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145-555: The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales ( ICAEW ) is a professional membership organisation that promotes, develops and supports chartered accountants and students around the world. As of December 2023, it has over 208,000 members and students in 146 countries. ICAEW was established by royal charter in 1880. The institute is a member of the Consultative Committee of Accountancy Bodies (CCAB), formed in 1974 by
290-431: A cheat sheet . A test developer's choice of which style or format to use when developing a written test is usually arbitrary given that there is no single invariant standard for testing. Be that as it may, certain test styles and formats have become more widely used than others. Below is a list of those formats of test items that are widely used by educators and test developers to construct paper or computer-based tests. As
435-558: A computer , or in a predetermined area that requires a test taker to demonstrate or perform a set of skills. Tests vary in style, rigor and requirements. There is no general consensus or invariable standard for test formats and difficulty. Often, the format and difficulty of the test is dependent upon the educational philosophy of the instructor, subject matter, class size, policy of the educational institution, and requirements of accreditation or governing bodies. A test may be administered formally or informally. An example of an informal test
580-475: A "College, with the style and privileges of an University", in 1827. The college was reconstituted as the University of New Brunswick by an act of the provincial parliament in 1859. The University of Toronto was founded by royal charter in 1827, under the name of King's College , as a "College, with the style and privileges of an University", but did not open until 1843. The charter was subsequently revoked and
725-618: A charter in 1446, although this was not recorded in the rolls of chancery and was lost in the 18th century. A later charter united the barbers with the (previously unincorporated) surgeons in 1577. The Royal College of Physicians of Ireland was established by royal charter in 1667 and the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland , which evolved from the Barbers' Guild in Dublin, in 1784. The Royal Society
870-405: A computer (as an eExam ). A test taker who takes a written test could respond to specific test items by writing or typing within a given space of the test or on a separate form or document. In some tests; where knowledge of many constants or technical terms is required to effectively answer questions, like Chemistry or Biology – the test developer may allow every test taker to bring with them
1015-561: A few years later, as did Dartmouth's charter. The charter of Rutger uses quite different words, specifying that it may "confer all such honorary degrees as usually are granted and conferred in any of our colleges in any of our colonies in America". Of the other colleges founded prior to the American Revolution, Harvard College was established in 1636 by Act of the Great and General Court of
1160-469: A large number of participants. A test may be developed and administered by an instructor, a clinician, a governing body, or a test provider. In some instances, the developer of the test may not be directly responsible for its administration. For example, in the United States, Educational Testing Service (ETS), a nonprofit educational testing and assessment organization, develops standardized tests such as
1305-492: A mark of distinction". The use of royal charters to incorporate organisations gave rise to the concept of the "corporation by prescription". This enabled corporations that had existed from time immemorial to be recognised as incorporated via the legal fiction of a "lost charter". Examples of corporations by prescription include Oxford and Cambridge universities. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia , of
1450-561: A mission to London by college representatives, these were either provincial charters granted by local governors (acting in the name of the king) or charters granted by legislative acts from local assemblies. The first charters to be issued by a colonial governor on the consent of their council (rather than by an act of legislation) were those granted to Princeton University (as the College of New Jersey) in 1746 (from acting governor John Hamilton ) and 1748 (from Governor Jonathan Belcher ). There
1595-403: A number of supplemental charters, London was reconstituted by Act of Parliament in 1898. The Queen's Colleges in Ireland, at Belfast , Cork , and Galway , were established by royal charter in 1845, as colleges without degree awarding powers. The Queens University of Ireland received its royal charter in 1850, stating "We do will, order, constitute, ordain and found an University ... and
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#17328482606351740-411: A period of times as a reading section or a given exercise in were the most important part of the class was summarize. However, a simple quiz usually does not count very much, and instructors usually provide this type of test as a formative assessment to help determine whether the student is learning the material. In addition, doing this at the time the instructor collected all can make a significant part of
1885-417: A range of programmes and activity over the course of a year all of which complement the students’ ACA studies. Events and activities are varied and typically cover revision sessions, career development seminars and a range of networking events such as annual dinners and quiz nights. The ICAEW Student Council (ISC) is the representative body for student societies, bringing together representatives from each of
2030-612: A result of the French Revolution but it collapsed after only ten years. Germany implemented the examination system around 1800. Englishmen in the 18th century such as Eustace Budgell recommended imitating the Chinese examination system but the first English person to recommend competitive examinations to qualify for employment was Adam Smith in 1776. In 1838, the Congregational church missionary Walter Henry Medhurst considered
2175-425: A result, these tests may consist of only one type of test item format (e.g., multiple-choice test, essay test) or may have a combination of different test item formats (e.g., a test that has multiple-choice and essay items). In a test that has items formatted as multiple-choice questions, a candidate would be given a number of set answers for each question, and the candidate must choose which answer or group of answers
2320-633: A right or power to an individual or a body corporate . They were, and are still, used to establish significant organisations such as boroughs (with municipal charters ), universities and learned societies . Charters should be distinguished from royal warrants of appointment , grants of arms and other forms of letters patent, such as those granting an organisation the right to use the word "royal" in their name or granting city status , which do not have legislative effect. The British monarchy has issued over 1,000 royal charters . Of these about 750 remain in existence. The earliest charter recorded on
2465-558: A royal charter in 1802, naming it, like Trinity College, Dublin, "the Mother of an University" and granting it the power to award degrees. The charter remains in force. McGill University was established under the name of McGill College in 1821, by a provincial royal charter issued by Governor General of British North America the Earl of Dalhousie ; the charter stating that the "College shall be deemed and taken to be an University" and should have
2610-433: A specific set of skills. For example, a test taker who intends to become a lawyer is usually required by a governing body such as a governmental bar licensing agency to pass a bar exam . Standardized tests are also used in certain countries to regulate immigration. For example, intended immigrants to Australia are legally required to pass a citizenship test as part of that country's naturalization process. When analyzed in
2755-450: A student to write a freehand response. Marks are given more for the steps taken than for the correct answer. If the question has multiple parts, later parts may use answers from previous sections, and marks may be granted if an earlier incorrect answer was used but the correct method was followed, and an answer which is correct (given the incorrect input) is returned. Higher-level mathematical papers may include variations on true/false, where
2900-434: A student's proficiency in specific subjects such as mathematics, science, or literature. In contrast, high school students in other countries such as the United States may not be required to take a standardized test to graduate. Moreover, students in these countries usually take standardized tests only to apply for a position in a university program and are typically given the option of taking different standardized tests such as
3045-682: A subsequent charter in 1408. Royal charters gave the first regulation of medicine in Great Britain and Ireland. The Barbers Company of London in 1462, received the earliest recorded charters concerning medicine or surgery, charging them with the superintendence, scrutiny, correction and governance of surgery. A further charter in 1540 to the London Guild – renamed the Company of Barber-Surgeons – specified separate classes of surgeons, barber-surgeons, and barbers. The London Company of Surgeons separated from
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#17328482606353190-403: A test taker to write a response to fulfill the requirements of the item. In administrative terms, essay items take less time to construct. As an assessment tool, essay items can test complex learning objectives as well as processes used to answer the question. The items can also provide a more realistic and generalizable task for test. Finally, these items make it difficult for test takers to guess
3335-401: A tool to select for participants that have potential to succeed in a competition such as a sporting event. For example, skaters who wish to participate in figure skating competitions in the United States must pass official U.S. Figure Skating tests just to qualify. Tests are sometimes used by a group to select for certain types of individuals to join the group. For example, Mensa International
3480-499: A variety of different situations they encounter throughout their career, improving their ability and performance in areas such as communication, decision-making, problem-solving and technical competence. Ethics is embedded throughout the ACA qualification, developing students’ ethical capabilities to make suitable decisions, This is through an online programme based on the ICAEW Code of Ethics,
3625-401: A wide range of difficulty, and can easily diagnose a test taker's difficulty with certain concepts. As an educational tool, multiple-choice items test many levels of learning as well as a test taker's ability to integrate information, and it provides feedback to the test taker about why distractors were wrong and why correct answers were right. Nevertheless, there are difficulties associated with
3770-449: Is a high-IQ society that requires individuals to score at the 98th percentile or higher on a standardized, supervised IQ test. Assessment types include: Criterion-referenced tests are designed to measure student performance against a fixed set of criteria or learning standards. It is possible for all test takers to pass, just like it is possible for all test takers to fail. These tests can use individual's scores to focus on improving
3915-432: Is a reading test administered by a parent to a child. A formal test might be a final examination administered by a teacher in a classroom or an IQ test administered by a psychologist in a clinic. Formal testing often results in a grade or a test score . A test score may be interpreted with regards to a norm or criterion , or occasionally both. The norm may be established independently, or by statistical analysis of
4060-564: Is also humbly submitted that although our Royal Assent to the Act of Legislature of New South Wales hereinbefore recited fully satisfies the principle of our law that the power of granting degrees should flow from the Crown, yet that as that assent was conveyed through an Act which has effect only in the territory of New South Wales, the Memorialists believe that the degrees granted by the said University under
4205-429: Is an item that provides a defined term and requires a test taker to match identifying characteristics to the correct term. A fill-in-the-blank item provides a test taker with identifying characteristics and requires the test taker to recall the correct term. There are two types of fill-in-the-blank tests. The easier version provides a word bank of possible words that will fill in the blanks. For some exams all words in
4350-630: Is correct. There are two families of multiple-choice questions. The first family is known as the True/False question and it requires a test taker to choose all answers that are appropriate. The second family is known as One-Best-Answer question and it requires a test taker to answer only one from a list of answers. There are several reasons to using multiple-choice questions in tests. In terms of administration, multiple-choice questions usually requires less time for test takers to answer, are easy to score and grade, provide greater coverage of material, allows for
4495-561: Is hereby constituted and founded a University" and granted an explicit power of awarding degrees (except in medicine, added by supplemental charter in 1883). From then until 1992, all universities in the United Kingdom were created by royal charter except for Newcastle University , which was separated from Durham via an Act of Parliament. Following the independence of the Republic of Ireland , new universities there have been created by Acts of
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4640-477: The ACT or SAT , which are used primarily to measure a student's reasoning skill. High school students in the United States may also take Advanced Placement tests on specific subjects to fulfill university-level credit. Depending on the policies of the test maker or country, administration of standardized tests may be done in a large hall, classroom, or testing center. A proctor or invigilator may also be present during
4785-582: The GCE A-levels or Cambridge Pre-U . In contrast, universities in the United States use an applicant's test score on the SAT or ACT as just one of their many admission criteria to determine whether an applicant should be admitted into one of its undergraduate programs. The other criteria in this case may include the applicant's grades from high school, extracurricular activities, personal statement, and letters of recommendations. Once admitted, undergraduate students in
4930-557: The Jagiellonian University (1364; papal confirmation the same year) by Casimir III of Poland ; the University of Vienna (1365; Papal confirmation the same year) by Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria ; the University of Caen (1432; Papal confirmation 1437) by Henry VI of England ; the University of Girona (1446; no confirmation) and the University of Barcelona (1450; papal confirmation the same year), both by Alfonso V of Aragon ;
5075-589: The Joint Entrance Examination or to secondary schools . Types are civil service examinations , required for positions in the public sector ; the U.S. Foreign Service Exam , and the United Nations Competitive Examination. Competitive examinations are considered an egalitarian way to select worthy applicants without risking influence peddling , bias or other concerns. A single test can have multiple qualities. For example,
5220-824: The Oireachtas (Irish Parliament). Since 1992, most new universities in the UK have been created by Orders of Council as secondary legislation under the Further and Higher Education Act 1992 , although granting degree-awarding powers and university status to colleges incorporated by royal charter is done via an amendment to their charter. Several of the colonial colleges that predate the American Revolution are described as having been established by royal charter. Except for The College of William & Mary , which received its charter from King William III and Queen Mary II in 1693 following
5365-470: The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) uses Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) to evaluate certain skills and knowledge of students from different participating countries. Standardized tests are sometimes used by certain governing bodies to determine whether a test taker is allowed to practice a profession, to use a specific job title, or to claim competency in
5510-854: The Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company (P&O), the British South Africa Company , and some of the former British colonies on the North American mainland , City livery companies , the Bank of England and the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC; see BBC Charter ). Between the 14th and 19th centuries, royal charters were used to create chartered companies – for-profit ventures with shareholders, used for exploration, trade and colonisation. Early charters to such companies often granted trade monopolies, but this power
5655-464: The Royal Irish Academy was established in 1785 and received its royal charter in 1786. Test (assessment) An examination ( exam or evaluation ) or test is an educational assessment intended to measure a test-taker's knowledge , skill , aptitude , physical fitness , or classification in many other topics (e.g., beliefs ). A test may be administered verbally, on paper, on
5800-585: The SAT but may not directly be involved in the administration or proctoring of these tests. Informal, unofficial, and non-standardized tests and testing systems have existed throughout history. For example, tests of skill such as archery contests have existed in China since the Zhou dynasty (or, more mythologically, Yao ). Oral exams were administered in various parts of the world including ancient China and Europe. A precursor to
5945-738: The United Kingdom itself, and in other Western nations. Like the British, the development of the French and American civil service was influenced by the Chinese system. When Thomas Jenckes made a Report from the Joint Select Committee on Retrenchment in 1868, it contained a chapter on the civil service in China. In 1870, William Spear wrote a book called The Oldest and the Newest Empire-China and
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6090-666: The University of Aberdeen ) in 1494. Following the Reformation, establishment of universities and colleges by royal charter became the norm. The University of Edinburgh was founded under the authority of a royal charter granted to the Edinburgh town council in 1582 by James VI as the "town's college". Trinity College Dublin was established by a royal charter of Elizabeth I (as Queen of Ireland ) in 1593. Both of these charters were given in Latin . The Edinburgh charter gave permission for
6235-465: The University of Valence (1452; papal confirmation 1459) by the Dauphin Louis (later Louis XI of France ); and the University of Palma (1483; no confirmation) by Ferdinand II of Aragon . Both Oxford and Cambridge received royal charters during the 13th century. However, these charters were not concerned with academic matters or their status as universities but rather about the exclusive right of
6380-466: The bar exam for aspiring lawyers may be a norm-referenced, standardized, summative assessment. This means that only the test takers with higher scores will pass, that all of them took the same test under the same circumstances and were graded with the same scoring standards, and that the test is meant to determine whether the law school graduates have learned enough to practice their profession. Written tests are tests that are administered on paper or on
6525-490: The imperial examinations ( keju ). The bureaucratic imperial examinations as a concept has its origins in the year 605 during the short lived Sui dynasty . Its successor, the Tang dynasty , implemented imperial examinations on a relatively small scale until the examination system was extensively expanded during the reign of Wu Zetian . Included in the expanded examination system was a military exam that tested physical ability, but
6670-420: The "evidence is not very clear." In Prussia , medication examinations began in 1725. The Mathematical Tripos , founded in 1747, is commonly believed to be the first honor examination, but James Bass Mullinger considered "the candidates not having really undergone any examination whatsoever" because the qualification for a degree was merely four years of residence. France adopted the examination system in 1791 as
6815-627: The (IRB) and regulatory and disciplinary committees (at least half of each board must be lay members (non-accountants)) and oversight bodies including the Financial Reporting Council and the Insolvency Service. ICAEW has seven faculties, each run by an in-house team working together with members who are experts in their particular sector: The Tax Faculty was the first to be formed in 1990. The monthly TAXline publication started in 1991, and an annual Technical Review (now Tax Planning)
6960-476: The 81 universities established in pre-Reformation Europe, 13 were established ex consuetudine without any form of charter, 33 by Papal bull alone, 20 by both Papal bull and imperial or royal charter, and 15 by imperial or royal charter alone. Universities established solely by royal (as distinct from imperial) charter did not have the same international recognition – their degrees were only valid within that kingdom. The first university to be founded by charter
7105-604: The British Empire. The University of Sydney obtained a royal charter in 1858. This stated that (emphasis in the original): the Memorialists confidently hope that the Graduates of the University of Sydney will not be inferior in scholastic requirements to the majority of Graduates of British Universities, and that it is desirable to have the degrees of the University of Sydney generally recognised throughout our dominions; and it
7250-566: The British Isles until the 19th century. The 1820s saw two colleges receive royal charters: St David's College, Lampeter in 1828 and King's College London in 1829. Neither of these were granted degree-awarding powers or university status in their original charters. The 1830s saw an attempt by University College London to gain a charter as a university and the creation by Act of Parliament of Durham University , but without incorporating it or granting any specific powers. These led to debate about
7395-717: The Certificate level, the Professional level, and the Advanced level. Certificate level exams can be sat throughout the year at either dedicated test centres or at the candidate's own location via remote invigilation. Results of the Certificate level exams are provided to candidates within 24 hours of sitting the exams. The Professional and Advanced level exams are long-form scenario and case based exams, consisting of 2.5-4 hour examinations. Results of Professional and Advanced level exams are provided to candidates some several weeks after sitting
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#17328482606357540-510: The Chartered Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors , in 2014. Charters have been used in Europe since medieval times to grant rights and privileges to towns, boroughs and cities. During the 14th and 15th century the concept of incorporation of a municipality by royal charter evolved. Royal charters were used in England to make the most formal grants of various rights, titles, etc. until
7685-585: The Chinese exams to be "worthy of imitating." In 1806, the British established a Civil Service College near London for training of the East India Company's administrators in India. This was based on the recommendations of British East India Company officials serving in China and had seen the Imperial examinations. In 1829, the company introduced civil service examinations in India on a limited basis. This established
7830-413: The Chinese had "perfected moral science" and François Quesnay advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese. According to Ferdinand Brunetière (1849-1906), followers of Physiocracy such as François Quesnay, whose theory of free trade was based on Chinese classical theory, were sinophiles bent on introducing "l'esprit chinois" to France. He also admits that French education
7975-597: The Companies legislation being introduced. To improve their status and combat criticism of low standards, accountants in the cities of Britain formed professional bodies . ICAEW was formed from the five of these associations that existed in England prior to its establishment by royal charter in May 1880. In 1920, following the Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919 , the organisation admitted Mary Harris Smith , who became
8120-532: The English "did not know that it was necessary for them to take lessons from the Celestial Empire." In 1875, Archibald Sayce voiced concern over the prevalence of competitive examinations, which he described as "the invasion of this new Chinese culture." After Great Britain's successful implementation of systematic, open, and competitive examinations in India in the 19th century, similar systems were instituted in
8265-620: The Massachusetts Bay Colony and incorporated in 1650 by a charter from the same body, Yale University was established in 1701 by Act of the General Assembly of Connecticut, the University of Pennsylvania received a charter from the proprietors of the colony in 1753, Brown University was established in 1764 (as the College of Rhode Island) by an Act of the Governor and General Assembly of Rhode Island, and Hampden-Sydney College
8410-996: The Professional level, there are 3-4 sittings per year for each exam, whilst for the Advanced level, there are 2 sittings per year for each exam. Prizes can be awarded jointly to multiple candidates. Some members of professional accountancy bodies within the European Union are eligible to apply for ICAEW membership under either the Statutory Audit Directive or the Recognition of Professional Qualifications (RPQ) Directive. In 2010, ICAEW introduced its "Pathways to Membership" programme, which allows fully qualified members from certain professional bodies to apply for membership based on their experience. There are also various other routes to membership, including reciprocal arrangements, advanced credit arrangements and common content arrangements with other professional accountancy bodies around
8555-410: The UK (although there are other chartered bodies of British qualified accountants whose members are likewise authorised to conduct restricted work such as auditing ). The institute is also a founder member of Chartered Accountants Worldwide (CAW), an international network of accountancy bodies which represents over 1.8 million members and students in more than 190 countries. ICAEW has two offices in
8700-653: The UK government's list was granted to the University of Cambridge by Henry III of England in 1231, although older charters are known to have existed including to the Worshipful Company of Weavers in England in 1150 and to the town of Tain in Scotland in 1066. Charters continue to be issued by the British Crown , a recent example being that awarded to the Chartered Institute of Legal Executives (CILEX), and
8845-593: The United Kingdom or United States may be required by their respective programs to take a comprehensive examination as a requirement for passing their courses or for graduating from their respective programs. Standardized tests are sometimes used by certain countries to manage the quality of their educational institutions. For example, the No Child Left Behind Act in the United States requires individual states to develop assessments for students in certain grades. In practice, these assessments typically appear in
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#17328482606358990-685: The United Kingdom under a Royal Charter or an Imperial enactment. The charter went on to (emphasis in the original): will, grant and declare that the Degrees of Bachelor of Arts, Master of Arts, Bachelor of Laws, Doctor of Laws, Bachelor of Medicine, and Doctor of Medicine, already granted or conferred or hereafter to be granted or conferred by the Senate of the said University of Sydney shall be recognised as Academic distinctions and rewards of merit and be entitled to rank, precedence, and consideration in our United Kingdom and in our Colonies and possessions throughout
9135-714: The United Kingdom; at their headquarters, Chartered Accountants' Hall in Moorgate , London and in Central Milton Keynes at the Hub:MK complex. It also has offices in Belgium (Europe Region), China (Beijing, Shanghai), Hong Kong SAR, Indonesia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore and the United Arab Emirates (Middle East, Africa and South East Asia Region). Until the mid-nineteenth century, the role of accountants in England and Wales
9280-657: The United States , in which he urged the United States government to adopt the Chinese examination system. Like in Britain, many of the American elites scorned the plan to implement competitive examinations, which they considered foreign, Chinese, and "un-American." As a result, the civil services reform introduced into the House of Representatives in 1868 was not passed until 1883. The Civil Service Commission tried to combat such sentiments in its report: ...with no intention of commending either
9425-414: The University of Toronto, Trinity College , was incorporated by an act of the legislature in 1851 and received a royal charter in 1852, stating that it, "shall be a University and shall have and enjoy all such and the like privileges as are enjoyed by our Universities of our United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland". Queen's University was established by royal charter in 1841. This remains in force as
9570-444: The advancement of men of talent and merit only." Both Thomas Babington Macaulay , who was instrumental in passing the Saint Helena Act 1833 , and Stafford Northcote, 1st Earl of Iddesleigh , who prepared the Northcote–Trevelyan Report that catalyzed the British civil service , were familiar with Chinese history and institutions. The Northcote–Trevelyan Report of 1854 made four principal recommendations: that recruitment should be on
9715-421: The annual average figures are a necessary artifact of quantitative analysis. The operations of the examination system were part of the imperial record keeping system, and the date of receiving the jinshi degree is often a key biographical datum: sometimes the date of achieving jinshi is the only firm date known for even some of the most historically prominent persons in Chinese history. A brief interruption to
9860-418: The assembly rather than risking it rejecting the charter. Rutgers University received its (as Queen's College) in 1766 (and a second charter in 1770) from Governor William Franklin of New Jersey, and Dartmouth College received its in 1769 from Governor John Wentworth of New Hampshire. The case of Dartmouth College v. Woodward , heard before the Supreme Court of the United States in 1818, centred on
10005-447: The authorities in London did not wish to allow this. A further petition for the power to award degrees to women was rejected in 1878 – the same year that London was granted that authority. A charter was finally granted – admitting women to degrees – in 1881. The last of Australia's 19th century universities, the University of Tasmania , was established in 1890 and obtained a royal charter in 1915. Guilds and livery companies are among
10150-401: The authority of the said Act, are not legally entitled to recognition beyond the limits of New South Wales ; and the Memorialists are in consequence most desirous to obtain a grant from us of Letters Patent requiring all our subjects to recognise the degrees given under the Act of the Local Legislature in the same manner as if the said University of Sydney had been an University established within
10295-409: The barbers in 1745, eventually leading to the establishment of the Royal College of Surgeons by royal charter in 1800. The Royal College of Physicians of London was established by royal charter in 1518 and charged with regulating the practice of medicine in the City of London and within seven miles of the city. The Barbers Guild (the Gild of St Mary Magdalen ) in Dublin is said to have received
10440-401: The basis of merit determined through standardized written examination, that candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, that recruits should be graded into a hierarchy, and that promotion should be through achievement, rather than 'preferment, patronage, or purchase'. When the report was brought up in parliament in 1853, Lord Monteagle argued against
10585-508: The college, also named it as "mother of a University", and rather than granting the college degree-awarding powers stated that "the students on this College ... shall have liberty and power to obtain degrees of Bachelor, Master, and Doctor, at a suitable time, in all arts and faculties". Thus the University of Dublin was also brought into existence by this charter, as the body that awards the degrees earned by students at Trinity College. Following this, no surviving universities were created in
10730-563: The compass, gunpowder, and the multiplication table, during centuries when this continent was a wilderness, should deprive our people of those conveniences. Standardized testing began to influence the method of examination in British universities from the 1850s, where oral exams had common since the Middle Ages . In the US, the transition happened under the influence of the educational reformer Horace Mann . The shift helped standardize an expansion of
10875-691: The content of the examinations focused on the Confucian canon and ensured a loyal scholar bureaucrat class which upheld the throne. The Confucian examination system in Vietnam was established in 1075 under the Lý dynasty Emperor Lý Nhân Tông and lasted until the Nguyễn dynasty Emperor Khải Định (1919). There were only three levels of examinations in Vietnam: interprovincial, pre-court, and court. The imperial examination system
11020-418: The context of language texting in the naturalization processes, the ideology can be found from two distinct but nearly related points. One refers to the construction and deconstruction of the nation's constitutive elements that makes their own identity, while the second has a more restricted view of the notion of specific language and ideologies that may served in a specific purpose. Tests are sometimes used as
11165-539: The correct answers and require test takers to demonstrate their writing skills as well as correct spelling and grammar. The difficulties with essay items are primarily administrative: for example, test takers require adequate time to be able to compose their answers. When these questions are answered, the answers themselves are usually poorly written because test takers may not have time to organize and proofread their answers. In turn, it takes more time to score or grade these items. When these items are being scored or graded,
11310-403: The curricula into the sciences and humanities , creating a rationalized method for the evaluation of teachers and institutions and creating a basis for the streaming of students according to ability. Both World War I and World War II demonstrated the necessity of standardized testing and the benefits associated with these tests. Tests were used to determine the mental aptitude of recruits to
11455-679: The earliest organisations recorded as receiving royal charters. The Privy Council list has the Saddlers Company in 1272 as the earliest, followed by the Merchant Taylors Company in 1326 and the Skinners Company in 1327. The earliest charter to the Saddlers Company gave them authority over the saddlers trade; it was not until 1395 that they received a charter of incorporation. The Merchant Taylors were similarly incorporated by
11600-599: The examinations occurred at the beginning of the Mongol Yuan dynasty in the 13th century, but was later brought back with regional quotas which favored the Mongols and disadvantaged Southern Chinese. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the system contributed to the narrow and focused nature of intellectual life and enhanced the autocratic power of the emperor. The system continued with some modifications until its abolition in 1905 during
11745-518: The examinee to respond in a particular way, for example by describing or defining a concept, or comparing and contrasting two or more scenarios or events. Some command words require more insight or skill than others: for example, "analyse" and "synthesise" assess higher-level skills than "describe". More demanding command words usually attract greater mark weighting in the examination. In the UK, Ofqual maintains an official list of command words explaining their meaning. The Welsh government 's guidance on
11890-429: The exams having advanced information. ICAEW awards prizes to high-scoring candidates in the ACA exams, including the Certificate level. There are subject-specific prizes for the best performance in a particular exam, and annual prizes for the highest marks across all the exams for a particular level. The subject-specific prizes can be awarded multiple times per year, reflecting the multiple sittings of exams each year; for
12035-408: The exams, and are published online, although candidates can choose to remain anonymous and have their name excluded from publishing. All of the Certificate level exams are closed book. The Professional level exams are a mixture of fully open book , fully closed book, or permitting approved texts (such as IFRS publications or tax tables). All of the Advanced level exams are fully open book, with two of
12180-470: The final course grade. Most mathematics questions, or calculation questions from subjects such as chemistry , physics , or economics employ a style which does not fall into any of the above categories, although some papers, notably the Maths Challenge papers in the United Kingdom employ multiple choice. Instead, most mathematics questions state a mathematical problem or exercise that requires
12325-547: The first woman chartered accountant in the world. The headquarters of the institute, Chartered Accountants' Hall, in the City of London, which was designed in the Italian Renaissance style by John Belcher and built by Colls & Sons , was completed in 1892. It is widely regarded as one of the finest examples of Victorian Baroque architecture . Sir William Whitfield designed the 1964–70 extension and new entrance. In 1948,
12470-413: The form of standardized tests. Test scores of students in specific grades of an educational institution are then used to determine the status of that educational institution, i.e., whether it should be allowed to continue to operate in the same way or to receive funding. Finally, standardized tests are sometimes used to compare proficiencies of students from different institutions or countries. For example,
12615-410: The grading process itself becomes subjective as non-test related information may influence the process. Thus, considerable effort is required to minimize the subjectivity of the grading process. Finally, as an assessment tool, essay questions may potentially be unreliable in assessing the entire content of a subject matter. Instructions to exam candidates rely on the use of command words , which direct
12760-604: The hereditary system during the Samurai era. The examination system was established in Korea in 958 under the reign of Gwangjong of Goryeo . Any free man (not Nobi ) was able to take the examinations. By the Joseon period, high offices were closed to aristocrats who had not passed the exams. The examination system continued until 1894 when it was abolished by the Gabo Reform . As in China,
12905-423: The imperial examinations were often discussed in conjunction with Confucianism, which attracted great attention from contemporary European thinkers such as Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz , Voltaire , Montesquieu , Baron d'Holbach , Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , and Friedrich Schiller . In France and Britain , Confucian ideology was used in attacking the privilege of the elite. Figures such as Voltaire claimed that
13050-482: The implementation of open examinations because it was a Chinese system and China was not an "enlightened country." Lord Stanley called the examinations the "Chinese Principle." The Earl of Granville did not deny this but argued in favor of the examination system, considering that the minority Manchus had been able to rule China with it for over 200 years. In 1854, Edwin Chadwick reported that some noblemen did not agree with
13195-517: The institute received a Supplemental Charter. In 1957, ICAEW merged with the Society of Incorporated Accountants (founded in 1885 as the Society of Incorporated Accountants and Auditors). In 2019, as part of their celebration of 100 years of women being able to work as Chartered Accountants, ICAEW published a booklet on 100 years of women in Chartered Accountancy and launched a campaign to collect
13340-463: The institute's requirements on continuing professional development in the preceding three years and have no outstanding disciplinary charges against them. As an improvement regulator, ICAEW works to protect the public by making sure ICAEW Chartered Accountants, firms that are regulated by ICAEW and students studying with ICAEW maintain the highest standards of professional competency and conduct. An improvement regulator works to educate as well as monitor
13485-504: The institution replaced by the University of Toronto in 1849, under provincial legislation. Victoria University , a college of the University of Toronto, opened in 1832 under the name of the Upper Canada Academy , giving "pre-university" classes. and received a royal charter in 1836. In 1841. a provincial act replaced the charter, reconstituted the academy as Victoria College, and granted it degree-awarding powers. Another college of
13630-587: The integration of ethical issues into all ACA exams and the practical application of ethical skills and behaviours within students’ work experience. Practical work experience is undertaken as part of a training agreement with an authorised training employer or principal. Students must complete 450 days, which normally takes between three and five years. Experience can be completed in at least one of six categories: accounting; audit and assurance; financial management; information technology; insolvency; taxation. There are 15 exams which are all computer based, spread across
13775-523: The last years of the Qing dynasty. The modern examination system for selecting civil servants also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. Japan implemented the examination system for 200 years during the Heian period (794-1185). Like the Chinese examinations, the curriculum revolved around the Confucian canon. However, unlike in China, it was only ever applied to the minor nobility and so gradually faded away under
13920-560: The later Chinese imperial examinations was in place since the Han dynasty , during which the Confucian characteristic of the examinations was determined. However these examinations did not offer an official avenue to government appointment, the majority of which were filled through recommendations based on qualities such as social status, morals, and ability. Standardized written examinations were first implemented in China. They were commonly known as
14065-416: The major accountancy professional bodies in the UK and Ireland. The fragmented nature of the accountancy profession in the UK is in part due to the absence of any legal requirement for an accountant to be a member of one of the many Institutes, as the term accountant does not have legal protection. However, a person must belong to ICAEW, ICAS or CAI to hold themselves out as a chartered accountant in
14210-570: The measures introduced because they were Chinese. The examination system was finally implemented in the British Indian Civil Service in 1855, prior to which admission into the civil service was purely a matter of patronage, and in England in 1870. Even as late as ten years after the competitive examination plan was passed, people still attacked it as an "adopted Chinese culture." Alexander Baillie-Cochrane, 1st Baron Lamington insisted that
14355-464: The military exam never had a significant impact on the Chinese officer corps and military degrees were seen as inferior to their civil counterpart. The exact nature of Wu's influence on the examination system is still a matter of scholarly debate. During the Song dynasty the emperors expanded both examinations and the government school system, in part to counter the influence of hereditary nobility, increasing
14500-612: The military. The US Army used the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale to test the IQ of the soldiers. After the War, industry began using tests to evaluate applicants for various jobs based on performance. In 1952, the first Advanced Placement (AP) test was administered to begin closing the gap between high schools and colleges. Tests are used throughout most educational systems. Tests may range from brief, informal questions chosen by
14645-591: The number of degree holders to more than four to five times that of the Tang. From the Song dynasty onward, the examinations played the primary role in selecting scholar-officials, who formed the literati elite of society. However the examinations co-existed with other forms of recruitment such as direct appointments for the ruling family, nominations, quotas, clerical promotions, sale of official titles, and special procedures for eunuchs . The regular higher level degree examination cycle
14790-526: The papacy an explicit grant of the ius ubique docendi , but it is generally considered that the right is implied in the terms of John XXII's letter of 1318 concerning Cambridge's status as a studium generale." UCL was incorporated by royal charter in 1836, but without university status or degree-awarding powers, which went instead to the University of London , created by royal charter with the explicit power to grant degrees in Arts, Law and Medicine. Durham University
14935-441: The power of universities, including the power to award specific degrees, had always been explicitly granted historically, thus creating a university did not implicitly grant degree-awarding powers. Other historians, however, disagree with Hamilton on the point of whether implicit grants of privileges were made, particularly with regard to the ius ubique docendi – the important privilege of granting universally-recognised degrees that
15080-607: The power to award degrees in theology due to the secular nature of the institute. Sir Charles Wetherell , arguing against the grant of a royal charter to UCL before the Privy Council in 1835, argued for degree-awarding powers being an essential part of a university that could not be limited by charter. Sir William Hamilton , wrote a response to Wetherell in the Edinburgh Review , drawing in Durham University and arguing that
15225-477: The power to grant degrees. It was reconstituted by a royal charter issued in 1852 by Queen Victoria , which remains in force. The University of New Brunswick was founded in 1785 as the Academy of Liberal Arts and Sciences and received a provincial charter as the College of New Brunswick in 1800. In the 1820s, it began giving university-level instruction and received a royal charter under the name King's College as
15370-412: The powers of royal charters and what was implicit to a university. The essence of the debate was firstly whether the power to award degrees was incidental to the creation of a university or needed to be explicitly granted and secondly whether a royal charter could, if the power to award degrees was incidental, limit that power – UCL wishing to be granted a royal charter as "London University" but excluding
15515-523: The principle of qualification process for civil servants in England. In 1847 and 1856, Thomas Taylor Meadows strongly recommended the adoption of the Chinese principle of competitive examinations in Great Britain in his Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China . According to Meadows, "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in
15660-480: The process, perceive these items to be tricky or picky. Finally, multiple-choice items do not test a test taker's attitudes towards learning because correct responses can be easily faked. True/False questions present candidates with a binary choice – a statement is either true or false. This method presents problems, as depending on the number of questions, a significant number of candidates could get 100% just by guesswork, and should on average get 50%. A matching item
15805-506: The quality of its firms and members’ work and enforce change (change can include restrictions, penalties, exclusion from membership or from working in a regulated area) when needed. To ensure impartiality, the regulatory and disciplinary roles of ICAEW are carried out by a separate department, the Professional Standards Department. All of this work is overseen by several layers of independent governance; an independent board,
15950-802: The reign of Henry VIII , with letters patent being used for less solemn grants. After the eighth year of Henry VIII, all grants under the Great Seal were issued as letters patent. Among the past and present groups formed by royal charter are the Company of Merchants of the Staple of England (13th century), the British East India Company (1600), the Hudson's Bay Company , the Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China (since merged into Standard Chartered ),
16095-461: The religion or the imperialism of China, we could not see why the fact that the most enlightened and enduring government of the Eastern world had acquired an examination as to the merits of candidates for office, should any more deprive the American people of that advantage, if it might be an advantage, than the facts that Confucius had taught political morality, and the people of China had read books, used
16240-420: The reputation of the chartered accountant qualification. There are 26 UK Students’ societies, some of which have existed for over 100 years, as well as international student networks. Further information can be found here . The work of the student societies is key to encouraging the active engagement of ACA students with ICAEW at a local level. More specifically, this is achieved by: The student societies run
16385-680: The right to award degrees. However, the Latin text of the charter uses studium generale – the technical term used in the Middle Ages for a university –where the English text has "place of universal study"; it has been argued that this granted William and Mary the rights and status of a university. The Princeton charter, however, specified that the college could "give and grant any such degree and degrees ... as are usually granted in either of our universities or any other college in our realm of Great Britain". Columbia's charter used very similar language
16530-568: The same shall possess and exercise the full powers of granting all such Degrees as are granted by other Universities or Colleges in the faculties of Arts, Medicine and Law". This served as the degree awarding body for the Queen's Colleges until it was replaced by the Royal University of Ireland . The royal charter of the Victoria University in 1880 started explicitly that "There shall be and
16675-422: The skills that were lacking in comprehension. Competitive exams are norm-referenced, high-stakes tests in which candidates are ranked according to their grades and/or percentile, and then top rankers are selected. If the examination is open for n positions, then the first n candidates in ranks pass, the others are rejected. They are used as entrance examinations for university and college admissions such as
16820-595: The status of the college's royal charter. The court found in 1819 that the charter was a contract under the Contract Clause of the US Constitution, meaning that it could not be impaired by state legislation, and that it had not been dissolved by the revolution. The charter for the College of William and Mary specified it to be a "place of universal study, or perpetual college, for divinity, philosophy, languages and other good arts and sciences", but made no mention of
16965-562: The stories of women members in chartered accountancy. In 2020, ICAEW announced the commissioning of a blue plaque to honour their first female member Mary Harris Smith. In order to become an ICAEW Chartered Accountant, it is necessary to achieve the ACA qualification. The ACA comprises four core elements that must be successfully completed. These are; professional development; ethics and professional scepticism; accountancy, finance and business modules; and practical work experience. Professional development prepares students to successfully handle
17110-528: The student societies to provide a voice and a feedback mechanism for the students. Royal charter Philosophers Works A royal charter is a formal grant issued by a monarch under royal prerogative as letters patent . Historically, they have been used to promulgate public laws , the most famous example being the English Magna Carta (great charter) of 1215, but since the 14th century have only been used in place of private acts to grant
17255-526: The teacher to major tests that students and teachers spend months preparing for. Some countries such as the United Kingdom and France require all their secondary school students to take a standardized test on individual subjects such as the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) (in England) and Baccalauréat respectively as a requirement for graduation. These tests are used primarily to assess
17400-470: The testing period to provide instructions, to answer questions, or to prevent cheating. Grades or test scores from standardized test may also be used by universities to determine whether a student applicant should be admitted into one of its academic or professional programs. For example, universities in the United Kingdom admit applicants into their undergraduate programs based primarily or solely on an applicant's grades on pre-university qualifications such as
17545-478: The town council "to build and to repair sufficient houses and places for the reception, habitation and teaching of professors of the schools of grammar, the humanities and languages, philosophy, theology, medicine and law, or whichever liberal arts which we declare detract in no way from the aforesaid mortification" and granted them the right to appoint and remove professors. But, as concluded by Edinburgh's principal, Sir Alexander Grant , in his tercentenary history of
17690-493: The universities to teach, the powers of the chancellors' courts to rule on disputes involving students, and fixing rents and interest rates. The University of Cambridge was confirmed by a papal bull in 1317 or 1318, but despite repeated attempts, the University of Oxford never received such confirmation. The three pre-Reformation Scottish universities were all established by papal bulls: St Andrews in 1413; Glasgow in 1451; and King's College, Aberdeen (which later became
17835-454: The university's primary constitutional document and was last amended, through the Canadian federal parliament, in 2011. Université Laval was founded by royal charter in 1852, which granted it degree awarding powers and started that it would, "have, possess, and enjoy all such and the like privileges as are enjoyed by our Universities of our United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland". This
17980-498: The university, "Obviously this is no charter founding a university". Instead, he proposed, citing multiple pieces of evidence, that the surviving charter was original granted alongside a second charter founding the college, which was subsequently lost (possibly deliberately). This would also explain the source of Edinburgh's degree awarding powers, which were used from the foundation of the college. The royal charter of Trinity College Dublin, while being straightforward in incorporating
18125-458: The use of command words advises that they should be used "consistently and correctly", but notes that some subjects have their own traditions and expectations in regard to candidates' responses, and Cambridge Assessment notes that in some cases, subject-specific command words may be in used. A quiz is a brief assessment which may cover a small amount of material that was given in a class. Some of them cover two to three lectures that were given in
18270-739: The use of multiple-choice questions. In administrative terms, multiple-choice items that are effective usually take a great time to construct. As an educational tool, multiple-choice items do not allow test takers to demonstrate knowledge beyond the choices provided and may even encourage guessing or approximation due to the presence of at least one correct answer. For instance, a test taker might not work out explicitly that 6.14 ⋅ 7.95 = 48.813 {\displaystyle 6.14\cdot 7.95=48.813} , but knowing that 6 ⋅ 8 = 48 {\displaystyle 6\cdot 8=48} , they would choose an answer close to 48. Moreover, test takers may misinterpret these items and in
18415-550: The word bank are used exactly once. If a teacher wanted to create a test of medium difficulty, they would provide a test with a word bank, but some words may be used more than once and others not at all. The hardest variety of such a test is a fill-in-the-blank test in which no word bank is provided at all. This generally requires a higher level of understanding and memory than a multiple-choice test. Because of this, fill-in-the-blank tests with no word bank are often feared by students. Items such as short answer or essay typically require
18560-399: The world as fully as if the said Degree had been granted by any University of our said United Kingdom . The University of Melbourne's charter, issued the following year, similarly granted its degrees equivalence with those from British universities. The act that established the University of Adelaide in 1874 included women undergraduates, causing a delay in the granting of its charter as
18705-419: The world. Members have the designation ACA (Associate Chartered Accountant) or FCA (Fellow Chartered Accountant) after their name. Fellowship is intended to designate those who have achieved a higher level of professional experience. It is awarded on application, and at no additional cost, to those members who have attained at least ten years of membership and who, at the date of application, have complied with
18850-749: Was accused of atheism and forced to give up his position at the university. The earliest evidence of examinations in Europe date to 1215 or 1219 in Bologna . These were chiefly oral in the form of a question or answer, disputation, determination, defense, or public lecture. The candidate gave a public lecture of two prepared passages assigned to him from the civil or canon law, and then doctors asked him questions, or expressed objections to answers. Evidence of written examinations do not appear until 1702 at Trinity College, Cambridge . According to Sir Michael Sadler , Europe may have had written examinations since 1518 but he admits
18995-693: Was concern as to whether a royal charter given by a governor in the King's name was valid without royal approval. An attempt to resolve this in London in 1754 ended inconclusively when Henry Pelham , the prime minister, died. However, Princeton's charter was never challenged in court prior to its ratification by the state legislature in 1780, following the US Declaration of Independence. Columbia University received its royal charter (as King's College) in 1754 from Lieutenant Governor James DeLancey of New York, who bypassed
19140-427: Was considered sufficient for it to award "degrees in all the faculties", but all future university royal charters explicitly stated that they were creating a university and explicitly granted degree-awarding power. Both London (1878) and Durham (1895) later received supplemental charters allowing the granting of degrees to women, which was considered to require explicit authorisation. After going through four charters and
19285-409: Was decreed in 1067 to be 3 years but this triennial cycle only existed in nominal terms. In practice both before and after this, the examinations were irregularly implemented for significant periods of time: thus, the calculated statistical averages for the number of degrees conferred annually should be understood in this context. The jinshi exams were not a yearly event and should not be considered so;
19430-427: Was established in 1660 as Britain's first learned society and received its first royal charter in 1662. It was reincorporated by a second royal charter in 1663, which was then amended by a third royal charter in 1669. These were all in Latin, but a supplemental charter in 2012 gave an English translation to take precedence over the Latin text. The Royal Society of Edinburgh was established by royal charter in 1783 and
19575-479: Was established in 1848 as the College of Bytown. It received a royal charter under the name College of Ottawa , raising it to university status in 1866. The older Australian universities of Sydney (1850) and Melbourne (1853) were founded by acts of the legislatures of the colonies. This gave rise to doubts about whether their degrees would be recognised outside of those colonies, leading to them seeking royal charters from London, which would grant legitimacy across
19720-424: Was established privately in 1775 but not incorporated until 1783. Eight Canadian universities and colleges were founded or reconstituted under royal charters in the 19th century, prior to Confederation in 1867. Most Canadian universities originally established by royal charter were subsequently reincorporated by acts of the relevant parliaments. The University of King's College was founded in 1789 and received
19865-619: Was first published in October 1992. The Tax Faculty joined the Confédération Fiscale Européenne (CFE) in 2001. ICAEW has 25 local member networks and societies across the UK and the Crown Dependencies. These local networks and societies play a crucial role in supporting ICAEW members in their respective local areas providing: Local networks help members connect, learn, and contribute to their local economies while upholding
20010-412: Was incorporated by royal charter in 1837 (explicitly not founding the university, which it describes as having been "established under our Royal sanction, and the authority of our Parliament") but although this confirmed that it had "all the property, rights, and privileges which ... are incident to a University established by our Royal Charter" it contained no explicit grant of degree-awarding powers. This
20155-471: Was known to Europeans as early as 1570. It received great attention from the Jesuit Matteo Ricci (1552–1610), who viewed it and its Confucian appeal to rationalism favorably in comparison to religious reliance on "apocalypse." Knowledge of Confucianism and the examination system was disseminated broadly in Europe following the Latin translation of Ricci's journal in 1614. During the 18th century,
20300-504: Was really based on Chinese literary examinations which were popularized in France by philosophers, especially Voltaire. Western perception of China in the 18th century admired the Chinese bureaucratic system as favourable over European governments for its seeming meritocracy. However those who admired China such as Christian Wolff were sometimes persecuted. In 1721 he gave a lecture at the University of Halle praising Confucianism, for which he
20445-691: Was replaced by a new charter from the National Assembly of Quebec in 1971. Bishop's University was founded, as Bishop's College, by an act of the Parliament of the Province of Canada in 1843 and received a royal charter in 1853, granting it the power to award degrees and stating that, "said College shall be deemed and taken to be a University, and shall have and enjoy all such and the like privileges as are enjoyed by our Universities of our United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland". The University of Ottawa
20590-548: Was restricted to Parliament from the end of the 17th century. Until the 19th century, royal charters were the only means other than an act of parliament by which a company could be incorporated ; in the UK, the Joint Stock Companies Act 1844 opened up a route to incorporation by registration, since when incorporation by royal charter has been, according to the Privy Council , "a special token of Royal favour or ...
20735-519: Was restricted to that of bookkeepers, in that accountants merely maintained records of what other business people had purchased and sold. However, with the growth of the limited liability company and large scale manufacturing and logistic in Victorian Britain , a demand was created for more technically proficient accountants to deal with the increasing complexity of accounting transactions dealing with depreciation of assets, inventory valuation and
20880-460: Was the University of Naples in 1224, founded by an imperial charter of Frederick II . The first university founded by royal charter was the University of Coimbra in 1290, by King Denis of Portugal , which received papal confirmation the same year. Other early universities founded by royal charter include the University of Perpignan (1349; papal confirmation 1379) and the University of Huesca (1354; no confirmation), both by Peter IV of Aragon ;
21025-591: Was the defining mark of the studium generale . Hastings Rashdall states that "the special privilege of the jus ubique docendi ... was usually, but not quite invariably, conferred in express terms by the original foundation-bulls; and was apparently understood to be involved in the mere act of erection even in the rare cases where it is not expressly conceded". Similarly, Patrick Zutshi, Keeper of Manuscripts and University Archives in Cambridge University Library, writes that "Cambridge never received from
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