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78-550: Hulton Abbey is a scheduled monument in the United Kingdom , a former monastery located in what is now Abbey Hulton , a suburb of Stoke-on-Trent . A daughter house of the Cistercian Combermere Abbey , the abbey was founded by Henry de Audley in the early 13th century. Throughout its life, the abbey was relatively small and poor, with one of the lowest incomes of all Staffordshire religious houses. The abbey

156-460: A scheduled ancient monument , although the Act defines only ancient monument and scheduled monument . A monument can be: In Northern Ireland they are designated under separate legislation and are referred to as a scheduled historic monument (for those in private ownership) or a monument in state care (for those in public ownership). The first Act to enshrine legal protection for ancient monuments

234-512: A "cutting table" That is used for cutting hot or cold steel with chisels, and hot cut tools without harming the anvil's face. Marks on the face transfer into imperfections in the blacksmith's work. There are many types of hammer used in a blacksmith's workshop but this will name just a few common ones. Hammers can range in shape and weight from half an ounce to nearly 30 pounds depending on the type of work being done with it. Chisels are made of high carbon steel . They are hardened and tempered at

312-498: A blacksmith as such because they are too soft. A common term for a cast iron anvil is "ASO" or "Anvil Shaped Object". The purpose of a tool steel face on an anvil is to provide what some call "rebound" as well as being hard and not denting easily from misplaced hammer blows. The term rebound means it projects some of the force of the blacksmith's hammer blows back into the metal thus moving more metal at once than if there were no rebound. A good anvil can project anywhere from 50 to 99% of

390-425: A burner tube mounted at a right angle to the body. The chamber is typically lined with refractory materials such as a hard castable refractory ceramic or a soft ceramic thermal blanket (ex: Kaowool ). The burner mixes fuel and air which are ignited at the tip, which protrudes a short way into the chamber lining. The air pressure, and therefore heat, can be increased with a mechanical blower or by taking advantage of

468-511: A condensed register nor to any single authority to take care of over the course of the last 130 years. The UK is a signatory to the Council of Europe 's Valletta Treaty which obliges it to have a legal system to protect archaeological heritage on land and under water. The body of designation legislation used for legally protecting heritage assets from damage and destruction is complex, and dates back to 1882. There have been many revisions since, and

546-630: A daughter house of the Cistercian Combermere Abbey in Cheshire. The site chosen, like those of many Cistercian abbeys, was remote, being situated on the eastern side of the upper Trent valley; some of the donated land was inherited by Henry from his mother, with the remainder being specially purchased. It was the last of three Cistercian monasteries built in Staffordshire, the first two being Croxden Abbey and Dieulacres Abbey . Audley founded

624-416: A greater distance away from the hot metals. They are very useful and found throughout the world. Tongs are used by the blacksmith for holding hot metals securely. The mouths are custom made by the smith in various shapes to suit the gripping of various shapes of metal . It is not uncommon for a blacksmith to own twenty or more pairs of tongs; traditionally, a smith would start building their collection during

702-538: A kitchen and a refectory. The church foundations remain visible while the majority of the other abbey structures "survive well as buried features". In 1963, Hulton Abbey was designated a Scheduled Monument , and is protected under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979 . The site has been further identified by Historic England as Heritage at Risk , with the visible remains identified as "vulnerable to weathering and stone decay". The site's condition

780-499: A limited definition of what constitutes a monument. Features such as ritual landscapes , battlefields and flint scatters are difficult to schedule; recent amendment in Scotland (see below) has widened the definition to include "any site... comprising any thing, or group of things, that evidences previous human activity". The wide range of legislation means that the terminology describing how historic sites are protected varies according to

858-645: A scheduled monument lies with the Secretary of State for the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS). The Secretary of State keeps the list, or schedule, of these sites. The designation process was first devolved to Scotland and Wales in the 1970s and is now operated there by the Scottish Government and the Welsh Government respectively. The government bodies with responsibility for archaeology and

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936-445: A site, defines a boundary around it and advises the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport of its eligibility for inclusion on the schedule. In Wales Cadw is part of central government and act on behalf of the relevant ministers. In Scotland, since October 2015, Historic Environment Scotland has been a non-departmental public body advising Scottish Ministers. The 1979 Act makes it a criminal offence to: Despite perceptions to

1014-424: A square cloister , with the church positioned on the northern side. The church was of a standard, cruciform design. It measured 42.5m long and 32m wide, was built in stone and had a relatively short nave . Each end of the transept featured two adjoining chapels . The chancel and the south transept are thought to have been built first, with the remainder of the church being constructed later. The chapter house

1092-521: Is a different law from that used for listed buildings (which fall within the town and country planning system). A heritage asset is a part of the historic environment that is valued because of its historic, archaeological, architectural or artistic interest. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have extra legal protection through designation. There are about 20,000 scheduled monuments in England representing about 37,000 heritage assets. Of

1170-410: Is a type of hearth used for heating metals , or the workplace ( smithy ) where such a hearth is located. The forge is used by the smith to heat a piece of metal to a temperature at which it becomes easier to shape by forging , or to the point at which work hardening no longer occurs. The metal (known as the "workpiece") is transported to and from the forge using tongs , which are also used to hold

1248-494: Is considered Heritage at Risk . The site is now owned and managed by Stoke-on-Trent City Council . Between the late 6th century and the reign of Henry VIII , over 700 monastic communities were founded in England; of these, at least 75 were founded by members of the Cistercian order . The size of these communities varied from several hundred members to only a handful. During Medieval times, monasteries were important contributors to

1326-429: Is described as "poor" and in need of repair. The main graveyard was situated to the north-east of the church. The excavation works between 1987 and 1994 uncovered the remains of 91 individuals; the large proportion were of men but those of women and children have also been identified. A number of artifacts have been discovered with the excavated burials, including a pilgrim 's staff and a wax chalice . A wax seal , with

1404-459: Is of a rectangular design and was built in 1270. Excavations have shown that the chapter house and church featured some of the earliest examples of bar tracery windows in the British Isles. There is further evidence of the tracery bars being replaced several times throughout the 14th century. By the 19th century the site was used for entirely for agriculture, on land owned by Carmount Farm. It

1482-424: Is placed in or on the hearth and ignited. A source of moving air, such as a fan or bellows, introduces additional air into the fire through the tuyere. With additional air, the fire consumes fuel faster and burns hotter (and cleaner - smoke can be thought of as escaped potential fuel). A blacksmith balances the fuel and air in the fire to suit particular kinds of work. Often this involves adjusting and maintaining

1560-486: Is refined into wrought iron . The anvil serves as a workbench to the blacksmith , where the metal to be forged is worked. Anvils may seem clunky and heavy, but they are a highly refined tool carefully shaped to suit a blacksmith's needs. Anvils are made of cast or wrought iron with a tool steel face welded on or of a single piece of cast or forged tool steel. Some anvils are made of only cast iron and have no tool steel face. These are not real anvils, and will not serve

1638-408: Is usually a large container full of water used by a blacksmith to quench hot metal. The slack tub is principally used to cool parts of the work during forging (to protect them, or keep the metal in one area from "spreading" for example, nearby hammer blows); to harden the steel; to tend a coal or charcoal forge; and simply to cool the work quickly for easy inspection. In bladesmithing and tool-making

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1716-712: The National Trust , regional and local archaeological societies, Portable Antiquities Scheme Finds Liaison Officers, voluntary groups, property owners, land managers and farmers. Examples of scheduled historic monuments in Northern Ireland , as designated by the Department for Communities : Examples of scheduled monuments in Scotland , as designated by Historic Environment Scotland : Examples of scheduled monuments in Wales , as designated by Cadw : Forge A forge

1794-492: The Venturi effect . Gas forges vary in size and construction, from large forges using a big burner with a blower or several atmospheric burners to forges built out of a coffee can utilizing a cheap, simple propane torch . A small forge can even be carved out of a single soft firebrick . The primary advantage of a gas forge is the ease of use, particularly for a novice. A gas forge is simple to operate compared to coal forges, and

1872-494: The 1882 legislation was guided through Parliament by John Lubbock , who in 1871 had bought Avebury, Wiltshire , to ensure the survival of the stone circle. The first Inspector of Ancient Monuments, as set up by the act, was Augustus Pitt Rivers . At this point, only the inspector, answering directly to the First Commissioner of Works , was involved in surveying the scheduled sites and persuading landowners to offer sites to

1950-485: The 1979 Act was never brought into effect in Scotland. It is a legal requirement to maintain the 'schedule' of monuments. In England the Department for Culture, Media and Sport keeps a register, or schedule, of nationally important sites which receive state protection. The National Heritage List for England now includes about 400,000 heritage sites, including scheduled monuments. This online searchable list can be found on

2028-482: The Audley family. As a favourite , and purported lover, of Edward II , he held great influence at court; Despenser's political manoeuvrings earned him a number of enemies, including the king's estranged wife Queen Isabella . These enemies proved to be his downfall when, in 1326, Isabella and her ally, Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March , deposed Edward II and sentenced Despenser to death as a traitor. On Isabella's orders, he

2106-593: The Crown granted an exemption in exchange for a fine of £66 13s. 4d. In 1538 Brian Tuke , Treasurer of the Household , petitioned the Crown to grant the abbey and its lands to his son-in-law, George Tuchet, 9th Baron Audley , claiming that the abbot was willing to resign. However, when the abbot did surrender the abbey in September 1538, the property did not pass to Lord Audley but was instead sold to Edward Aston . The king granted

2184-610: The Historic England web site. The list of Scottish monuments can be searched on the Historic Environment Scotland website, or through Pastmap. For Wales, the National Monuments Record of Wales (NMRW), has an online database called "Coflein" which contains the national collection of information about the historic environment of Wales. To be eligible for scheduling, a monument must be demonstrably of (in

2262-647: The Marine (Scotland) Act 2010. It is intended that the marine scheduled monuments will be protected by this new Act. The Historic Environment (Amendment) (Scotland) Act, which amended the 1979 Act, was passed into law in 2011. Wider areas can be protected by designating their locations as Areas of Archaeological Importance (AAI) under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979. As of 2011, only five city centres in England have been designated as AAIs (Canterbury, Chester, Exeter, Hereford and York). This part of

2340-679: The UK are also protected as World Heritage Sites . To add to the confusion, some heritage assets can be both listed buildings and scheduled monuments (e.g. Dunblane Cathedral ). World Heritage Sites, conservation areas and protected landscapes can also contain both scheduled monuments and listed buildings. Where a heritage asset is both scheduled and listed, many provisions of the listing legislation are dis-applied (for example those relating to building preservation notices). In England, Scotland and Wales, protection of monuments can also be given by another process, additional to or separate from scheduling, taking

2418-462: The UK government states that it remains committed to heritage protection legislation reform, even though the draft Heritage Protection Bill 2008, which proposed a single 'register' that included scheduled monuments and listed buildings, was abandoned to make room in the parliamentary legislative programme for measures to deal with the credit crunch. The scheduling system has been criticised by some as being cumbersome. In England and Wales it also has

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2496-443: The abbey, like many noblemen of his time, for the benefit of his family's souls; the monks would be expected to celebrate mass for the souls of "Henry, Henry's predecessors and successors, and all the faithful departed". Further grants of land were made in the mid-thirteenth century by other local landowners, including Simon de Verney and Henry de Verdon at Normacot and Bucknall , respectively. The abbey continued to benefit from

2574-407: The apprenticeship. There are various types of tongs available in the market. (1) flat tong (2) rivet or ring tong (3) straight lip fluted tong (4) gad tong Fullers are forming tools of different shapes used in making grooves or hollows. They are often used in pairs, the bottom fuller has a square shank which fits into the hardy hole in the anvil while the top fuller has a handle. The work is placed on

2652-560: The body had been hung, drawn and quartered . Radiocarbon analysis dated the body to between 1050 and 1385, and later tests suggested it to be that of a man over 34 years old. In 2008, Dr Mary Lewis of the University of Reading identified the remains as belonging to Hugh Despenser the Younger . Despenser was the son of Hugh Despenser the Elder , Earl of Winchester , and was related by marriage to

2730-483: The bottom fuller and the top is placed on the work and struck with a hammer. The top fuller is also used for finishing round corners and for stretching or spreading metal. The hardy tool is a tool with a square shank that fits in a hardy hole. There are many different kinds of hardy tools such as the hot cut hardy, used for cutting hot metal on the anvil; the fuller tool, used for drawing out metal and making grooves; bending jigs - and too many others to list. A slack tub

2808-435: The church. Despite its estate holdings, the abbey was relatively poor and this fine was reduced by half in 1351. James was subsequently buried in the church, along with his son Nicholas Audley, 3rd Baron Audley and his wife Elizabeth, who left the abbey a sum of 400 marks in her will. Although mainly sheep farmers in the 13th century, the monks also engaged in other activities. A tannery and fulling-mill were maintained in

2886-556: The condition of scheduled monuments is also reported through the Heritage at Risk survey. In 2008 this survey extended to include all listed buildings , scheduled monuments, registered parks and gardens, registered battlefields, protected wreck sites and conservation areas. The register is compiled by survey by a range of heritage groups including Natural England, the Forestry Commission, local authorities, national park authorities,

2964-482: The construction of the church. During the 1970s, the remains of a decapitated and disarticulated male, missing several vertebrae and a thighbone, were found at Hulton Abbey. Their location in the chancel suggested that the bones belonged to either a wealthy member of the congregation or a member of the benefactor's family. In 2004 the remains were transferred to the University of Reading , where analysis suggested that

3042-1130: The contrary, only a very small proportion of applications for scheduled monument consent are refused. In Scotland in the ten years from 1995 to 2005, out of 2,156 applications, only 16 were refused. Development close to a scheduled monument which might damage its setting is also a material consideration in the planning system. Historic England, Historic Environment Scotland and Cadw monitor the condition of scheduled monuments. They encourage owners to maintain scheduled monuments in good condition by using sympathetic land uses, for example restricting stock levels or controlling undergrowth which can damage archaeology below ground. Historic Environment Scotland, Cadw, Historic England and Natural England also offer owners advice on how to manage their monuments. There are some grant incentive schemes for owners, including schemes run by Historic England and by Natural England for farmers and land managers. Historic Environment Scotland, Historic England and Cadw, occasionally award grants to support management agreements for monuments, and in some cases can help with major repairs. In England,

3120-435: The crown for the return of her husband's remains, but is said to have only secured his head, thigh bone and a number of vertebrae. Scheduled monument The various pieces of legislation that legally protect heritage assets from damage and destruction are grouped under the term " designation ". The protection provided to scheduled monuments is given under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979 , which

3198-417: The cutting edge while the head is left soft so it will not crack when hammered. Chisels are of two types, hot and cold chisels. The cold chisel is used for cutting cold metals while the hot chisel is for hot metals. Usually, hot chisels are thinner and therefore can not be substituted with cold chisels. Also, many smiths shape chisels as to have a simple twisted handle as to resemble a hammer, they can be used at

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3276-549: The dies have many aspects to them that must be considered. They all must be properly aligned, they must be designed so the metal and the flash will flow properly and fill all the grooves, and special considerations must be made for supporting webs and ribs and the parting line location. The materials must also be selected carefully. Some factors that go into the material selection are cost, their ability to harden, their ability to withstand high pressures, hot abrasion, heat cracking, and other such things. The most common materials used for

3354-550: The drop forming process is commonly known as a power or drop hammer. These may be powered by air, hydraulics, or mechanics. Depending on how the machine is powered, the mass of the ram, and the drop height, the striking force can be anywhere from 11,000 to 425,000 pounds. The tools that are used, dies and punches, come in many different shapes and sizes, as well as materials. Examples of these shapes are flat and v-shaped which are used for open-die forging, and single or multiple-impression dies used for closed die forging. The designs for

3432-432: The energy back into the workpiece. The flat top, called the "face" is highly polished and usually has two holes (but can have more or less depending on the design). The square hole is called the hardy hole, where the square shank of the hardy tool fits. There are many different kinds of hardy tools. The smaller hole is called the pritchel hole, used as a bolster when punching holes in hot metal, or to hold tools similar to how

3510-603: The established church by the Act of Supremacy , beginning a series of events known as the English Reformation . In 1535, parliament passed the Suppression of Religious Houses Act 1535 . The act ordered the suppression of all religious houses with an annual income of less than £200, with their assets and lands being passed to The Crown . With an income of only £87 10s. 1½d in 1535, the abbey should have been dissolved. Despite this,

3588-404: The fire in the forge. A forge typically uses bituminous coal , industrial coke or charcoal as the fuel to heat metal. The designs of these forges have varied over time, but whether the fuel is coal , coke or charcoal the basic design has remained the same. A forge of this type is essentially a hearth or fireplace designed to allow a fire to be controlled such that metal introduced to

3666-407: The fire is handled differently. Individual smiths and specialized applications have fostered the development of a variety of forges of this type, from the coal forge described above to simpler constructions amounting to a hole in the ground with a pipe leading into it. A gas forge typically uses propane or natural gas as the fuel. One common, efficient design uses a cylindrical forge chamber and

3744-442: The fire may be brought to a malleable state or to bring about other metallurgical effects ( hardening , annealing , and tempering as examples). The forge fire in this type of forge is controlled in three ways: amount of air, the volume of fuel, and shape of the fuel/fire. Over thousands of years of forging, these devices have evolved in one form or another as the essential features of this type of forge: During operation, fuel

3822-417: The fire produced is clean and consistent. They are less versatile, as the fire cannot be reshaped to accommodate large or unusually shaped pieces. It is also difficult to heat a small section of a piece. A common misconception is that gas forges cannot produce enough heat to enable forge- welding , but a well-designed gas forge is hot enough for any task. A finery forge is a water-powered mill where pig iron

3900-403: The hardy tool does, but for tools that require being able to turn a 360-degree angle such as a hold-down tool for when the blacksmith's tongs cannot hold a workpiece as securely as it needs to be. On the front of the anvil, there is sometimes a "horn" that is used for bending, drawing out steel, and many other tasks. Between the horn and the anvil face, there is often a small area called a "step" or

3978-402: The heat of the fire. Surrounding all is a ring or horseshoe-shaped layer of raw coal, usually kept damp and tightly packed to maintain the shape of the fire's heart and to keep the coal from burning directly so that it "cooks" into coke first. If a larger fire is necessary, the smith increases the air flowing into the fire as well as feeding and deepening the coke heart. The smith can also adjust

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4056-437: The heated material, which is very malleable, to conform to the shape of the die and die cavities. Typically only one die is needed to completely form the part. Extra space between the die faces causes some of the material to be pressed out of the sides, forming flash . This acts as a relief valve for the extreme pressure produced by the closing of the die halves and is later trimmed off of the finished part. The equipment used in

4134-630: The historic environment in Britain are: Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, and Historic Environment Scotland in Scotland. The processes for application and monitoring scheduled monuments is administered in England by Historic England; in Wales by Cadw on behalf of the Senedd (Welsh Parliament); and in Scotland by Historic Environment Scotland on behalf of the Scottish Ministers. In Northern Ireland,

4212-536: The impression of the church of Santo Spirito in Sassia , Rome , was found with one set of remains. Professor John Cherry has posited that the seal was attached to an indulgence obtained whilst on a pilgrimage . The graves of the Audley family, other local aristocracy and senior clergy members can be found in the church itself. Originally, burial here would have been reserved only for the Audley family, but by 1322 this right had been extended to anyone who had contributed to

4290-537: The legislation to include medieval monuments. Pressure grew for stronger legislation. In a speech in 1907, Robert Hunter, chairman of the National Trust, observed that only a further 18 sites had been added to the original list of 68. 'Scheduling' in the modern sense only became possible with the passing of the Ancient Monuments Consolidation and Amendment Act 1913 . When Pitt Rivers died in 1900 he

4368-423: The length and width of the fire in such a forge to accommodate different shapes of work. The major variation from the forge and fire just described is a ' backdraft ' where there is no fire pot, and the tuyere enters the hearth horizontally from the back wall. Coke and charcoal may be burned in the same forges that use coal, but since there is no need to convert the raw fuel at the heart of the fire (as with coal),

4446-520: The local area to supplement their income. There is evidence that the monks were producing encaustic tiles , and by the 16th century were operating a smithy in Horton and coal mines in Hulton and Hanley . Hulton Abbey was relatively small, with its poverty, when compared to other Staffordshire religious houses, only Brewood Priory being more impoverished. Due to the low income, in 1351, the 1349 fine of 200 marks

4524-512: The monks pensions, with the last abbot, Edward Wilkyns, receiving a sum of £20 a year. Following the Dissolution, the abbey quickly fell into ruin. The bells were sold, the roof lead removed and the stone used as a source of new building material. Archaeological evidence suggests that the site included a number of principal buildings, including the abbey church, chapter house , dormitories and refectory . These main structures were arranged around

4602-638: The monument into state ownership or placing it under guardianship, classifying it as a guardianship monument under the terms of Section 12 of the 1979 Act (as amended by the National Heritage Act 1983 in England, and by the Historic Environment (Amendment) (Scotland) Act 2011) (e.g. St Rule's Church in St Andrews). The latter meaning that the owner retains possession, while the appropriate national heritage body maintains it and (usually) opens it to

4680-441: The owner's freehold title or other legal interests in the land, nor does it give the general public any new rights of public access. The process of scheduling does not automatically imply that the monument is being poorly managed or that it is under threat, nor does it impose a legal obligation to undertake any additional management of the monument. In England and Wales the authority for designating, re-designating and de-designating

4758-400: The patronage of the Audley family. James Audley, 2nd Baron Audley presented a number of advowsons to the abbey throughout the 1340s, including that of Biddulph , Staffordshire in 1340, Marwood , Devon in 1348 and Audley , Staffordshire in 1349. Royal licence had not previously been secured for the 1349 grant and a 200 mark fine was imposed by the king before they were allowed to retain

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4836-528: The public. All monuments in guardianship on the passing of the 1979 Act were automatically included in the 'schedule'. Scheduling is not usually applied to underwater sites although historic wrecks can be protected under the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973 , although three maritime sites have been designated as scheduled monuments. In Scotland new powers for protection of the marine heritage, better integrated with other maritime conservation powers, have been given by

4914-411: The shape of the fire. In a typical coal forge, a firepot will be centred in a flat hearth. The tuyere will enter the firepot at the bottom. In operation, the hot core of the fire will be a ball of burning coke in and above the firepot. The heart of the fire will be surrounded by a layer of hot but not burning coke. Around the unburnt coke will be a transitional layer of coal being transformed into coke by

4992-401: The state. The act also established the concept of guardianship, in which a site might remain in private ownership, but the monument itself become the responsibility of the state, as guardian. However the legislation could not compel landowners, as that level of state interference with private property was not politically possible. The Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1900 extended the scope of

5070-411: The surrounding community. They were centres of education, charity and worship, with the largest and wealthiest establishments wielding a degree of political influence. The Cistercians emphasised a life of manual labour , prayer and self-sufficiency . Many of their abbeys traditionally supported themselves through agriculture . Hulton Abbey was founded in 1223 by a local landowner, Henry de Audley, as

5148-435: The tens of thousands of scheduled monuments in the UK, most are inconspicuous archaeological sites, but some are large ruins . According to the 1979 Act, a monument cannot be a structure which is occupied as a dwelling, used as a place of worship or a protected shipwreck . Scheduled monuments are defined in the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979 . In England, Wales and Scotland they are often referred to as

5226-472: The term "Scheduled Historic Monument" is used. These sites protected under Article 3 of the Historic Monuments and Archaeological Objects (Northern Ireland) Order 1995. The schedule contains over 1,900 sites, and is maintained by the Department for Communities . There is no positive distinction yet for a single method of registering sites of heritage. The long tradition of legal issues did not lead to

5304-403: The term will usually be changed to a "quench tank" because oil or brine is used to cool the metal. The term slack is believed to derive from the word "slake", as in slaking the heat. Drop forging is a process used to shape metal into complex shapes by dropping a heavy hammer with a die on its face onto the workpiece. The workpiece is placed into the forge. Then the impact of a hammer causes

5382-498: The terms of the 1979 Act) "national importance". Non-statutory criteria are provided to guide the assessment. In England these are: The Scottish criteria were revised after public consultation between 2006 and 2008. There is no appeal against the scheduling process and adding a monument to the schedule may be a process requiring a great deal of research and consideration. The process can be accelerated for sites under threat, however. In England, Historic England gathers information on

5460-418: The type of heritage asset. Monuments are "scheduled", buildings are "listed", whilst battlefields, parks and gardens are "registered", and historic wrecks are "protected". Historic urban spaces receive protection through designation as " conservation areas ", and historic landscapes are designated through national park and Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) legislation. In addition, there are areas in

5538-481: The workpiece on the smithy's anvil while the smith works it with a hammer. Sometimes, such as when hardening steel or cooling the work so that it may be handled with bare hands, the workpiece is transported to the slack tub , which rapidly cools the workpiece in a large body of water . However, depending on the metal type, it may require an oil quench or a salt brine instead; many metals require more than plain water hardening. The slack tub also provides water to control

5616-411: Was dissolved by Henry VIII in 1538, with its land and assets being sold. Little remains of the abbey today, but continued excavations have revealed the foundations of a number of the principal claustral buildings, as well as human burials. In 1963, Hulton Abbey was designated a scheduled monument , under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979 , however due to its poor condition it

5694-573: Was halved by the king "out of compassion for the poverty of the house". Their finances worsened with the onset of the Black Death ; the abbey's annual income fell from over £26 in 1291, to just £14 by 1354. Initially prompted by a dispute over the annulment of the marriage of King Henry VIII to Catherine of Aragon , the Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church in 1534 and became

5772-465: Was hung, drawn and quartered. On 24 November 1326…Despenser was roped to four horses…and dragged through the city to the walls of his own castle, where enormous gallows had been specially constructed…Despenser was raised a full 50 feet…and was lowered onto the ladder. A man climbed along side him sliced off his penis and testicles, flinging them into the fire below…he then plunged a knife into Despenser's abdomen and cut out his entrails and heart…the corpse

5850-470: Was lowered to the ground and the head cut off. It was later sent to London, and Despenser's arms, torso and legs were sent to be displayed above the gates of Newcastle, York, Dover and Bristol. Lewis based her identification on a number of factors including Despencer's relationship to the abbey's benefactors, the age of the remains and the cause of death. The missing bones were also cited as proof; in 1330, Hugh de Despenser's widow, Eleanor de Clare , petitioned

5928-475: Was not immediately replaced as Inspector. Charles Peers, a professional architect, was appointed as Inspector in 1910 in the Office of Works becoming Chief Inspector in 1913. The job title 'Inspector' is still in use. Scheduling offers protection because it makes it illegal to undertake a great range of 'works' within a designated area, without first obtaining 'scheduled monument consent'. However, it does not affect

6006-402: Was not until 1884, during drainage works in the area, that the abbey was rediscovered. Small scale archaeological excavations were completed throughout the 20th century, with the first major programme of work being undertaken between 1987 and 1994 by Stoke-on-Trent City Council. The works uncovered the eastern half of the church's nave and its north aisle, as well as the chapter house, dormitories,

6084-645: Was the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882 . This identified an initial list of 68 prehistoric sites that were given a degree of legal protection (25 sites in England, three in Wales, 22 in Scotland and 18 in Ireland). This was the result of strenuous representation by William Morris and the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings , which had been founded in 1877. Following various previous attempts,

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