian army under Michael von Melas at Marengo on 14 June. The Austrians fielded about 30,000 soldiers while Bonaparte commanded 24,000 troops. The Austrians' initial attack surprised the French who were gradually driven back. Late in the afternoon, however, a full division under Desaix arrived on
1144-490: A full century." Anna Caroline Limbach emphasised in particular the great consistency with which liberal goals were enshrined in criminal law. The recognition of inviolable human rights and humanist thinking in the National Assembly was evident in the abolition of the death penalty, which was only realised in the Basic Law a hundred years later. The separation of powers and independence of the administration of justice demonstrated
SECTION 10
#17328479583371248-503: A house of the Reichstag and by the government (§ 80 and 99); the government (executive) could exercise a suspensive veto over Reich laws. The head of the Empire had the title emperor ( Kaiser ) (§ 70). Once the imperial title had been transferred to a reigning prince, it was to be hereditary, falling to the first-born son (§ 69). The imperial ministers were appointed by the emperor; an act of
1352-499: A matter for the individual states, but the Empire reserved the right to extend its competences ( competence-competence ). Paragraph 66 states: "Imperial laws take precedence over the laws of the individual states, unless they are expressly attributed only a subsidiary application" and § 194 that "No provision in the constitution or laws of a single state may contradict the Imperial Constitution". Foreign and military power were
1456-520: A more conservative form in cooperation with the "central" states, which excluded Austria, Bavaria, Württemberg, Saxony, Hanover and a few smaller states. Even though the union was ultimately not realised, the draft constitution preserved much of the Frankfurt model and thus helped to moderate the reactionary period that followed the 1848 Revolution. When the North German Constitution of 1867
1560-459: A popularly elected assembly, only another German prince. As a result, the planned parliamentary elections did not take place, and the National Assembly was unable to enforce the constitution due to the military superiority of the individual states that refused to recognize it. Two months after its enactment, the Frankfurt Constitution served as a model for the draft Erfurt Union Constitution. Prussia wanted to make its own attempt at unification in
1664-557: A position with the Bureau of Topography where he worked on military planning. On 15 September, Bonaparte was removed from the list of generals in regular service for refusing to serve in the Vendée campaign. He sought a transfer to Constantinople to offer his services to Sultan Selim III . The request was eventually granted, but he never took up the post. On 3 October, royalists in Paris declared
1768-555: A promise to defend private property, raising taxes on tobacco, alcohol and salt, and extracting levies from France's satellite republics. Bonaparte believed that the best way to secure his regime was by a victorious peace. In May 1800, he led an army across the Swiss Alps into Italy, aiming to surprise the Austrian armies that had reoccupied the peninsula when Bonaparte was still in Egypt. After
1872-695: A rebellion against the National Convention. Paul Barras , a leader of the Thermidorian Reaction , knew of Bonaparte's military exploits at Toulon and made him second in command of the forces defending the convention in the Tuileries Palace . Bonaparte had seen the massacre of the King's Swiss Guard during the Insurrection of 10 August 1792 there three years earlier and realized that artillery would be
1976-536: A resolution of the Volkshaus with a two-thirds majority vote and the approval of the emperor. After eight days, the Volkshaus vote had to be repeated. Imperial interventions and executions were modelled on the corresponding measures of the German Confederation. If there was unrest in a state, it could ask the Empire to intervene. If necessary, the Empire itself could take action. An imperial execution , on
2080-765: A springboard to political power. In November 1799, Napoleon engineered the Coup of 18 Brumaire against the Directory , and became First Consul of the Republic. He won the Battle of Marengo in 1800, which secured France's victory in the War of the Second Coalition , and in 1803 sold the territory of Louisiana to the United States . In December 1804, Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French, further expanding his power. The breakdown of
2184-509: A unified German nation from the states of the German Confederation . The Frankfurt National Assembly drew up the constitution during the German revolutions of 1848–1849 for the emerging German Empire of 1848–1849 , which was committed to popular sovereignty and had already created a Provisional Central Power ( Provisorische Zentralgewalt ) for Germany. The National Assembly adopted
SECTION 20
#17328479583372288-540: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Paulskirchenverfassung The Frankfurt Constitution ( German : Frankfurter Reichsverfassung ) or Constitution of St. Paul's Church ( Paulskirchenverfassung ), officially named the Constitution of the German Empire ( Verfassung des Deutschen Reiches ) of 28 March 1849, was an unsuccessful attempt to create
2392-477: Is fairly well acquainted with history and geography ... This boy would make an excellent sailor". One story of Napoleon at the school is that he led junior students to victory against senior students in a snowball fight, which allegedly showed his leadership abilities. But the story was only told after Napoleon had become famous. In his later years at Brienne, Napoleon became an outspoken Corsican nationalist and admirer of Paoli. In September 1784, Napoleon
2496-567: The Staatenhaus were elected for six years, with half of the seats being renewed every three years (§ 92). A member of the Staatenhaus was not allowed to be an imperial minister (§ 123). An imperial court exercised jurisdiction at the federal level and was therefore not a general supreme court above the state courts. It served as the first and only authority for constitutional and political issues. It ruled on disputes between states or states and
2600-434: The Volkshaus , unlike under the constitutions in force from 1867 to 1918. The political development in 1848/49 went in the direction of parliamentarization, since a number of deputies proved to be suitable ministers and state undersecretaries. According to legal historian Ernst Rudolf Huber , there is much to suggest that the government would have been de facto parliamentarized after 1849. The constitutional monarchies of
2704-682: The Battle of Friedland . Seeking to extend his trade embargo against Britain , Napoleon invaded the Iberian Peninsula and installed his brother Joseph as King of Spain in 1808, provoking the Peninsular War . In 1809, the Austrians again challenged France in the War of the Fifth Coalition , in which Napoleon solidified his grip over Europe after winning the Battle of Wagram . In summer 1812, he launched an invasion of Russia , which ended in
2808-614: The Battle of Tarvis in March 1797. Alarmed by the French thrust that reached Leoben , about 100 km from Vienna, the Austrians sued for peace. The preliminary peace of Leoben , signed on 18 April, gave France control of most of northern Italy and the Low Countries , and promised to partition the Republic of Venice with Austria. Bonaparte marched on Venice and forced its surrender , ending 1,100 years of Venetian independence. He authorized
2912-467: The Constitution of the Year VIII , under which three consuls were appointed for 10 years. Real power lay with Bonaparte as First Consul, and his preferred candidates Cambacérès and Charles-François Lebrun were appointed as second and third consuls who only had an advisory role. The constitution also established a Legislative Body and Tribunate which were selected from indirectly elected candidates, and
3016-588: The Council of Five Hundred and Directory: Lucien Bonaparte, Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès , Roger Ducos and Joseph Fouché to overthrow the government. On 9 November 1799 ( 18 Brumaire according to the revolutionary calendar), the conspirators launched a coup, and the following day, backed by grenadiers with fixed bayonets, forced the Council of Five Hundred to dissolve the Directory and appoint Bonaparte, Sieyès and Ducos provisional consuls. On 15 December, Bonaparte introduced
3120-670: The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars from 1796 to 1815. He was the leader of the French Republic as First Consul from 1799 to 1804, then of the French Empire as Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1814, and briefly again in 1815. Born on the island of Corsica to a family of Italian origin, Napoleon moved to mainland France in 1779 and was commissioned as an officer in the French Royal Army in 1785. He supported
3224-562: The Knights Hospitaller . Grand Master Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim surrendered after token resistance, and Bonaparte captured an important naval base with the loss of only three men. Bonaparte and his expedition eluded pursuit by the Royal Navy and landed at Alexandria on 1 July. He fought the Battle of Shubra Khit against the Mamluks , Egypt's ruling military caste. This helped
Imperial Constitution - Misplaced Pages Continue
3328-744: The Plot of the Rue Saint-Nicaise two months later, gave him a pretext to arrest about 100 suspected Jacobins and royalists, some of whom were shot and many others deported to penal colonies. After a decade of war, France and Britain signed the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802, bringing the Revolutionary Wars to an end. Under the treaty, Britain agreed to withdraw from most of the colonies it had recently captured from France and her allies, and France agreed to evacuate Naples. In April, Bonaparte publicly celebrated
3432-644: The Treaty of Amiens led to the War of the Third Coalition by 1805. Napoleon shattered the coalition with a decisive victory at the Battle of Austerlitz , which led to the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire . In the War of the Fourth Coalition , Napoleon defeated Prussia at the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt in 1806, marched his Grande Armée into Eastern Europe, and defeated the Russians in 1807 at
3536-640: The Treaty of Campo Formio . Bonaparte returned to Paris on 5 December 1797 as a hero. He met Charles Maurice de Talleyrand , France's Foreign Minister, and took command of the Army of England for the planned invasion of Britain. After two months of planning, Bonaparte decided that France's naval strength was not yet sufficient to confront the British Royal Navy. He decided on a military expedition to seize Egypt and thereby undermine Britain's access to its trade interests in India . Bonaparte wished to establish
3640-555: The Treaty of Lunéville in February 1801. The treaty reaffirmed and expanded earlier French gains at Campo Formio. Bonaparte's triumph at Marengo increased his popularity and political authority. However, he still faced royalist plots and feared Jacobin influence, especially in the army. Several assassination plots, including the Conspiration des poignards (Dagger plot) in October 1800 and
3744-431: The "people's representatives have a decisive vote" on taxation and the state budget. The Frankfurt Constitution had a comprehensive catalogue of fundamental rights which extended for sixty paragraphs (§ 130 – § 189). Freedom of the press, the abolition of censorship, freedom of movement, freedom of association and assembly, freedom of religion and equal rights for all denominations were classic civil liberties. A citizen of
3848-567: The 19th century were characterised by a bicameral parliament. Only the Left Party had called for a unicameral parliament in the National Assembly. The Frankfurt Constitution stated (§ 96) that all members of the Reichstag should have a free mandate – that is, not be bound by orders or instructions from their constituency – enjoy immunity (§ 117) and receive allowances (§ 95) so that they would not be dependent on their own assets in order to be able to devote time to parliamentary activities. The Reichstag
3952-634: The Austrian position in Italy. At Rivoli, Austria lost 43% of its soldiers dead, wounded or taken prisoner. The French then invaded the heartlands of the House of Habsburg . French forces in Southern Germany had been defeated by Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen in 1796, but Charles withdrew his forces to protect Vienna after learning of Bonaparte's assault. In their first encounter, Bonaparte pushed Charles back and advanced deep into Austrian territory after winning
4056-556: The Bundestag until the elections. The committees and assemblies were private initiatives but were nevertheless of considerable public importance. Between 31 March and 3 April, the pre-parliament met four times in plenary session in Frankfurt's St. Paul's Church . It made sure that the Bundestag incorporated Prussia's eastern provinces (the Province of Prussia and parts of Posen ) into the German Confederation, and its calls for freedom helped
4160-480: The Confederation served primarily to suppress national, liberal and democratic endeavours. The anti-democratic political status quo, combined with a sharp economic downturn in the mid-1840s, a series of failed harvests and the overthrow of King Louis-Philippe of France in February 1848, sparked the German revolutions of 1848–1849 , out of which came the Frankfurt Constitution. At the end of 1847, opponents of
4264-656: The Council of State recommended a new plebiscite asking the French people to make "Napoleon Bonaparte" Consul for life. (It was the first time his first name was officially used by the regime.) About 3.6 million voted "yes" and 8,374 "no." 40%-60% of eligible Frenchmen voted, the highest turnout for a plebiscite since the Revolution. France had regained her overseas colonies under Amiens but did not control them all. The French National Convention had voted to abolish slavery in February 1794, but, in May 1802, Bonaparte reintroduced it in all
Imperial Constitution - Misplaced Pages Continue
4368-592: The Empire as a "federal state" ( Bundesstaat ), as the Central Power Act had already done in § 2a. The door is left open for the German-Austrian states to join the Empire in § 87 of the constitution ("As long as the German-Austrian lands do not participate in the federal state.."). Section II, "The Imperial Authority", defines the basic competences of the Reich. As a rule, administration and justice were to remain
4472-467: The Empire was allowed to emigrate and enjoyed the consular protection of the German state abroad. In addition, the constitution intended to abolish the prerogatives of the nobility (§ 137), which would have had a significant impact on the social structure of Germany. The Frankfurt Constitution was proclaimed on 28 March 1849. There was broad popular support and many calls in favour of recognising it. Twenty-eight mostly smaller states collectively recognized
4576-509: The Empire, between the imperial government, the Staatenhaus and the Volkshaus as well as between state bodies. The court was also open to constitutional complaints; a German could sue for his fundamental rights and other rights before the court on the basis of the constitution. Paragraphs 178 and 179 called for public trials, oral criminal proceedings and jury trials for the "more serious crimes and all political offenses". The introduction of
4680-598: The Federal Act. Together they formed the federal constitution. The most important federal body, the Federal Convention , was a congress of delegates from the individual states under Austrian leadership. There were no courts, no executive government, no parliament and therefore no separation of powers. The Confederation did not over time develop such functions since the largest members (above all Austria, Prussia and Bavaria ) had no interest in federal reform. For them
4784-409: The Frankfurt Constitution inspired politicians and had an influence on both state and later national constitutions such as the Constitution of the German Empire . The constitution's extensive catalogue of fundamental rights was especially important. After Napoleon 's defeat by the Sixth Coalition in May 1814, the Congress of Vienna reorganized Germany as the German Confederation in June 1815. It
4888-411: The French National Convention outlawed him. In early June, Bonaparte and 400 French troops failed to capture Ajaccio from Corsican volunteers and the island was now controlled by Paoli's supporters. When Bonaparte learned that the Corsican assembly had condemned him and his family, the Buonapartes fled to Toulon on the French mainland. Bonaparte returned to his regiment in Nice and was made captain of
4992-472: The French Revolution in 1789, and promoted its cause in Corsica. He rose rapidly through the ranks after winning the siege of Toulon in 1793 and defeating royalist insurgents in Paris on 13 Vendémiaire in 1795. In 1796, Napoleon commanded a military campaign against the Austrians and their Italian allies in the War of the First Coalition , scoring decisive victories and becoming a national hero. He led an invasion of Egypt and Syria in 1798 which served as
5096-477: The French fleet in the Battle of the Nile , preventing Bonaparte from strengthening the French position in the Mediterranean. His army had succeeded in a temporary increase of French power in Egypt, though it faced repeated uprisings. In early 1799, he moved an army into the Ottoman province of Damascus (Syria and Galilee ). Bonaparte led these 13,000 French soldiers in the conquest of the coastal towns of Arish , Gaza , Jaffa , and Haifa . The attack on Jaffa
5200-436: The French governor Charles Louis de Marbeuf , who became his patron and godfather to Napoleon. With Mabeuf's support, Carlo was named Corsican representative to the court of Louis XVI and Napoleon obtained a royal bursary to a military academy in France. The dominant influence of Napoleon's childhood was his mother, whose firm discipline restrained a rambunctious child. Later in life, Napoleon said, "The future destiny of
5304-448: The French practise their defensive tactic for the Battle of the Pyramids on 21 July, about 24 km (15 mi) from the pyramids . Bonaparte's forces of 25,000 roughly equalled those of the Mamluks' Egyptian cavalry. Twenty-nine French and approximately 2,000 Egyptians were killed. The victory boosted the French army's morale. On 1 August 1798, the British fleet under Sir Horatio Nelson captured or destroyed all but two vessels of
SECTION 50
#17328479583375408-468: The French revolutionary cause. Paoli returned to the island in July 1790, but he had no sympathy for Bonaparte, as he deemed his father a traitor for having deserted the cause of Corsican independence. Bonaparte plunged into a complex three-way struggle among royalists, revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists. He became a supporter of the Jacobins and joined the pro-French Corsican Republicans who opposed Paoli's policy and his aspirations to secede. He
5512-511: The French to loot treasures such as the Horses of Saint Mark . In this Italian campaign, Bonaparte's army captured 150,000 prisoners, 540 cannons, and 170 standards . The French army fought 67 actions and won 18 pitched battles through superior artillery technology and Bonaparte's tactics. Bonaparte extracted an estimated 45 million French pounds from Italy during the campaign, another 12 million pounds in precious metals and jewels, and more than 300 paintings and sculptures. During
5616-425: The German Confederation held a meeting in Offenburg on 12 September and a conference at Heppenheim on 10 October. Their core demands were presented in a motion by Friedrich Daniel Bassermann in the second chamber of the Baden Parliament on 12 February 1848. His call for a national representation of the German estates , which would sit as a second chamber alongside the Federal Convention (Bundestag), helped trigger
5720-459: The National Assembly began discussions on the draft constitution. The question of whether a united Germany was to include any part of Austria, notably its German-speaking regions, proved to be a considerable obstacle. It was not until March 1849, after Austria had reaffirmed its independence and unity in its new March Constitution (1. § 2), that the Frankfurt Parliament agreed on the lesser German solution and excluded Austria. The Volkshaus of
5824-412: The Piedmontese out of the war in two weeks. The French then focused on the Austrians, laying siege to Mantua . The Austrians launched offensives against the French to break the siege, but Bonaparte defeated every relief effort, winning the Battle of Castiglione , the Battle of Bassano , the Battle of Arcole , and the Battle of Rivoli . The French triumph at Rivoli in January 1797 led to the collapse of
5928-440: The Ramolinos, descended from a noble family from Lombardy . Napoleon's parents, Carlo Maria Buonaparte and Maria Letizia Ramolino , lived in the Maison Bonaparte home in Ajaccio , where Napoleon was born on 15 August 1769. He had an elder brother, Joseph , and, later, six younger siblings: Lucien , Elisa , Louis , Pauline , Caroline , and Jérôme . Five more siblings were stillborn or did not survive infancy. Napoleon
6032-402: The Reichstag was to be elected by equal manhood suffrage of "any person who is entitled to vote in the municipal elections of his place of residence and who pays any direct state tax". Germany was to have a hereditary emperor who could only postpone laws passed by the Reichstag (suspensive veto), not completely prevent them (absolute veto). In the opinion of the National Assembly, it alone had
6136-452: The Republic's future was in doubt, he took advantage of the temporary departure of British ships from French coastal ports and set sail for France, despite the fact that he had received no explicit orders from Paris. The army was left in the charge of Jean-Baptiste Kléber . Unknown to Bonaparte, the Directory had sent him orders to return from Egypt with his army to ward off a possible invasion of France, but these messages never arrived. By
6240-569: The campaign, Bonaparte became increasingly influential in French politics. He founded two newspapers: one for the troops in his army and one for circulation in France. The royalists attacked him for looting Italy and warned that he might become a dictator. Bonaparte sent General Pierre Augereau to Paris to support a coup d'état that purged royalists from the legislative councils on 4 September—the Coup of 18 Fructidor . This left Barras and his republican allies in control again but more dependent upon Bonaparte who finalized peace terms with Austria by
6344-436: The catastrophic retreat of his army that winter. In 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russia in the War of the Sixth Coalition , in which Napoleon was decisively defeated at the Battle of Leipzig . The coalition invaded France and captured Paris, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April 1814. They exiled him to the Mediterranean island of Elba and restored the Bourbons to power . Ten months later, Napoleon escaped from Elba on
SECTION 60
#17328479583376448-451: The child is always the work of the mother." Napoleon's noble, moderately affluent background afforded him greater opportunities to study than were available to a typical Corsican of the time. In January 1779, at age 9, Napoleon moved to the French mainland and enrolled at a religious school in Autun to improve his French (his mother tongue was the Corsican dialect of Italian). Although he eventually became fluent in French, he spoke with
6552-415: The constitution on 14 April and accepted the choice of the Prussian king, Frederick William IV , as emperor, but the larger states in particular refused to accept it. Frederick William also rejected it, although his cabinet (conditionally) and the Prussian National Assembly spoke out in favour of its adoption. Frederick William also refused the offer of the imperial crown because he would not accept it from
6656-478: The constitution on 28 March 1849, and twenty-eight German states collectively recognized it on 14 April. The constitution created a constitutional monarchy with a hereditary emperor who appointed ministers responsible to himself. The main legislative body, the Reichstag, had two chambers, the Volkshaus (House of the People), which was to be elected by universal male suffrage, and the Staatenhaus (House of States), half of whose members were to be appointed by
6760-415: The delay was one of the main reasons for the failure of the 1848 revolution. The representatives, however, considered fundamental rights to be crucially important in order to give Germany a standardised legal basis and to bind the individual states to it. The forward-looking catalogue of fundamental rights was passed as a federal law on 27 December 1848 and then incorporated into the constitution. In October
6864-422: The election of a pan-German parliament that would address political reform. On 5 March, liberals and democrats met as the Heidelberg Assembly of 51 and elected a Committee of Seven who were to prepare for a preliminary parliament to meet in Frankfurt . They selected 573 men (the pre-parliament) to prepare for elections to a national assembly. It in turn set up a Committee of Fifty, which was to critically monitor
6968-426: The emperor became valid only when a minister of the Empire countersigned and thus assumed responsibility (§ 73, § 74). The constitution says little more about the composition of the government or its exact responsibilities; in any case, a parliamentary form of government is not explicitly stipulated. The executive government did open up the possibility for it, however, for example by allowing ministers to be members of
7072-418: The entry of blacks and mulattos into France, reduced the civil rights of women and children in France, reintroduced a hereditary monarchy and nobility, and violently repressed popular uprisings against his rule. Napoleon's family was of Italian origin. His paternal ancestors, the Buonapartes, descended from a minor Tuscan noble family who emigrated to Corsica in the 16th century and his maternal ancestors,
7176-517: The exclusive competence of the Empire (§ 11–19). An individual state was therefore no longer allowed to have its own ambassadors abroad and had to accept guidelines for its military, although the individual states were still responsible for the deployment, training and provisioning of troops. Only the Empire had the right to wage war. The imperial constitution provided for a large number of fields of activity for its legislation (§ 20–67). They can be summarised as legal, social, and economic infrastructure:
7280-476: The expense of religious authorities. His conquests acted as a catalyst for political change and the development of nation states . However, he is controversial due to his role in wars which devastated Europe, his looting of conquered territories, and his mixed record on civil rights. He abolished the free press, ended directly elected representative government, exiled and jailed critics of his regime, reinstated slavery in France's colonies except for Haiti , banned
7384-468: The field and reversed the tide of the battle. The Austrian army fled leaving behind 14,000 casualties. The following day, the Austrians signed an armistice and agreed to abandon Northern Italy. When peace negotiations with Austria stalled, Bonaparte reopened hostilities in November. A French army under General Moreau swept through Bavaria and scored an overwhelming victory over the Austrians at Hohenlinden in December. The Austrians capitulated and signed
7488-673: The first Corsican to graduate from the École militaire . Upon graduating in September 1785, Bonaparte was commissioned a second lieutenant in La Fère artillery regiment . He served in Valence and Auxonne until after the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, but spent long periods of leave in Corsica which fed his Corsican nationalism. In September 1789, he returned to Corsica and promoted
7592-435: The first Reichstag election and three years thereafter (§ 94). The Staatenhaus (House of States) represented the individual states. The constitution allocated to each individual state a certain number of members according to a list (§ 87) which was based primarily on the number of inhabitants. Half of the members were appointed by the state government (executive) and the other half by the state parliament (§ 88). Members of
7696-444: The fortress of Acre , so he marched his army back to Egypt in May. Bonaparte was alleged to have ordered plague-stricken men to be poisoned with opium to speed the retreat. Back in Egypt on 25 July, Bonaparte defeated an Ottoman amphibious invasion at Abukir . Bonaparte stayed informed of European affairs. He learned that France had suffered a series of defeats in the War of the Second Coalition . On 24 August 1799, fearing that
7800-504: The framers of the Basic Law for West Germany and today's Federal Republic of Germany quoted from the Frankfurt Constitution. Historians and scholars of constitutional law largely agree that the Frankfurt Constitution was a great achievement and would have made Germany one of the most progressive constitutional states of its time. According to Jörg-Detlef Kühne, it was the only German constitution "for whose implementation broad sections of
7904-603: The jury trial was followed by its adoption by the overwhelming majority of German states, continued in the German Empire and lasted until the Emminger Reform of 4 January 1924 during the Weimar Republic . The Empire was responsible for internal security if a state was unable or unwilling to provide it within its own territory. The aim was to prevent the constitution from being broken or circumvented by subversion from above or below. The constitution could be amended only by
8008-484: The key to its defence. He ordered a young cavalry officer, Joachim Murat , to seize cannons and Bonaparte deployed them in key positions. On 5 October 1795— 13 Vendémiaire An IV in the French Republican calendar —he fired on the rebels with canister rounds (later called: "a whiff of grapeshot "). About 300 to 1,400 rebels died in the uprising. Bonaparte's role in defeating the rebellion earned him and his family
8112-604: The legal status of waterways and railways, customs, common taxes on production and consumption, trade, post and telegraphy, coinage, weights and measures, imperial and state citizenship laws and general measures for health care. The Empire was authorised to introduce imperial taxes "in extraordinary cases" (§ 51). The constitution provided for a head of the Empire with an executive branch, a Reichstag (legislature) and an imperial court (judiciary). The powers were not simply to be separated from each other but were also to be able to control each other. Imperial laws could be proposed both by
8216-531: The modernizing legal and administrative reforms he enacted in France and Western Europe, embodied in the Napoleonic Code . He established a system of public education, abolished the vestiges of feudalism , emancipated Jews and other religious minorities, abolished the Spanish Inquisition , enacted the principle of equality before the law for an emerging middle class, and centralized state power at
8320-614: The mountains. From Ormea, it headed west to outflank the Austro-Sardinian positions around Saorge . After this campaign, Augustin Robespierre sent Bonaparte on a mission to the Republic of Genoa to determine the country's intentions towards France. After the Fall of Maximilien Robespierre in July 1794, Bonaparte's association with leading Jacobins made him politically suspect to the new regime. He
8424-406: The other hand, was directed against a state government which violated the constitution or breached the peace of the Empire (§ 54 and § 55). The German Empire of 1871 to 1918 drew its revenue almost exclusively from state payments to it. The Frankfurt Constitution envisioned a more mixed system. The federal government was allowed various sources of income in addition to financial contributions from
8528-779: The patronage of the new government, the French Directory . On 26 October, he was promoted to commander of the Army of the Interior, and in January 1796 he was appointed head of the Army of Italy. Within weeks of the Vendémiaire uprising , Bonaparte was romantically involved with Joséphine de Beauharnais , the former mistress of Barras. Josephine had been born in the French colonies in the Lesser Antilles , and her family owned slaves on sugar plantations The couple married on 9 March 1796 in
8632-528: The peace and his controversial Concordat of 1801 with Pope Pius VII under which the Pope recognized Bonaparte's regime and the regime recognized Catholicism as the majority religion of France. In a further step towards national reconciliation (known as "fusion"), Bonaparte offered an amnesty to most émigrés who wished to return to France. With Europe at peace and the economy recovering, Bonaparte became increasingly popular, both domestically and abroad. In May 1802,
8736-511: The population actively fought." According to Günter Wollstein, the theoretical structure of the Frankfurt Constitution was a coherent and practicable draft, as well as being balanced and progressive. It retained its appeal even during the modernisation efforts of Imperial Germany. Ernst Rudolf Huber wrote: "The Frankfurt attempt to combine the great principles of freedom, equality, unity and central leadership in constitutional law retained its defining power in German political thought and action for
8840-469: The right to bring the constitution into force. The governments of the individual states were asked for their opinions in the final phase but not for a formal constitutional agreement. According to the Central Power Act, the Central Power was not to be involved either (§ 3). In a close vote (267 to 263), the National Assembly on 27 March 1849 approved the constitution. It was not Archduke John of Austria ,
8944-476: The same consistency. Liberal criminal law was not to be restricted even in times of emergency. Napoleon Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte ; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I , was a French military officer and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led a series of successful campaigns across Europe during
9048-470: The spirit of the age," and "soft despotism." Local and regional administration was reformed to concentrate power in the central government, censorship was introduced, and most opposition newspapers were closed down to stifle dissent. Royalist and regional revolts were dealt with by a combination of amnesties for those who lay down their arms and brutal repression of those who continued to resist. Bonaparte also improved state finances by securing loans under
9152-488: The state governments and half by the state parliaments. The fundamental rights of the German people were enforceable before an imperial court. The largest German states, notably Prussia , actively opposed both the constitution and the National Assembly, and many conservative governments found the Frankfurt Constitution too liberal. The power struggle between Prussia and Austria also played a role. The southern German kingdoms, in particular Bavaria and Württemberg , favoured
9256-418: The states: customs and shipping duties, production and consumption taxes and numerous other sources (§ 34 to § 36). The federal government was allowed to distribute the revenue from customs duties, common indirect taxes and financial monopolies to the individual states at its own discretion; there was no provision for the other levies. Per paragraph 187, part of the constitution's section on fundamental rights,
9360-511: The temporary head of state ( Reichsverweser ), but the president of the National Assembly and the deputies who signed the constitution. The existing German Confederation was renamed the German Empire . Article I of the Constitution explicitly refers to the Confederation: "The German Empire consists of the territory of the former German Confederation." In § 87, the constitution refers to
9464-411: The term "fundamental rights" achieve a certain universality. The pre-parliament was also important because politicians began to group themselves according to their political leanings. The pre-parliament initiated two Bundestag resolutions on the election of a national assembly by the German people. The individual states were to elect representatives to a constituent national assembly which was to draft
9568-407: The time that he reached Paris in October, France's situation had been improved by a series of victories. The Republic, however, was bankrupt and the ineffective Directory was unpopular. Despite the failures in Egypt, Bonaparte returned to a hero's welcome. The Directory discussed Bonaparte's desertion but was too weak to punish him. Bonaparte formed an alliance with Talleyrand and leading members of
9672-581: The younger brother of Maximilien Robespierre , a leading Jacobin. He was promoted to brigadier general and put in charge of defences on the Mediterranean coast. In February 1794, he was made artillery commander of the Army of Italy and devised plans to attack the Kingdom of Sardinia. The French army carried out Bonaparte's plan in the Second Battle of Saorgio in April 1794, and then advanced to seize Ormea in
9776-584: Was a confederation of states that was to provide security both internally and externally. The purpose of the Confederation was thus quite limited: it was not intended, for example, to standardise legal relationships or create a common economic area. Federal law was based primarily on the Federal Act of 1815 and the Final Act of the Vienna Ministerial Conferences of 1820, which drew up a supplement to
9880-427: Was admitted to the École militaire in Paris where he trained to become an artillery officer. He excelled at mathematics, and read widely in geography, history and literature. However, he was poor at French and German. His father's death in February 1785 cut the family income and forced him to complete the two-year course in one year. In September he was examined by the famed scientist Pierre-Simon Laplace and became
9984-465: Was arrested on 9 August but released two weeks later. He was asked to draw up plans to attack Italian positions as part of France's war with Austria and, in March 1795, he took part in an expedition to take back Corsica from the British, but the French were repulsed by the Royal Navy. From 1794, Bonaparte was in a romantic relationship with Désirée Clary whose sister Julie Clary had married Bonaparte's elder brother Joseph. In April 1795, Bonaparte
10088-603: Was assigned to the Army of the West , which was engaged in the War in the Vendée —a civil war and royalist counter-revolution in the Vendée region. As an infantry command, it was a demotion from artillery general and he pleaded poor health to avoid the posting. During this period, he wrote the romantic novella Clisson et Eugénie , about a soldier and his lover, in a clear parallel to Bonaparte's own relationship with Clary. In August, he obtained
10192-578: Was baptized as a Catholic , under the name Napoleone di Buonaparte . In his youth, his name was also spelled as Nabulione , Nabulio , Napolionne , and Napulione . Napoleon was born one year after the Republic of Genoa ceded Corsica to France. His father fought alongside Pasquale Paoli during the Corsican war of independence against France. After the Corsican defeat at the Battle of Ponte Novu in 1769 and Paoli's exile in Britain, Carlo became friends with
10296-561: Was drafted, the Frankfurt Constitution was heavily referenced. The constituent Reichstag amended Bismarck 's draft constitution in its direction. Later during the German Empire, it was a basis for discussion in the development of the new imperial constitution . When the Weimar Constitution was drafted in 1919, the Frankfurt catalogue of fundamental rights was an important model. Even in the Parliamentary Council (1948–1949),
10400-567: Was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences . His Egyptian expedition included a group of 167 scientists, with mathematicians, naturalists, chemists, and geodesists among them. Their discoveries included the Rosetta Stone , and their work was published in the Description de l'Égypte in 1809. En route to Egypt, Bonaparte reached Hospitaller Malta on 9 June 1798, then controlled by
10504-472: Was given command over a battalion of Corsican volunteers and promoted to captain in the regular army in 1792, despite exceeding his leave of absence and a dispute between his volunteers and the French garrison in Ajaccio. In February 1793, Bonaparte took part in the failed French expedition to Sardinia . Following allegations that Paoli had sabotaged the expedition and that his regime was corrupt and incompetent,
10608-406: Was occupied by British and allied forces. He quickly increased the available artillery and proposed a plan to capture a hill fort where republican guns could dominate the city's harbour and force the British to evacuate. The successful assault on the position on 16–17 December led to the capture of the city. Toulon brought Bonaparte to the attention of powerful men including Augustin Robespierre ,
10712-470: Was particularly brutal. Bonaparte discovered that many of the defenders were former prisoners of war, ostensibly on parole, so he ordered the garrison and some 1,500–5,000 prisoners to be executed by bayonet or drowning. Men, women, and children were robbed and murdered for three days. Bonaparte began with an army of 13,000 men. 1,500 were reported missing, 1,200 died in combat, and thousands perished from disease—mostly bubonic plague . He failed to reduce
10816-470: Was to consist of two chambers (§ 85), and a member could belong to only one at a time.( § 97) A resolution of the Reichstag required the consent of both houses ( § 100). The Volkshaus represented the German people as a whole and was elected according to equal manhood suffrage. The basis for the election was the Imperial Election Act of 12 April 1849. The legislative period was four years after
#336663