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69-502: Humbie is a hamlet and rural parish in East Lothian , Scotland lying in south-east of the county, approximately 10 miles (16 km) south-west of Haddington and 15 miles (24 km) south-east of Edinburgh . Humbie as it is known today was formed as the result of the union between Keith Marischal and Keith Hundeby in 1618. Originally, Humbie formed part of the Barony of Keith, and

138-565: A buurtschap officially is a part of another place (e.g. Bartlehiem , part of Wyns ). In Pakistan, a hamlet is called a gaaon گاؤں or mauza موضع in Urdu , giraaan گراں or pind پنڈ in Punjabi , and kalay کلې in Pashto . It is almost synonymous to 'village'. In Poland, the law recognises a number of different kinds of rural settlement . Przysiółek (which can be translated as "hamlet") refers to

207-404: A dorp (village), no infrastructure (i.e. no inn, no school, no store) and contains often only one street, bearing the same name. The houses and farms of a gehucht or a buurtschap can be scattered. Though there are strong similarities between a gehucht and buurtschap , the words are not interchangeable. A gehucht officially counts as an independent place of residence (e.g. Wateren ), while

276-426: A cluster of farms. Osada (which is typically translated as "settlement" but also can be translated as "hamlet") includes smaller settlements especially differing by type of buildings or inhabited by population connected with some place or workplace (like mill settlements, forest settlements, fishing settlements, railway settlements, former State Agricultural Farm settlements). They can be an independent settlement, or

345-454: A distinction was often that selo has a church and derevnia has not. The once common Russian word хутор ( khutor ) for the smallest type of rural settlement (arguably closest in nature to the English hamlet) is now mostly obsolete. The state of USSR wanted to have some form of basic infrastructure and central authority at each and every settlement. Obviously, this is the opposite of a hamlet -

414-451: A few houses in the rural outskirts of a village. In Ukraine, a very small village such as a hamlet usually is called a selyshche or khutir . There also existed such places like volia , sloboda , huta , buda , and others. In England , the word hamlet (having the French origin given at the top of this article) means (in current usage) simply a small settlement, maybe of

483-414: A few houses or farms, smaller than a village. However, traditionally and legally, it means a village or a town without a church, although hamlets are recognised as part of land use planning policies and administration. Historically, it may refer to a secondary settlement in a civil parish , after the main settlement (if any); such an example is the hamlet of Chipping being the secondary settlement within

552-894: A hamlet is called a "bigha" . In state of Karnataka , a hamlet is known by different names like Palya , Hadi (Haadi), Keri , and Padi (Paadi). In olden days, the human population of hamlet was less than Halli (Village) or Ooru (Uru). But in the 20th century with tremendous increase in population, some of these hamlets have become villages, towns, cities or merged with them. All over Indonesia , hamlets are translated as "small village", desa or kampung . They are known as dusun in Central Java and East Java, banjar in Bali, jorong or kampuang in West Sumatra . The Dutch words for hamlet are gehucht or buurtschap . A gehucht or buurtschap has, compared to

621-430: A hamlet lacks a compact core settlement and lacks a central building such as a church or inn. However, some hamlets ( Kirchwiler ) may have grown up as an unplanned settlement around a church. There is no population limit that defines a hamlet and some hamlets have a larger population than some of the smallest municipalities. Generally there are no street names in a hamlet; rather, addresses are given by hamlet name and

690-506: A larger entity (e.g. parish or municipality ). In Spain, the hamlet is one of the categories in the official gazetteer of population entities. In the Royal Order and Instruction of the 8 of March 1930, issued for the elaboration of the Annual gazetteer, the hamlet ( aldea ) is defined as the population entity with the smallest population and neighbourhood, usually more disseminated than

759-581: A larger municipality (similar to civil townships in the United States), such as many communities within the single-tier municipalities of Ontario , Alberta 's specialized and rural municipalities, and Saskatchewan 's rural municipalities. Canada's two largest hamlets— Fort McMurray (formerly incorporated as a city) and Sherwood Park —are located in Alberta. They each have populations, within their main urban area, in excess of 60,000—well in excess of

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828-470: A list of various linguistic features and their extent among the West Germanic languages, organized roughly from northwest to southeast. Some may only appear in the older languages but are no longer apparent in the modern languages. The following table shows some comparisons of consonant development in the respective dialect/language (online examples though) continuum, showing the gradually growing partake in

897-488: A massive evidence for a valid West Germanic clade". After East Germanic broke off (an event usually dated to the 2nd or 1st century BC), the remaining Germanic languages, the Northwest Germanic languages, divided into four main dialects: North Germanic, and the three groups conventionally called "West Germanic", namely: Although there is quite a bit of knowledge about North Sea Germanic or Anglo-Frisian (because of

966-415: A number of Frisian, English, Scots, Yola, Dutch, Limburgish, German and Afrikaans words with common West Germanic (or older) origin. The grammatical gender of each term is noted as masculine ( m. ), feminine ( f. ), or neuter ( n. ) where relevant. Other words, with a variety of origins: Note that some of the shown similarities of Frisian and English vis-à-vis Dutch and German are secondary and not due to

1035-500: A number. House numbers might start at one side of the hamlet and continue to the other side or may have no clear organization. A hamlet may form or have formed a Bürgergemeinde (legal place of citizenship regardless of where a person was born or currently lives) and may own common property for the Bürgergemeinde . In Turkey , a hamlet is known as a mezra and denotes a small satellite settlement usually consisting of

1104-456: A parent commune . In the Russian language, there are several words which mean "a hamlet", but all of them are approximately equivalent. The most common word is деревня ( derevnia , the word meant "an arable" in the past); the words село ( selo , from the Russian word селиться ( selit'tsa ), meaning "to settle") and посёлок ( posiolok ) are quite frequently used, too. Parallel to many other cultures,

1173-403: A part of another settlement, like a village. In Romania , hamlets are called cătune (singular: cătun ), and they represent villages that contain several houses at most. They are legally considered villages, and statistically, they are placed in the same category. Like villages, they do not have a separate administration, and thus are not an administrative division, but are part of

1242-460: A place without either for being too small to meaningfully support those. Even without state pressure, once one of the neighboring khutor s got a permanent shop, school, community center (known in Russia as дом культуры, "house of culture"), maybe a medical post, others would naturally relocate closer, drawing together into one village. Thus, the diminutive form деревенька ( derevenka , tiny derevnia )

1311-410: A series of pioneering reconstructions of Proto-West Germanic morphological paradigmas and new views on some early West Germanic phonological changes, and in 2013 the first monographic analysis and description of Proto-West Germanic was published (second edition 2022). Today, there is a scientific consensus on what Don Ringe stated in 2012, that "these [phonological and morphological] changes amount to

1380-540: A specific service, such as water, sewer, or lighting to provide only that hamlet with services. A hamlet could be described as the rural or suburban equivalent of a neighborhood in a city or village. The area of a hamlet may not be exactly defined; it may be designated by the Census Bureau , or it may rely on some other form of border (such as a ZIP Code , school district or fire district for more urbanized areas; rural hamlets are typically only demarcated by speed zones on

1449-458: A village. The term Lieu-dit is also applied to hamlets, but this can also refer to uninhabited localities. During the 18th century, it was fashionable for rich or noble people to create their own hameau in their gardens . This was a group of houses or farms with rustic appearance, but in fact very comfortable. The best known are the Hameau de la Reine built by the queen Marie-Antoinette in

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1518-584: Is ferm toun , used in the specific case of a farm settlement, including outbuildings and agricultural workers' homes. The term hamlet was used in Wales to denote a geographical subdivision of a parish (which might or might not contain a settlement). Elsewhere, mostly in England, these subdivisions were called "townships" or "tithings". The Welsh word for "hamlet" is pentrefan (also pentrefyn ). Both these words are diminutives of pentref ("village") with

1587-510: Is also used for designating small groups of rural dwellings or farmhouses. A hamlet in Spain is a human settlement, usually located in rural areas, and typically smaller in size and population than a village (called in Spain, pueblo Spanish: [ˈpweβlo] ). The hamlet is a common territorial organisation in the North West of Spain ( Asturias , Cantabria and Galicia ) dependent on

1656-687: Is by far the most-spoken West Germanic language, with more than 1 billion speakers worldwide. Within Europe, the three most prevalent West Germanic languages are English, German, and Dutch. Frisian, spoken by about 450,000 people, constitutes a fourth distinct variety of West Germanic. The language family also includes Afrikaans , Yiddish , Low Saxon , Luxembourgish , Hunsrik , and Scots . Additionally, several creoles , patois , and pidgins are based on Dutch, English, or German. The Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups: West, East and North Germanic. In some cases, their exact relation

1725-416: Is described as "the last male representative of this ancient family." Humbie House lies approximately 0.5 miles (0.80 km) north-east of the church. It was built during the late 18th century, replacing an earlier house, with substantial alterations in the 19th century. The "T-Plan" Parish Church was rebuilt in 1800 and Gothicized in 1866 by David Bryce . The 'chancel' was added in 1932. Memorials in

1794-725: Is in the extreme northern part of Germany between the Danish border and the Baltic coast. The area of the Saxons (parts of today's Schleswig-Holstein and Lower Saxony ) lay south of Anglia. The Angles and Saxons , two Germanic tribes , in combination with a number of other peoples from northern Germany and the Jutland Peninsula, particularly the Jutes , settled in Britain following the end of Roman rule in

1863-500: Is in widespread, albeit unofficial, use to denote such settlements, which mostly possess the amenities of a village yet the size of hamlet. In Spain , a hamlet is called lugar , aldea or cortijada ( Spanish: [koɾtiˈxaða] ). The word comes from the Spanish term cortijo («estate»). In the South of Spain, the term caserío ( Spanish: [kaseˈɾi.o] )

1932-531: Is now southern Germany, Austria, and Switzerland can be considered the end of the linguistic unity among the West Germanic dialects, although its effects on their own should not be overestimated. Bordering dialects very probably continued to be mutually intelligible even beyond the boundaries of the consonant shift. During the Early Middle Ages , the West Germanic languages were separated by the insular development of Old and Middle English on one hand, and by

2001-494: Is part of a larger municipality. In different states of India , there are different words for hamlet. In Haryana and Rajasthan , it is called " dhani " ( Hindi : ढाणी ḍhāṇī ) or "Thok" . In Gujarat , a hamlet is called a "nesada" , which are more prevalent in the Gir forest . In Maharashtra , it is called a "pada" . In southern Bihar, especially in the Magadh division ,

2070-509: The High German consonant shift and the anglofrisian palatalization. The table uses IPA , to avoid confusion via orthographical differences. The realisation of [r] will be ignored. C = any consonant, A = back vowel, E = front vowel The existence of a unified Proto-West Germanic language is debated. Features which are common to West Germanic languages may be attributed either to common inheritance or to areal effects. The phonological system of

2139-454: The High German consonant shift on the continent on the other. The High German consonant shift distinguished the High German languages from the other West Germanic languages. By early modern times, the span had extended into considerable differences, ranging from Highest Alemannic in the South (the Walliser dialect being the southernmost surviving German dialect) to Northern Low Saxon in

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2208-908: The Keiths , who were then Grand Marischals of Scotland . The north front was baronialized in 1889 by Kinnear & Peddie. Interior decorations and fireplaces were done circa 1740, 1800, 1820, and 1869. Possibly the most prominent proprietors of Humbie proper were a cadet branch of the Hepburn of Waughton & Luffness family, the Hepburns of Kirklandhill. Alexander Nisbet incorrectly states that Adam Hepburn of Kirklandhill purchased Humbie and Hartside from James Lawson of Humbie in 1586. They were, in fact, disponed by John Lawson of Humbie to Hepburn by resignation dated 25 May 1637 Mr Adam Hepburn married Agnes, daughter to Henry Foulis of Colinton and his wife Margaret, daughter of James Haldane of Gleneagles . His son and successor

2277-562: The Migration Period , while others hold that speakers of West Germanic dialects like Old Frankish and speakers of Gothic were already unable to communicate fluently by around the 3rd century AD. As a result of the substantial progress in the study of Proto-West Germanic in the early 21st century, there is a growing consensus that East and West Germanic indeed would have been mutually unintelligible at that time, whereas West and North Germanic remained partially intelligible. Dialects with

2346-506: The Town of Hempstead , with a population of over 50,000, are more populous than some incorporated cities in the state. In Oregon , specifically in Clackamas County , a hamlet is a form of local government for small communities that allows the citizens therein to organize and co-ordinate community activities. Hamlets do not provide services, such as utilities or fire protection, and do not have

2415-401: The lugar , though its buildings can be also organised in streets and plazas. In the four national languages, hamlets are known as Weiler (German), hameaux (French), frazioni (Italian) and fracziun ( Romansh ). A hamlet is always part of a larger municipality or may be shared between two municipalities. The difference between a hamlet and a village is that typically

2484-488: The 10,000-person threshold that can choose to incorporate as a city in Alberta. As such, these two hamlets have been further designated by the Province of Alberta as urban service areas . An urban service area is recognized as equivalent to a city for the purposes of provincial and federal program delivery and grant eligibility. A hamlet, French: hameau , is a group of rural dwellings, usually too small to be considered

2553-449: The North. Although both extremes are considered German , they are not mutually intelligible. The southernmost varieties have completed the second sound shift, whereas the northern dialects remained unaffected by the consonant shift. Of modern German varieties, Low German is the one that most resembles modern English. The district of Angeln (or Anglia), from which the name English derives,

2622-602: The Old French hamelet came to apply to small human settlements. The word comes from Anglo-Norman hamelet , corresponding to Old French hamelet , the diminutive of Old French hamel meaning a little village. This, in turn, is a diminutive of Old French ham , possibly borrowed from ( West Germanic ) Franconian languages . It is related to the modern French hameau , Dutch heem , Frisian hiem , German Heim , Old English hām , and Modern English home . In Afghanistan ,

2691-640: The Proto-West Germanic language was published in 2013 by Wolfram Euler , followed in 2014 by the study of Donald Ringe and Ann Taylor. If indeed Proto-West Germanic existed, it must have been between the 2nd and 7th centuries. Until the late 2nd century AD, the language of runic inscriptions found in Scandinavia and in Northern Germany were so similar that Proto-North Germanic and the Western dialects in

2760-506: The RAF. As it returned from a reconnaissance over the Firth of Clyde , Supermarine Spitfire fighters of 602 and 603 Squadron intercepted the bomber over Inchkeith and it crash landed near Humbie. It is often referred to as the 'Humbie Heinkel', and Archie McKellar was credited with the victory. Hamlet (place) The word and concept of a hamlet can be traced back to Norman England , where

2829-522: The West Germanic branching as reconstructed is mostly similar to that of Proto-Germanic, with some changes in the categorization and phonetic realization of some phonemes. In addition to the particular changes described above, some notable differences in the consonant system of West Germanic from Proto-Germanic are: Some notable differences in the vowel system of West Germanic from Proto-Germanic are: The noun paradigms of Proto-West Germanic have been reconstructed as follows: The following table compares

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2898-420: The West Germanic language and finally the formation of the daughter languages. It has been argued that, judging by their nearly identical syntax, the West Germanic dialects were closely enough related to have been mutually intelligible up to the 7th century. Over the course of this period, the dialects diverged successively. The High German consonant shift that occurred mostly during the 7th century AD in what

2967-431: The West Germanic languages and are thus seen as a Proto West Germanic innovation. Since at least the early 20th century, a number of morphological, phonological, and lexical archaisms and innovations have been identified as specifically West Germanic. Since then, individual Proto-West Germanic lexemes have also been reconstructed. Yet, there was a long dispute if these West Germanic characteristics had to be explained with

3036-670: The West Germanic languages is the development of a gerund . Common morphological archaisms of West Germanic include: Furthermore, the West Germanic languages share many lexemes not existing in North Germanic and/or East Germanic – archaisms as well as common neologisms. Some lexemes have specific meanings in West Germanic and there are specific innovations in word formation and derivational morphology, for example neologisms ending with modern English -ship (< wgerm. -*skapi , cf. German -schaft ) like friendship (< wg. *friund(a)skapi , cf. German Freundschaft ) are specific to

3105-512: The authority to levy taxes or fees. There are four hamlets in Oregon: Beavercreek , Mulino , Molalla Prairie , and Stafford . In Vietnam , a hamlet ( xóm , ấp ) is the smallest unofficial administrative unit. It is a subdivision of a commune or township ( xã ). West Germanic languages North Germanic languages West Germanic languages West Germanic languages The West Germanic languages constitute

3174-410: The characteristic features of its daughter languages, Anglo-Saxon/ Old English and Old Frisian ), linguists know almost nothing about "Weser–Rhine Germanic" and "Elbe Germanic". In fact, both terms were coined in the 1940s to refer to groups of archaeological findings, rather than linguistic features. Only later were the terms applied to hypothetical dialectal differences within both regions. Even today,

3243-464: The churchyard include a heraldic tablet of the Borthwicks of Whitburgh of the early 17th century, and another monument to James Scriven of Ploughlandhill who died in 1668. The village war memorial dates from 1921 and was designed by Sir Robert Lorimer . On 28 October 1939, a Heinkel He 111 H Luftwaffe bomber from Kampfgeschwader 26 was the first German aircraft to be shot down on British soil by

3312-519: The civil parish of Buckland . Hamlets may have been formed around a single source of economic activity such as a farm, mill, mine or harbour that employed its working population. Some hamlets may be the result of the depopulation of a village ; examples of such a hamlet are Graby and Shapwick . Because of the hilly topography of the parish, the village of Clent , situated on the Clent Hills , consists of five distinct hamlets. In Northern Ireland ,

3381-559: The common Irish place name element baile is sometimes considered equivalent to the term hamlet in English, although baile would actually have referred to what is known in English today as a townland : that is to say, a geographical locality rather than a small village. In the Scottish Highlands , the term clachan , of Gaelic derivation, may be preferred to the term hamlet . Also found in Scotland more generally

3450-408: The concept of a West Germanic proto-language claim that, not only shared innovations can require the existence of a linguistic clade , but also that there are archaisms that cannot be explained simply as retentions later lost in the North or East, because this assumption can produce contradictions with attested features of the other branches. The debate on the existence of a Proto-West Germanic clade

3519-651: The counterpart of the hamlet is the qala ( Dari : قلعه, Pashto : کلي) meaning "fort" or "hamlet". The Afghan qala is a fortified group of houses, generally with its own community building such as a mosque, but without its own marketplace. The qala is the smallest type of settlement in Afghan society, outsized by the village ( Dari / Pashto : ده), which is larger and includes a commercial area. In Canada's three territories , hamlets are officially designated municipalities . As of January 1, 2010: In Canada's provinces, hamlets are usually small unincorporated communities within

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3588-521: The existence of a West Germanic proto-language or rather with Sprachbund effects. Hans Frede Nielsen 's 1981 study Old English and the Continental Germanic Languages made the conviction grow that a West Germanic proto-language did exist. But up until the 1990s, some scholars doubted that there was once a Proto-West Germanic proto-language which was ancestral only to later West Germanic languages. In 2002, Gert Klingenschmitt presented

3657-492: The features assigned to the western group formed from Proto-Germanic in the late Jastorf culture ( c.  1st century BC ). The West Germanic group is characterized by a number of phonological , morphological and lexical innovations or archaisms not found in North and East Germanic. Examples of West Germanic phonological particularities are: A relative chronology of about 20 sound changes from Proto-Northwest Germanic to Proto-West Germanic (some of them only regional)

3726-480: The island. Once in Britain, these Germanic peoples eventually developed a shared cultural and linguistic identity as Anglo-Saxons ; the extent of the linguistic influence of the native Romano-British population on the incomers is debatable. Divisions between subfamilies of continental Germanic languages are rarely precisely defined; most form dialect continua , with adjacent dialects being mutually intelligible and more separated ones not. The following table shows

3795-686: The largest of the three branches of the Germanic family of languages (the others being the North Germanic and the extinct East Germanic languages). The West Germanic branch is classically subdivided into three branches: Ingvaeonic , which includes English , the Low German languages , and the Frisian languages ; Istvaeonic , which encompasses Dutch and its close relatives; and Irminonic , which includes German and its close relatives and variants. English

3864-574: The loose meaning of "small village". In Mississippi , a 2009 state law (§ 17-27-5) set aside the term "municipal historical hamlet" to designate any former city, town, or village with a current population of less than 600 inhabitants that lost its charter before 1945. The first such designation was applied to Bogue Chitto, Lincoln County . In New York, hamlets are unincorporated settlements within towns . Hamlets are not legal entities and have no local government or official boundaries. Their approximate locations will often be noted on road signs, however,

3933-546: The mountains) or scattered (more often in the plains). In North West Germany, a group of scattered farms is called Bauerschaft . In a Weiler, there are no street names, the houses are just numbered. There is no legal definition of a hamlet in Germany. In Bavaria, like in Austria, a Weiler is defined as a settlement with 3 to 9 dwellings, from 10 houses it is called a village. A hamlet does not usually form its own administrative unit, but

4002-525: The other hand, the internal subgrouping of both North Germanic and West Germanic is very messy, and it seems clear that each of those subfamilies diversified into a network of dialects that remained in contact for a considerable period of time (in some cases right up to the present). Several scholars have published reconstructions of Proto-West Germanic morphological paradigms and many authors have reconstructed individual Proto-West Germanic morphological forms or lexemes. The first comprehensive reconstruction of

4071-503: The park of the Château de Versailles , and the Hameau de Chantilly built by Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé in Chantilly, Oise . The German word for hamlet is Weiler ( German: [ˈva͡ɪlɐ] ). A Weiler has, compared to a Dorf (village), no infrastructure (i.e. no inn, no school, no store, no church). The houses and farms of a Weiler can be grouped (in the hills and

4140-581: The properties that the West Germanic languages have in common, separate from the North Germanic languages, are not necessarily inherited from a "Proto-West Germanic" language, but may have spread by language contact among the Germanic languages spoken in Central Europe, not reaching those spoken in Scandinavia or reaching them much later. Rhotacism, for example, was largely complete in West Germanic while North Germanic runic inscriptions still clearly distinguished

4209-431: The roads serving them). Others, such as Forestville, New York , will be the remnants of former villages, with borders coextant with the previously defined borders of the defunct or dissolved village. Some hamlets proximate to urban areas are sometimes continuous with their cities and appear to be neighborhoods, but they still are under the jurisdiction of the town. Some localities designated as hamlets, such as Levittown in

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4278-401: The south were still part of one language ("Proto-Northwest Germanic"). Sometime after that, the split into West and North Germanic occurred. By the 4th and 5th centuries the great migration set in. By the end of the 6th century, the area in which West Germanic languages were spoken, at least by the upper classes, had tripled compared to the year 400. This caused an increasing disintegration of

4347-447: The two phonemes. There is also evidence that the lowering of ē to ā occurred first in West Germanic and spread to North Germanic later since word-final ē was lowered before it was shortened in West Germanic, but in North Germanic the shortening occurred first, resulting in e that later merged with i . However, there are also a number of common archaisms in West Germanic shared by neither Old Norse nor Gothic. Some authors who support

4416-451: The very small number of Migration Period runic inscriptions from the area, many of them illegible, unclear or consisting only of one word, often a name, is insufficient to identify linguistic features specific to the two supposed dialect groups. Evidence that East Germanic split off before the split between North and West Germanic comes from a number of linguistic innovations common to North and West Germanic, including: Under that view,

4485-523: Was Sir Adam Hepburn, Lord Humbie , a Senator of the College of Justice , who married on 30 December 1629 Agnes, daughter to George Foulis of Ravelston, Master of the Mint. Their daughter Jean married John Cockburn of Ormiston, and they were parents of Adam Cockburn of Ormiston , Lord Justice Clerk . Humbie was retained by the Hepburns until the death without issue of James Hepburn of Humbie on 2 December 1820, when he

4554-518: Was anciently known as Keith Hundeby. The lands were held by Simon Fraser of Keith in the reign of David I . A charter signed by Fraser in 1191 is said to be the first mention of the Anglo- Norman Frasers and the Barony in extant records. Keith Marischal House stands a mile to the NNW of Humbie, and was the caput of the ancient barony. It is a long house with a vaulted ground floor, built in 1589 by

4623-432: Was difficult to determine from the sparse evidence of runic inscriptions, so that some individual varieties have been difficult to classify. This is especially true for the unattested Jutish language ; today, most scholars classify Jutish as a West Germanic variety with several features of North Germanic. Until the late 20th century, some scholars claimed that all Germanic languages remained mutually intelligible throughout

4692-575: Was published by Don Ringe in 2014. A phonological archaism of West Germanic is the preservation of grammatischer Wechsel in most verbs, particularly in Old High German. This implies the same for West Germanic, whereas in East and North Germanic many of these alternations (in Gothic almost all of them) had been levelled out analogically by the time of the earliest texts. A common morphological innovation of

4761-422: Was summarized (2006): That North Germanic is ... a unitary subgroup [of Proto-Germanic] is completely obvious, as all of its dialects shared a long series of innovations, some of them very striking. That the same is true of West Germanic has been denied, but I will argue in vol. ii that all the West Germanic languages share several highly unusual innovations that virtually force us to posit a West Germanic clade. On

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