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61-465: Ignacio Manuel Altamirano Basilio ( Spanish pronunciation: [iɣˈnasjo maˈnwel altamiˈɾano βaˈsiljo] ; 13 November 1834 – 13 February 1893) was a Mexican radical liberal writer, journalist, teacher and politician. He wrote Clemencia (1869), which is often considered to be the first modern Mexican novel. Altamirano was born in Tixtla , Guerrero , of indigenous Chontal Maya heritage. His father

122-603: A book called Journey to the United States of North America , a travel narrative similar to Alexis de Tocqueville 's Democracy in America , although Zavala's book preceded de Tocqueville's work by a year. Zavala traveled in the northeast U.S. and wrote about U.S. political system and culture from a Mexican point of view. The book was mainly a panegyric, but did point out the hypocrisy of the U.S. for allowing slavery despite professing lofty ideals of freedom. His other notable writing

183-480: A debate about whether those ideas were merely "Mexicanized" versions. In practice in Mexico, liberals viewed the U.S. political and economic system as a model for Mexico, and actively sought U.S. aid when they came to power in 1855, when the liberal Revolution of Ayutla forced conservative strongman Antonio López de Santa Anna into exile. In Mexico, the most salient aspects of nineteenth-century liberalism were to create

244-589: A home on 177 acres (equal to one labor , a Spanish term of land measurement) north of Buffalo Bayou in Harris County , called Zavala Point. This border area contained many immigrants from the United States who were accustomed to a democratic government and individual rights. Animosity against López de Santa Anna's rule was common and rebellion was brewing. López de Santa Anna was angered by what he perceived to be U.S. interference in Mexican affairs, and set about to stop

305-564: A secular state separated from the Roman Catholic Church, establish equality before the law by abolishing corporate privileges ( fueros ) of the Catholic church, the military, both of which had their own courts, and indigenous communities, which held land in common. Liberals' aim was to transform Mexico into a modern secular state with a dynamic economy. Corporate privilege and the conservative elite defenders were considered stumbling blocks to

366-526: A small cemetery plot at his home. The grave was later moved to the San Jacinto Battleground Park. In 1807 Zavala married Teresa Correa y Corres. They had three children: a son named Lorenzo Jr., a daughter named Manuela, and a daughter who died at age one. Zavala's wife, Teresa, died in the spring of 1831. Zavala remarried while in exile. He married Emily West in New York on November 12, 1831, at

427-535: A strong executive, traditionally associated with conservative ideology, as a pragmatic means to achieve stability and ensure economic growth. Under Díaz, a modus vivendi with the Roman Catholic Church emerged whereby it regained a portion of its power and influence, but the anticlerical articles of the Constitution of 1857 remained theoretically enforced. As the Díaz regime became increasingly dictatorial and trampled on

488-403: A traitor to Mexico. The early post-independence era was dominated by General Antonio López de Santa Anna and Mexican conservatives, who were more effective in forming an ideologically unified political force, so that Mexican liberals were rarely able to exercise political power nationally. Most Mexican liberals looked to European thinkers in their formulation of their ideology, which has led to

549-421: A traitor, while defending Zavala against the charge that he supported Texan independence for political or financial advantages, arguing that it was his opposition to centralism and especially to Santa Anna that proved the decisive factor. Biographer Francisco Sosa wrote that Zavala ceased to be Mexican when he became a representative for Harrisburg , and that "what he did after [voting for Texan independence]

610-521: Is a village about 20 miles away in Angelina County named Zavalla (spelled differently) which is also named for Lorenzo de Zavala. In 1858, 22 years after Zavala's death, the Texas Legislature named Zavala County in his honor. Zavala County is in southern Texas, and sits roughly in a triangle formed by Del Rio , Laredo , and San Antonio . The county seat is Crystal City . Unfortunately, when

671-505: The Battle of San Jacinto . López de Santa Anna was defeated and captured. A few months after this, Zavala's health began to fail. He resigned his office of vice president and returned home. Less than a month after his resignation, he was boating in Buffalo Bayou when his rowboat overturned and he was chilled. Zavala developed pneumonia and died at his home on November 15, 1836. He was buried in

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732-642: The Brazos River and briefly shared a house with his good friend Stephen F. Austin who would later be called "the Father of Texas". Other than Austin, the only other Texan he knew before arriving was David G. Burnet who later became Interim President of Texas. Zavala had known Burnet in New York. Both men had been given Empresario Grants in prior years. These grants were designed by the Mexican Government to encourage new settlers to come to Texas from around

793-551: The Catholic hierarchy in November 1857 forbade Catholics from taking the oath or face ex-communication. Moderate liberal politician, Ignacio Comonfort sought to forge a middle ground when General Félix Zuloaga promulgated the Plan of Tacubaya , which declared the liberal constitution nullified, but allowed President Comonfort to retain his office and with enhanced powers. Comonfort signed onto

854-599: The Constituent Congress and was the first to sign the Mexican Federal Constitution of 1824 . He served in the Mexican Senate from 1824 to 1826. He was appointed Minister of Finance in 1829, but served only 6 months before the government was overthrown and Zavala was placed under house arrest. He fled to the United States entering a self-imposed exile. During his exile Zavala, ever the scholar, wrote

915-557: The Positivism of French philosopher Auguste Comte , and Saint-Simon , scientist Charles Darwin , and Herbert Spencer , known for social Darwinism . Historian and educator Justo Sierra was the most prolific and influential of this group surrounding Díaz. A group of Mexican politicians supporting the increasingly dictatorial Díaz regime characterized themselves as the Cientificos , "scientists". Díaz's supporters became comfortable with

976-465: The colonial era . Following Mexican independence from Spain in 1821, the first Mexican liberals became important on the national scene. The most prominent was secular priest and intellectual, José María Luis Mora (1794–1850), who was influenced by Montesquieu , Benjamin Constant , and Jeremy Bentham . Mora attacked corporate privilege, especially the fueros of the Roman Catholic Church; considered

1037-726: The Alamo fell, López de Santa Anna's forces were soon advancing on the delegation, forcing them to flee. When López de Santa Anna's troops approached Zavala's Point, Zavala and his family fled down the San Jacinto River to the home of William Scott, one of the Empressario Grant colonists. A number of families awaited there for a steamer to take them to safety on Galveston Island. Nearby, in Harris County, López de Santa Anna's army faced Texas General Sam Houston's forces on April 21, 1836 at

1098-555: The Anti-Reelectionist Party and ran against Díaz in the 1910 presidential elections . He garnered support from PLM members in the campaign. The fraudulent 1910 elections sparked revolts throughout many parts of the country, considered the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution , and Díaz was forced to resign. At the outbreak of the uprising against Díaz, the opposition pointed to his continued re-election and abrogation of

1159-620: The Church of the Transfiguration. To this union was born a son and two daughters. The son Augustine, the eldest, was the father of Adina Emilia de Zavala , who played a role in the fight to preserve the Alamo as a historic structure for future generations. Zavala and his friends secretly organized the first Masonic Lodge in Yucatán, the Reunión a la Virtud lodge No. 9. The lodge received its charter from

1220-645: The Church-State separation and the expropriation of ecclesiastical properties, i.e. the Mexican Reform ). Therefore, he was simultaneously catholic and liberal, a strong believer of the Christian faith and a believer of the Human capacity of always (morally) progress. He was an enthusiast of Reason and civilizational Progress and believed in the superior capability of science to free Humanity of its atavisms. He also believed in

1281-561: The Cortes (legislature) in Madrid representing Yucatán as its governor. After México won independence from Spain in 1821, Zavala resigned his position in Madrid and returned to Mexico, where he was elected to the newly formed national congress, again representing Yucatán. Zavala became part of a group to draft the constitution of the Federal Republic of Mexico. In 1824, he was elected as President of

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1342-727: The Louisiana Grand Lodge in 1817. It was Zavala's relationship with his fellow masonic brothers and to other lodges that allowed him to gather many political connections prior to Mexico's Independence. Zavala was one of the key people that helped establish the York Rite Masonry in Mexico in 1826 as an alternative to the older, well established Scottish rite (Escocés). That same year the Grand Lodge of New York issued charters to five Masonic Lodges in Mexico City. These five lodges became

1403-421: The Roman Catholic Church and indigenous communities, was a crucial policy element in diminishing the power of the church and integrating Mexico's Indians into the republic as citizens and transforming them into yeoman farmers. Unlike many liberals elsewhere, Mexican liberals did not call for limitations on executive power, but early Mexican liberals were largely federalists who wanted considerable power reserved for

1464-667: The Spanish Cortes (legislature) in Madrid representing Yucatán, and in Mexico's Senate. He became Mexico's Minister of Finance and served as Ambassador to France and Governor of the State of Mexico . In 1829, a conservative coup brought Anastasio Bustamante to power, and Zavala was forced into exile, moving to the United States for two years. He wrote a book about U.S. political culture during this time and also traveled extensively in Europe. With his diplomatic experience and linguistic skills, Zavala

1525-561: The Spanish Crown (1814–1817). While incarcerated, Zavala learned the English language and studied medical textbooks to an extent that qualified him to practice medicine upon his release. He practiced medicine for two years, then political events compelled him to return to politics. Zavala began his political career becoming secretary of the local government of his home state of Yucatán, which created opportunities leading to his later election to

1586-760: The U.S. and one in Panama) for him. In 1936, the Texas Historical Commission acknowledged the 1835 Harrisburg settlement of Lorenzo de Zavalla with a Texas Centennial Marker made of gray granite with a bronze inscription. In 1968, the Texas Historical Commission established a historical marker at the De Zavala Elementary School in Southeast Houston . The supplemental commemorative plaque preserves an inscription regarding

1647-645: The advancement possibility of all human disciplines, including the art. He died in San Remo , Italy, in 1893. Liberalism in Mexico The term "liberal" became the name of a political faction, which previously had called itself "the Party of Progress" in contrast to the Conservative Party , which they called "the Party of Regression." Conservatives characterized themselves as those that defended Mexican tradition of

1708-559: The clergy, was assuming dictatorial powers and was not observing the Mexican Constitution of 1824 that Zavala had helped create. In protest, Zavala resigned his post in France and renounced López de Santa Anna, who then ordered Zavala to return to Mexico City. Zavala, for his own safety, moved his family to Texas where he owned land. He arrived in Texas in 1835 by steamboat near the mouth of

1769-500: The cold-blooded bandit, "Zarco Blue Eyes." He founded several newspapers and magazines including El Correo de México ("The Mexico Post"), El Renacimiento ("The Renaissance") (1869), El Federalista ("The Federalist"), La Tribuna ("The Tribune") and La República ("The Republic"). Altamirano was president of the Sociedad Mexicana de Geografía y Estadística (Mexican Society for Geography and Statistics) from 1881 to 1889. He

1830-508: The defeated factions of the revolution. What Carranza envisioned to be a tune-up of the 1857 charter instead was a new constitution, the Constitution of 1917 , which remains in force. Lorenzo de Zavala Manuel Lorenzo Justiniano de Zavala y Sánchez (October 3, 1788 – November 15, 1836), known simply as Lorenzo de Zavala , was a Mexican and later Tejano physician, politician, diplomat and author. Born in Yucatán under Spanish rule , he

1891-567: The early history of the nation, while still branding him a traitor for helping the Texans secede from Mexico. Conversely, Texans consider him a founding father and state hero. In modern-day Texas, both a county and a city are named in his honor, as well as many schools and public buildings including the Texas State Archives and Library Building in Austin. Zavala was born on October 3, 1788, in

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1952-478: The liberal Constitution of 1857. Francisco Madero was brought to power by revolutionary forces, but he had hoped to proceed via the constitutional path with election. With the ouster of Díaz, his resignation and exile, Madero agreed to an interim government until new elections could be held in fall 1911. He won the presidency overwhelmingly. He lifted censorship of the press, suppression of strikes, and other measures that Díaz had employed to keep dissent in check. Madero

2013-638: The middle of night from a large hacienda with servants to Texas, which like many Mexican provinces at the time, was rebelling against Santa Anna and the centralist constitution which intended to strip Mexican provinces of their autonomy. Zavala eventually became an advocate of Texas independence to the point of helping in the drafting of the Constitution of the Republic of Texas , personally designing its flag, and serving as vice president. Zavala's legacy in Mexico remains controversial with historians recognizing his political and intellectual work, his important role in

2074-490: The name was given, it was misspelled as "Zavalla" and the error was not officially corrected until 71 years later (1929). Currently, his name appears on many public buildings and schools, including the Texas State Library and Archives Commission in Austin. The National Hispanic Institute named its Lorenzo de Zavala Youth Legislative Session program (colloquially known as the "LDZ," now hosted at five universities across

2135-430: The nation's political, social, and economic progress. Secular, public education was a key element in opening paths to achievement for all Mexican citizens. Schooling historically had been the domain of the Roman Catholic Church and limited to elite men, so that broadening educational access and having a secular curriculum was seen as a way to transform Mexican society. The breakup of land owned by corporations, specifically

2196-614: The nucleus of the movement that favored decentralization of leadership. Zavala became the Charter Master of Independencia Lodge No. 454. He kept his position until his exile in 1830. He is listed as a "Masonic Hero" by the Grand Lodge of Texas. Some sources state that Zavala was disgraced for revealing ritual secrets. Zavala remains a controversial figure in Mexico, with historians generally commending Zavala's liberalism, while denouncing his support of Texan independence as treason. Mexican historian Francisco Bulnes characterized Zavala as

2257-595: The other was anarcho-communist and advocated revolution. As the opposition to Díaz grew, Liberal clubs met secretly in Mexican cities to discuss politics, which led to the First Liberal Congress that met in San Luis Potosí in 1901. Radicals, such as Flores Magón, were exiled to the United States and drafted the Liberal Party program in 1905. A reformist liberal, rich hacienda owner Francisco I. Madero founded

2318-524: The ouster of the French in 1867 and the discrediting of Mexican conservatives who had supported the regime of foreign monarch Maximilian I of Mexico , Juárez, and his successor following his death of natural causes in 1872, Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada could implement the Reform laws passed in the 1850s. With religious toleration mandated, the Roman Catholic Church was no longer the sole spiritual institution in Mexico; it

2379-464: The plan and many liberals were jailed, including Juárez. When it quickly became clear that Comonfort's hope to chart a middle course between conservatives and liberals had failed, he resigned from the presidency after freeing the jailed liberals. Benito Juárez had been head of the Supreme Court and with Comonfort's resignation, he succeeded to the presidency as Mexico was plunged into civil war . With

2440-527: The power of the Church and the army in the Juárez Law (1856) and undermined the Church's economic power with the 1856 Lerdo Law , which prohibited corporations—the Roman Catholic Church, as well as indigenous communities—for holding title to land. In 1857, liberals drafted and promulgated a new constitution and required Mexicans to take an oath of fealty to it. Many in the army opposed the Liberal Reform and

2501-471: The rebellion by dispatching troops. At this point, Zavala's hope was to overthrow the existing Mexican government and restore Mexico to a democracy and to have Texas be one of the Mexican states. Before long, he realized that this was not going to happen. A pragmatic realist, he gradually changed his viewpoint and began advocating for Texas independence from Mexico. Despite orders from López de Santa Anna for Zavala to be captured and deported from Texas, Zavala

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2562-490: The rights and liberties of Mexicans, a group of Mexican oppositionists led by Camilo Arriaga and Ricardo Flores Magón formed the Mexican Liberal Party (PLM). It called for the overthrow of Díaz and agitated for the rights of workers and peasants and for economic nationalism favoring Mexicans rather than foreigners. The PLM had two basic factions, one was reformist and was supported by elite, urban intellectuals and

2623-481: The role of utilitarianism (the greatest good for the greatest number) in Mexico; examined the so-called "Indian Question," of how to modernize Mexico when the majority of the population was indigenous living in rural communities; and considered the role of liberalism in economic development. Lorenzo de Zavala was another prominent liberal of that generation, but he sided with Anglo-Texan rebels in their successful war for independence, with Zavala subsequently considered

2684-525: The situation was for Mexico, since unlike the U.S. invasion (1846–48), which united Mexicans against the invader, the French were supported by Mexican conservatives. His best-known novel is El Zarco , which is set in Yautepec, Morelos during the Reform War of 1857–1860. It tells the story of an honorable and courageous Indian blacksmith who falls in love with a haughty village girl, only to have her elope with

2745-474: The standard curriculum of Latin, morals, scholastic theology, and classical philosophy. After graduation, he founded a newspaper called The Universal Critic ( El Aristarco Universal ) and wrote for several newspapers in which he espoused democratic ideas that would remain the pillars of his later political career. His writings were critical of the Spanish officials, and he was imprisoned at age 26 for three years by

2806-563: The states and not the central government. With Mexico's defeat in the Mexican–American War (1846–48), a new generation of what historian Enrique Krauze calls "romantic liberals" emerged. They were rooted in literature, and read and translated European writers such as Lamartine , Michelet, Byron , Victor Hugo and Alexandre Dumas . Outstanding among these Mexican liberals were Ignacio Ramírez (1818–1879); Guillermo Prieto (1818–1897); and Ignacio Manuel Altamirano (1834–1893), who

2867-600: The town of Tecoh , Yucatán , Zavala's parents were criollos , Spanish Basques born in Mexico. Zavala was a third-generation Yucatecan. His grandfather moved to the Yucatán peninsula from Peru. Zavala's father, born in 1725, was a notary— a legal representative in Spanish-speaking countries. Zavala was educated in Mérida , Yucatán's provincial capital, in the Tridentine Seminary of San Ildefonso. There he studied

2928-485: The world, the hope being to create a buffer zone between Mexico and the U.S. and also to help deal with the hostile Indians in the region. The owner of a grant was given immense tracts of Texas land in exchange for recruiting and being responsible for a certain quota of new settlers—in Zavala's case, 500 families. Zavala and Burnet had sold their grants to groups of investors in New York. The previous summer, Zavala had bought

2989-652: Was a received by the Court of St. James's in England. His exile ended in 1832 when he returned to Mexico to serve as governor of the State of México , located just west of Mexico City. (It is one of 32 individual states in Mexico and does not refer to the entire country). He was appointed as Minister to France by then President Antonio López de Santa Anna . While serving in this capacity in Paris, Zavala became increasingly aware that President López de Santa Anna, backed by military force and

3050-531: Was a two-volume history of Mexico, entitled Historical essay of the Revolutions of Mexico from 1808 to 1830 ("Ensayo Histórico de las Revoluciones de México de 1808 hasta 1830"). He lived in New York, but spent several months in England and France. Zavala's keen mind and his command of Spanish, English, French made him popular abroad. He was made a member of the Geographical and Scientific Society of France and

3111-565: Was also public prosecutor, magistrate and president of the Supreme Court , as well as senior officer of the Ministry of Public Works and the Economy. Despite being a liberal politician, Altamirano was a devoted catholic. In contrast with othe Mexican liberals from his epoch, as Ignacio Ramírez or Vicente Riva Palacio , he was not a skeptical in religion or radical anticlerical (although he supported

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3172-532: Was but a consequence of that step taken in a moment of blindness caused by a political hatred which had hurled him into an abyss." Zavala’s criticisms against Santa Anna were influential for the founders of the Texas Revolution. Texas Revolutionaries used Zavala’s ideas to describe their new nation. The town of Zavala, Texas was named for him in Jasper County in 1834. The town no longer exists, but there

3233-405: Was closely involved in drafting the constitution for the First Federal Republic of Mexico in 1824 after Mexico won independence from Spain. Years later, he also helped in drafting a constitution for Mexico's rebellious enemy at the time, the Republic of Texas , to secure independence from Mexico in 1836. Zavala was said to have had a keen intellect and was fluent in multiple languages. Zavala

3294-424: Was excluded from its former role as the only educators of the nation; and its economic power was diminished. With that major liberal victory won, a third generation of liberals emerged during the presidency of liberal general and military hero of the Second French intervention in Mexico, Porfirio Díaz (r. 1876–1911). During the Porfiriato , a new group of liberals in name only, the "científicos," were influenced by

3355-401: Was held in a Texas settlement known as " Washington-on-the-Brazos " where the Declaration of Independence for the Republic of Texas was drafted and signed. Zavala personally designed the flag of the new republic, helped write the new constitution, and served as vice president under the provisional government. While working, the delegates received a message that the Alamo was under siege. After

3416-402: Was never in real danger—he had become a valuable ally with influential Texans seeking independence. His legislative experience, linguistic skills, and diplomatic experience made him ideally suited for drafting the new Constitution of the Republic of Texas, not to mention that he was the only one among them with actual experience in drafting such a document. In March 1836, a meeting of delegates

3477-685: Was of indigenous Nahua origin and rose to be a major literary figure and journalist. These intellectuals lived through and tried to shape political thought in the War of the Reform between conservatives and liberals, and the Second French intervention , a foreign intervention supported by Mexican conservatives. Pragmatic politicians, preeminently Benito Juárez , born in a Zapotec village in Oaxaca , as well as Miguel Lerdo de Tejada , his brother Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada , and Melchor Ocampo aimed at transforming liberal ideas into legislation and reform. They were all guided by liberal principles and fought for them. Liberals enacted reform laws to curtail

3538-557: Was one of the most prominent liberals in the era of the First Republic . Since his youth, Zavala was an indefatigable believer in the principle of democratic representative government. As a young man he founded several newspapers and wrote extensively, espousing democratic reforms — writings which led to his imprisonment by the Spanish crown. While imprisoned, he learned English and studied medicine; after his release, he practiced medicine for two years before entering politics. Over his career, he served in many different capacities including

3599-424: Was overthrown in a military coup in February 1913. A broad coalition of opposition to the new government formed itself as the Constitutionalist Army , invoking the Constitution of 1857. That faction was victorious in the Mexican Revolution under the leadership of former Governor of Coahuila Venustiano Carranza . Carranza sought legitimacy for his regime and called for a constitutional convention, which excluded

3660-455: Was the mayor of Tixtla, this allowed Ignacio to attend school there. He later studied in Toluca thanks to a scholarship that was granted him by Ignacio Ramírez , of whom he was a disciple. As a liberal politician, Altamirano opposed Benito Juárez 's continuation in office in 1861, allying himself with other liberal foes of Juárez and supporting Jesús González Ortega . With the French invasion of Mexico in 1862, Altamirano understood how dire

3721-562: Was well received by foreign governments. In 1832, a liberal coup brought Valentin Gomez Farias to power. Zavala returned to Mexico and was appointed as Minister to France. While serving in Paris, Zavala witnessed overthrow of Gomez Farias and the subsequent fall of the First Mexican Republic . Santa Anna was in the process of setting up the Centralist Republic of Mexico , replacing the Mexican Constitution that Zavala himself had helped write. Zavala resigned his position in protest and spoke out against Santa Anna. Zavala and his family fled in

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