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65-567: The tablets are the longest document of any of the Osco-Umbrian group of languages, which are closely related to Latin. The tablets shed light on the grammar of the language, and also on the religious practices of the ancient peoples of Italy , including the archaic religion of the Romans . Parts of tablets VI and VII appear to be written in an accentual metre , similar to the Saturnian metre that

130-455: A "page". Much of the first three columns is missing, and it is not known where the book begins. Closer to the end of the book the text is almost complete (there is a strip missing that runs the entire length of the book). By the end of the last page the cloth is blank and the selvage is intact, showing the definite end of the book. There are 230 lines of text, with 1330 legible words, but only about 500 distinct words or roots. Only about 60% of

195-458: A (b of Lepsius) (Lacuna at the beginning of the text). Sacrifice of an ox to Iove Patre , of a ram to Iovio ? ( Iuno according to Newman), of a lamb to Iovio ( Iuno ) and of a boar to Marte . The Hondia (elements that pertain to ritual sacrifice to Hondus, an earth deity) Preparations made by the arfertur : readying of the victim(s), grains, strues , fertum ; incense or meal, wine; salt, mola ; mandraculum (white linen used to wrap

260-556: A calf to Iove Patre for the Vocian (Lucian?) gens of the Attidians. The sacrifice is conducted with the urfeta in one hand at the offering and the crencatro (augural implement comparable to the lituum but crossed (Newman), or toga wore slanted across the right shoulder (Buck)) in the right hand at the time of the slaughtering. Side a Six triplet sacrifices to the Grabovian triad and

325-625: A chance conversation with Richard Burton about runes made him realise that the writing was not Egyptian. They realised the text was potentially important, but wrongly concluded that it was a transliteration of the Egyptian Book of the Dead in the Arabic script . In 1891, the wrappings were transported to Vienna, where they were thoroughly examined by Jakob Krall , an expert on the Coptic language , who expected

390-462: A division is not supported by evidence. It appears that they may have formed part of a dialect continuum , with Umbrian in the north, Oscan in the south and the 'Sabellic' languages in between (see next section) having features of both. However, there were also colonies that spoke Oscan, scattered throughout Southern Italy and Sicily . Oscan was the language of the Samnite tribes, powerful enemies of

455-446: A glossary, etc. Although the general meaning of the tablets is clear, there are still some debated points and issues. The main difficulty in understanding the text is insufficient knowledge of Umbrian vocabulary. These are the only documents with details of sacred rituals from the ancient religions of Europe which have survived in an almost complete state. Moreover, their content deals with the rituals (sacrifices and prayers) addressed to

520-657: A key component in making progress in the decipherment of another ritual text, the Etruscan Liber Linteus . The tablets are engraved on bronze. Analysis of the external appearance of the supporting material has led scholars to conclude that only tablets V, VI and VII were meant to be exposed in public. The other ones were cast as an archive document. They are inscribed in Italic alphabet derived from Etruscan (T. I to Vb 8) and in Latin alphabet (T. Vb 9 onwards, VI, VII). The study of

585-479: A new (partial or complete) date). Column 7 (July and/or August?) may be devoted to describing a series of funereal rites connected to the Adonia festival ritually mourning the death of Aphrodite 's lover Adonis . A variety of types of priest, cepen , (but notably not civil authorities) are mentioned, but the exact distinctions between them are not completely clear: tutin "of the village"(?); ceren , θaurχ both "of

650-431: A part of each text that probably corresponds to March (though that month is not directly named in any obvious way in either text). Column 3, strip C (There are no punctuation marks in the original beyond interpuncts between most words. Those provided here are to make it easier to match the original with the translation.) A tentative partial translation: "The sacrifice, be it funerary, [or] be it chthonic [is to be put] on

715-666: A refrigerated room at the Archaeological Museum . In 1848, Mihajlo Barić (1791–1859), a low ranking Croatian official in the Hungarian Royal Chancellery, resigned his post and embarked upon a tour of several countries, including Egypt . While in Alexandria , he purchased a sarcophagus containing a female mummy, as a souvenir of his travels. Barić displayed the mummy at his home in Vienna , standing it upright in

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780-605: A third branch of Sabellic. The whole linguistic Sabellic area, however, might be considered a dialect continuum . Paucity of evidence from most of the "minor dialects" contributes to the difficulty of making these determinations. Following an original theory by Antoine Meillet , the Osco-Umbrian languages were traditionally considered a branch of the Italic languages , a language family that grouped Latin and Faliscan together with several other related languages. This unitary scheme

845-466: A town with a large number of immigrants from the Gubbio area, as Saint Ubaldo Day . There are two versions of the discovery of the tablets. The first one says that a farmer found them in a field near Scheggia in 1444. After his death, his son-in-law with his wife and his sister-in-law sold them to the city of Gubbio with a notarial deed on 25 August 1456 for two years' worth of farming rights. Since Scheggia

910-457: Is a religious text is strengthened by recurring words and phrases that are surmised to have liturgical or dedicatory meanings. Some notable formulae on the Liber Linteus include a hymn-like repetition of ceia hia in column 7, and variations on the phrase śacnicstreś cilθś śpureśtreśc enaś , which is translated by van der Meer as "by the sacred fraternity/priesthood of cilθ , and by

975-540: Is encountered in the earliest Latin poetry. The complete text, together with a translation into Latin, was published in 1849 by Aufrecht and Kirkhoff, in London in 1863 by Francis Newman , and in 1931 by Albrecht von Blumenthal . G. Devoto's edition dates from 1948. James W. Poultney published The Bronze Tables of Iguvium in 1959 (which received the Goodwin Award in 1961), which included English translations along with notes,

1040-485: Is related. The Osco-Umbrian languages or dialects of which testimony is preserved are: Little-documented variants collectively known as "Sabellic dialects" are ascribed without much evidence to the two main groups. Some authors doubt such traditional classification, placing, for example, Aequian and Vestinian in opposite branches, instead of grouping them together. The Osco-Umbrian languages were fusional inflected languages with about 5 different morphological cases in

1105-431: The civitas of enaś ". Though many of the specific details of the rituals are unclear, they seem to have been performed outside cities, sometimes near specific rivers, sometimes on (or at least for) hilltops/citadels, sometimes apparently in cemeteries. Based on the two unambiguous dates that survive — June 18 in 6.14 and September 24 in 8.2 — it is supposed that roughly columns 1-5 deal with rituals occurring in

1170-511: The Sahata ( Sahata is probably the area considered within the pomerium, possibly marked by a stream) three she calves shall be sacrificed to Tursa Çerfia of Çerfios Martios. The assignation of the place where to carry out the slaughter of the boars shall be decided according to the site upon which the officiant is watching, whether either behind on the Rubina or beyond on the Sahata . Three days later

1235-537: The autumnal equinox on September 21 (specifically just after September 24, mentioned in 8.3, then also 8.11, 9.18 and 9.22). Similarly, on the one hand, other deities of light, such as θesan "Dawn" and Lusa are only mentioned in the earlier part of the calendar: θesan at 5.19-20 θesan tini θesan eiseraś śeuś probably "Dawn of (bright) Jupiter (and) Dawn of the Dark Deities," (probably referring to Venus as morning and evening star) and Lusa at 6.9; while, on

1300-399: The ductus (writing style), conducted by comparing the tablets with other inscriptions from the area of Central Italy, has allowed scholars to conclude that they date from no later than the end of the 3rd century for T. III and IV to the first half of the 1st century for the latest T. VI and VII. Tablets I to V present their topic in a concise, matter of fact manner. Tablets VI and VII repeat

1365-469: The 3rd century BC, making it arguably the oldest extant European book. (The second longest Etruscan text, Tabula Capuana , also seems to be a ritual calendar.) Much of it is untranslated because of the lack of knowledge about the Etruscan language, though the words and phrases which can be understood indicate that the text is most likely a ritual calendar . Miles Beckwith states with regard to this text that "in

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1430-455: The Gate three ewe lambs are sacrificed to Tefre Iovie . After the profanation of the lambs, the rump is offered in expiation and a libation for the tota , local community, ensues, on the two sides separately starting with the right side. After the profanation of the rumps is over the backs shall be profanated. Side b Two more triplet sacrifices to Marte Hodie and Hondos Çerfios in atonement for

1495-720: The Osco-Umbrian languages, it is the one that is the best known, mainly because of the Iguvine Tablets . These languages were spoken in Samnium and in Campania , partly in Apulia , Lucania and Bruttium , as well as by the Mamertines in the Sicilian colony of Messana ( Messina ). Sabellic was originally the collective ethnonym of the Italic people who inhabited central and southern Italy at

1560-481: The Proto-Indo-European labiovelar series ("Q-Italic"), the Osco-Umbrian languages merged them with the labials ("P-Italic"): Latin quattuor , Oscan petora . Liber Linteus The Liber Linteus Zagrabiensis ( Latin for "Linen Book of Zagreb", also known rarely as Liber Agramensis , "Book of Agram ") is the longest Etruscan text and the only extant linen book ( libri lintei ), dated to

1625-503: The Romans, who took years to subdue them (the Samnite wars took place from 370 BC to 290 BC). These languages are known from a few hundred inscriptions dating from between 400 BC and the 1st century AD. In Pompeii there are numerous Oscan inscriptions, such as dedications in public buildings and signs. Umbrian began a process of decline when the Umbrians were subdued by the Romans and the process of Romanisation led to its demise. Of all

1690-635: The Sabellic languages, spoken in the heart of the Italian peninsula, are Oscan in the south and Umbrian to the north of Oscan. Included among the Sabellic languages are: Volscian , Sabine , South Picene , Marsian , Paeligni , Hernican , Marrucinian and Pre-Samnite . Aequian and Vestinian have traditionally been ascribed to either the Oscan group or the Umbrian group. However, they are all poorly attested, and such

1755-643: The State Institute of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia in Zagreb (the present-day Archaeological Museum in Zagreb ). Their catalogue described it as follows: The mummy and its wrappings were examined the same year by the German Egyptologist Heinrich Brugsch , who noticed the text, but believed them to be Egyptian hieroglyphs . He did not undertake any further research on the text, until 1877, when

1820-635: The Trebulana Gate. Review of the city militia and expulsion ( extermination ) of the traditional enemies of Iguvium (Tadinates, Etruscans, Nahartes, Iapuzcoi) by the arfertur and the two prinovatus ( augures or their attendants): Four more triplet sacrifices: Near the small fontains three red boars shall be sacrificed to Çerfos Martios. On the Rubinian ager three she boars shall be sacrificed to Prestata Çerfia of Çerfos Martios. The sacred jugs, black and white, shall there be ordered and turned. Beyond

1885-435: The banquet of the brotherhood takes place, the fratreks or the cvestor must put to votes whether the banquet was properly arranged. If the majority of those present think it was not, a further vote must be taken to fix the penalty for the arsfertur . Side b Contributions to be made by two gentes to the brethren, and portions of flesh to be awarded them by the brethren on the decurial festival. These two tablets repeat

1950-603: The citadel: At the Jovian grove after the shearing of sheep three male calves shall be sacrificed to Marte Hodie for the Iguvine people and tota . At the Coreties (Quiritius or Curiatius) grove three male calves shall be sacrificed to Hontos Çerfios . Henceforth the citadel will be expiated. If any anything vicious happened in the discharge of the rite the birds shall be observed, the rite shall be reinstated once again after returning to

2015-604: The content of tablet I while expanding it to include and expound the minutest details of the rituals. See below for a sample text and translation of part of tablet six. VI Side a Osco-Umbrian The Osco-Umbrian , Sabellic or Sabellian languages are an extinct group of Italic languages , the Indo-European languages that were spoken in Central and Southern Italy by the Osco-Umbrians before being replaced by Latin , as

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2080-459: The corner of his sitting room. At some point he removed the linen wrappings and put them on display in a separate glass case, though it seems he had never noticed the inscriptions or their importance. The mummy remained on display at his home until his death in 1859, when it passed into possession of his brother Ilija, a priest in Slavonia . As he took no interest in the mummy, he donated it in 1867 to

2145-519: The decorated litter. [Then] say: 'The sacrifice and the dog(?) are presented as the offering.' And collect the goblets; and then present the puppy(?) and the dog(?). The libation that was poured in the [sacred area] of Saucne Persi [should be poured] just as it was poured on the decorated litter. Make the libation three times. Make the offering [as it has been] established, carry [it] out as is appropriate, [and] observe [the appropriate rituals](?)." Notes: Persi may refer to Perugia whose ancient name

2210-495: The early 1600s, and that the sources of the Gubbio find at the same time attested that the tablets were originally nine and that two of them, loaned to Venice , were never returned (which is patently false), it is likely that the latter version of the Gubbio find has a chauvinistic origin. The content of the tablets concerns the religions and ceremonies that were celebrated at Iguvium, the town's religious organization and its boundaries. The first attempt at deciphering their meaning

2275-508: The gods, divine (act)") described in the text. The most frequently mentioned include vacl , probably "libation", usually of vinum "wine" (sometimes specifically "new wine") but also of oil faś and other liquids whose identities are unclear; nunθen "invoke" or possibly "offer (with an invokation)"; θez- probably "sacrifice" but possibly "to present" sacrifice(s) or offering(s) ( fler(χva) ) often of zusle(va) "piglet(s)" (or perhaps some other animal). Offerings and sacrifices were placed: on

2340-492: The highest gods of the local community and to some extent may reflect the common religious beliefs and practices of the Italic peoples. The modern Festival of Ceri , celebrated every year in Gubbio on May 15 in honor of Bishop Ubald or Ubaldo of Gubbio (1084–1160), shares certain features with the rites described in the text and so may be a survival of that ancient pre-Christian custom. It is also celebrated in Jessup, Pennsylvania ,

2405-402: The holding of the sacrifice, sacrifice of the ovis (lamb) to Puemonos and Vesuna near a sacred grove . Containing details on the choice of the ohtur ( auctor , head, perhaps augur ) of the ceremony, the dispositions of the ritual instruments, the ritual invocations for the safety of the city to Iove Patre and Puemonos , the distribution of the sacrificial meat and the libations. Side

2470-525: The last thirty or forty years, our understanding of Etruscan has increased substantially," and L. B. van der Meer has published a word-by-word analysis of the entire text. The fabric of the book was preserved when it was used for mummy wrappings in Ptolemaic Egypt . The mummy was bought in Alexandria in 1848 and since 1867 both the mummy and the manuscript have been kept in Zagreb , Croatia , now in

2535-470: The linen textile itself at 390 BC +/- 45 years). Certain local gods mentioned within the text allow the Liber Linteus 's place of production to be narrowed to a small area in the southeast of Tuscany near Lake Trasimeno , where four major Etruscan cities were located: modern day Arezzo , Perugia , Chiusi and Cortona . The book is laid out in twelve columns from right to left, each one representing

2600-448: The locations in the year of these deities' rituals correspond to the same deities' locations on the Liver of Piacenza and in other Etruscan sources that hint at how they divided the heavens or the divine realm. On the other hand, Belfiore considers Crap to be an underworld deity. There are a variety of types of ritual (the general term for which seems to be eis-na/ ais-na literally "for

2665-629: The minor triad : After observing the birds before and the behind, three oxen are sacrificed to Iove Grabovius before (without) the Trebulana Gate . Behind (within) it three sows are sacrificed to Trebus Iovio . Before the Tesenaca Gate three oxen are sacrificed to Marte Grabovie . Behind it three pigs are sacrificed to Fisus Sancius . A libation ensues. Before the Vehiia Gate three white fronted oxen are sacrificed to Vofione Grabovie . Behind

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2730-542: The months before June (probably starting in March, and perhaps there was introductory or other material here as well), column 6 with June rituals, column 7 may refer to rituals in July and possibly August, column 8 September rituals, and 9-12 concerning rites to be performed from October through February. Other numbers are mentioned which are probably also dates, but as the months aren't indicated, we cannot be sure where exactly they fall in

2795-541: The mummy may have had some association with either the Liber Linteus or the Etruscans . A papyrus found within her sarcophagus was identified as an Egyptian Book of the Dead , which included the details of an Egyptian woman named Nesi-hensu, the wife of Paher-hensu, a tailor from Thebes . This discovery has been used as evidence to suggest that the mummy is the Nesi-hensu mentioned on the papyrus. However, later analysis of

2860-409: The officiant's hand), vases; pure water; ignition of the fire at the ara . Petronian Feast to Hontos Iovios : sacrifice to Hontos Iovios of puppies, offers of wine, libation, partition of the meats and their exposition on a board. Holding and turning of the ara with the hands and offer of wine. Division of the wine, the strues and ferctum, the meats among the participants. Burning (or inhumation) of

2925-622: The other hand, various terms thought or known to refer to specifically underworld deities exclusively appear later in the calendar: Satrs "Saturn/Cronos" (11.f4), Caθ- (in columns 10 and 12), Ceu- (at 7.8), Velθa (7, 10, and 11), and Veive-/Vetis = Latin Veiovis/Vedius , (described by van der Meer as an "underworld Jupiter") in 10 and 11. But some of the apparent underworld deities, such as Zer , show up in both halves (4, 5, 9), while Lur , also thought to be chthonic , only appears in columns 5 and 6. van der Meer claims that many of

2990-435: The papyrus has suggested that it postdates the mummy by nearly a century, which could suggest that the mummy is not Nesi-hensu. She was 30–40 years old at the time of her death, and wore a necklace, with traces of flowers and gold in her hair. Among the fragments of the accompanying wreath, there was a cat skull. On paleographic grounds, the manuscript is dated to approximately 250 BC (though carbon dating put manufacture of

3055-467: The people shall be assembled and three heifers sacrificed below the Forum of Sehemania ( Semonia ) to Tursa Iovia at Acedonia . One of the heifers shall be consecrated by the arfertur and two by the prinovatus . Side a Duties of the arsfertur : The arsfertur must provide whatever is essential for the ceremony and select the victims. Fees to be levied for the performance of the rites. Whenever

3120-422: The power of Ancient Rome expanded. Their written attestations developed from the middle of the 1st millennium BC to the early centuries of the 1st millennium AD. The languages are known almost exclusively from inscriptions, principally of Oscan and Umbrian , but there are also some Osco-Umbrian loanwords in Latin. Besides the two major branches of Oscan and Umbrian (and their dialects), South Picene may represent

3185-517: The puppies at the ara . Side b (a of Lepsius) Sacrifice and feast of the Attidian Brotherhood : Sacrifice of a pig and a ram to Iove at the time of the decuriae of month Semonius by the ten sets of families of each of the 12 regions. Sacred Epulum (feast) in honour of Iove Patre , started in town and profanated at the various fana with libations using the mandraculum . Vocian (Buck: Lucian) Feast to Iupater : Sacrifice of

3250-421: The right and/or left hamΦeś leiveś (and variations thereof); on fire raχθ ; on a stone (altar?) luθt(i) ; on the ground cel-i ; or with/on a decorated (?) litter cletram śrenχve among others. They were often performed three times ci-s-um/ci-z and often happened or were concluded during the morning cla θesan (a term that seems to mark the end of rituals in this text, since blank lines follow it, followed by

3315-429: The same subject as Tablet I in a much more detailed and diluted way, with apparent literary and encomiastic intentions and overtones. The content of the tablets is given below, in their relative order of antiquity as established by Newman on the authority of Aufrecht and Kirchhoff, which is identical to that recently indicated by A. Maggiani. Sacrifice to Puemonos Popricos and Vesuna . General prescriptions concerning

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3380-519: The second roughly equivalent to Latin Neptune . It is notable that Crap- /Jupiter is mentioned in the first half of the text (in columns 3, 4, and 6), that is, up to June (specifically before the summer solstice on June 21), but he is not ever mentioned later in the calendar (as far as we can see in the text that is legible). On the other hand, Neθuns /Neptune does not occur (again, as far as we can see) in these earlier passages/months/seasons, but only after

3445-496: The singular, similar to those of Latin . Although the Osco-Umbrian languages are far more poorly attested than Latin, a corpus of a few thousand words' worth of inscriptions has allowed linguists to deduce some cladistic innovations and retentions. For example, while Proto-Indo-European aspirates appear as b , d and h/g between vowels in Latin ( medius < *medʰyos ), the aspirates all appear in Sabellic as f (Oscan mefiai < *medʰyos ). In addition, while Latin retained

3510-447: The subject matter. Both dates and the names of gods are found throughout the text, giving the impression that the book is a religious calendar. Such calendars are known from the Roman world, giving not only the dates of ceremonies and processions, but also the rituals and liturgies involved. The lost Etrusca disciplina are referred to by several Roman antiquarians. The theory that this

3575-494: The text is thought to have been preserved. Black ink has been used for the main text, and red ink for lines and diacritics . In use, it would have been folded so that one page lay on top of another like a codex , rather than being wound along like a scroll . Julius Caesar is said to have folded scrolls in similar accordion fashion while on campaigns. Though the Etruscan language is not fully understood, many words and phrases can be deciphered, enough to give us an indication of

3640-428: The time of Roman expansion . The name was later used by Theodor Mommsen in his Unteritalische Dialekte to describe the pre-Roman dialects of Central Italy that were neither Oscan nor Umbrian. The term is currently used for the Osco-Umbrian languages as a whole. The word "Sabellic" was once applied to all such minor languages, Osco-Umbrian or not. North Picene was included, even though it remains unclear whether it

3705-538: The tomb"; cilθ-l/cva "of the citadel(s)/hiltop(s)". Less clear are the kinds of priest indicated by the following (if they refer to priests at all): zec, zac, sve, θe, cluctra, flanaχ, χuru ("arch-"?), snuiuΦ ("permanent"?), cnticn- ('"ad hoc"?), truθur ("omen interpreter from lightening"?), peθereni ("of the god Peθan"?), saucsaθ ([priest] or [holy area]"of the god Saucne") at 3.15 (3.15-3.17): vacl . an . ścanince . saucsaθ . persin / cletram . śrenχve . iχ . ścanince . ciz . vacl / ara roughly "The libation which

3770-424: The unitary theory (proposing the descent of all Italic languages from a unique common ancestor) remains dominant. In any case, it is plausible that the spread of all those languages took place through progressive inflows of Indo-European populations of eastern origin, with Osci and Umbri reaching the Italian peninsula after Latins and Falisci , but before Iapygians and Messapians . The two main branches of

3835-417: The use of Etruscan letters, the language of the inscriptions was different from the Etruscan language. Lepsius added to the epigraphical criticism of the tablets, and Lassen and Grotefend made several successful attempts at interpretation. Aufrecht and Kirchhoff , working off of their predecessors and under the scientific method, created a refined interpretation. The understanding of this text has been

3900-409: The writing to be either Coptic, Libyan or Carian . In 1892, Krall was the first to identify the language as Etruscan and reassemble the strips. It was his work that established that the linen wrappings constituted a manuscript written in Etruscan. At first, the provenance and identity of the mummy were unknown, due to the irregular nature of its excavation and sale. This resulted in speculation that

3965-509: The year. Throughout this calendar there is also a fairly clear progression of which kinds of deities are to be propitiated in which months and seasons. Only two individual gods are set off by being preceded by the term farθan fleres , probably "the Genius (or Father?) of the spirit of/in..." These are Crap- and Neθuns , the first probably equivalent to Tin , the Etruscan Jupiter , and

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4030-408: Was criticized by, among others, Alois Walde , Vittore Pisani and Giacomo Devoto , who proposed a classification of the Italic languages into two distinct Indo-European branches. This view gained some acceptance in the second half of the 20th century, although the exact processes of formation and penetration into Italy remains the object of research. Proponents such as Rix later rejected the idea, and

4095-588: Was made by Bernardino Baldi in the beginning of the 17th century, and he was followed by Adriaan van Schrieck , who believed the tablets were in the Low German language , and interpreted them accordingly. Olivieri recognized the name of Eugubium in one frequently recurring word. Louis Bourget pointed out that one of the tablets written in the Etruscan letters corresponded with two written in Roman letters. Karl Otfried Müller , in Die Etrusker , showed that in spite of

4160-478: Was poured to Sauc- Pers- (should be performed) with the decorated litter just as it had been poured (before); perform the libation three times." This seems to present a notable connection between the Liber Linteus and the second longest Etruscan text which happens to also be a ritual calendar, the Tabula Capuana (line 2), since the root sauc- seems to occur in both with the root vacl "libation" and also in

4225-534: Was the site of the temple of Jupiter Apenninus , an important Umbrian sanctuary, it is conceivable that the plates were kept in the temple itself. The second version, first attested in the 17th century, states that the tablets were found in a basement of the Roman theater in Gubbio. However, given that all the actors involved in the sale of the tablets were natives of Scheggia, that the tradition of finding them in Scheggia has been attested in Scheggia itself since at least

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