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Hugh Trevor-Roper

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Military ranks are a system of hierarchical relationships within armed forces , police , intelligence agencies and other institutions organized along military lines. Responsibility for personnel, equipment and missions grow with each advancement. The military rank system defines dominance, authority and responsibility within a military hierarchy. It incorporates the principles of exercising power and authority into the military chain of command —the succession of commanders superior to subordinates through which command is exercised. The military chain of command is an important component for organized collective action.

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136-486: Hugh Redwald Trevor-Roper, Baron Dacre of Glanton , FBA (15 January 1914 – 26 January 2003) was an English historian. He was Regius Professor of Modern History at the University of Oxford . Trevor-Roper was a polemicist and essayist on a range of historical topics, but particularly England in the 16th and 17th centuries and Nazi Germany . In the view of John Kenyon, "some of [Trevor-Roper's] short essays have affected

272-586: A Festschrift was published in honour of Trevor-Roper, History and the Imagination . Some of the contributors were Sir Geoffrey Elton , John Clive, Arnaldo Momigliano , Frances Yates , Jeremy Catto , Robert S. Lopez, Michael Howard , David S. Katz , Dimitri Obolensky , J. H. Elliott , Richard Cobb , Walter Pagel, Hugh Lloyd-Jones , Valerie Pearl and Fernand Braudel . The topics contributed by this group of American, British, French, Russian, Italian, Israeli, Canadian and German historians extended from whether

408-460: A captain . A Greek cavalry ( hippikon ) regiment was called a hipparchia and was commanded by an epihipparch . The unit was split into two and led by two hipparchos or hipparch , but Spartan cavalry was led by a hipparmostes . A hippotoxotès was a mounted archer. A Greek cavalry company was led by a tetrarchès or tetrarch . The rank and file of the military in most of the Greek city states

544-582: A commission ; they are trained or training as leaders and hold command positions. Officers are further generally separated into four levels: Officers who typically command units or formations that are expected to operate independently for extended periods of time (i.e., brigades and larger, or flotillas or squadrons of ships), are referred to variously as general officers (in armies, marines, and some air forces), flag officers (in navies and coast guards), or air officers (in some Commonwealth air forces). General-officer ranks typically include (from

680-410: A dimoiria was a half file and a dimoirites was a half-file leader. Another name for the half file was a hèmilochion with a hèmilochitès being a half-file leader. Different types of units, however, were divided differently and therefore their leaders had different titles. For example, under a numbering system by tens, a dekas or dekania was a unit of ten led by a dekarchos , a hekatontarchia

816-419: A private . The private was a man who signed a private contract with the company commander, offering his services in return for pay. The money was raised through taxation; those yeomen ( smallholding peasants) who did not fulfill their annual 40-day militia service paid a tax that funded professional soldiers recruited from the yeomanry. This money was handed to the company commanders from the royal treasury, with

952-413: A regiment " ( syntagma ) and was therefore like a modern colonel . Below him was the tagmatarches , a commanding officer of a tagma (near to the modern battalion ). The rank was roughly equivalent to the legatus of a Roman legion . Next was the lokhagos , an officer who led an infantry unit called a lokhos that consisted of roughly a hundred men, much the same as in a modern company led by

1088-583: A " mountebank " instead of the ideologue Trevor-Roper believed him to be. When Taylor offered a picture of Hitler similar to Bullock's, in his 1961 book The Origins of the Second World War , the debate continued. Another feud was with the novelist and Catholic convert Evelyn Waugh , who was angered by Trevor-Roper's repeated harsh attacks on the Catholic Church. In the globalist–continentalist debate between those who argued that Hitler aimed to conquer

1224-504: A "history". Despite controversies over historical accuracy in oral records, as in Alex Haley 's book Roots: The Saga of an American Family and the popular TV mini-series based on it , many historians believe that African griots , or oral memoirists, provide a historical oral record. The nadir of his career came in 1983, when as a director of The Times , Trevor-Roper (by now Baron Dacre of Glanton) made statements that authenticated

1360-557: A Messiah complete with "the youthful Temptations; the missionary Journeys; the Miracles; the Revelations; the Agony". For Trevor-Roper, the major themes of early modern Europe were its intellectual vitality, and the quarrels between Protestant and Catholic states, the latter being outpaced by the former, economically and constitutionally. In Trevor-Roper's view, another theme of early modern Europe

1496-470: A boy he was aware that only a dozen lives (several of them those of elderly bachelors) separated him from inheriting the Teynham peerage." Trevor-Roper's brother, Patrick , became a leading eye surgeon and gay rights activist. Trevor-Roper was educated at Belhaven Hill School , Charterhouse , and Christ Church, Oxford , where he read first Classics ( Literae Humaniores ) and then Modern History . He got

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1632-509: A campaign to drive Trevor-Roper out of the college by grotesque rudeness and insubordination. In a review of Adam Sisman's 2010 biography of Trevor-Roper, the Economist wrote that the picture of Peterhouse in the 1980s was "startling", stating the college had become under Cowling's influence a sort of right-wing "lunatic asylum", who were determined to sabotage Trevor-Roper's reforms. In 1987 he retired complaining of "seven wasted years". In 1981

1768-474: A diabolical adventurer animated solely by an unlimited lust for personal power   ... Hitler was a systematic thinker and his mind is, to the historian, as important as the mind of Bismarck or Lenin". Trevor-Roper maintained that Hitler, on the basis of a wide range of antisemitic literature, from the writings of Houston Stewart Chamberlain to The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion , had constructed

1904-444: A festering heap of refuse, old tins and vermin, ashes and eggshells and ordure, the intellectual detritus of centuries". Cesarani wrote that Trevor-Roper regarded Hitler, in marked contrast to Bullock, as a man who was serious about what he said but at the same time, Trevor-Roper's picture of Hitler as a somewhat insane leader, fanatically pursuing lunatic policies, meant paradoxically that it was hard to take Hitler seriously, at least on

2040-682: A first-class degree in Classical Moderations in 1934 and won the Craven, the Ireland, and the Hertford scholarships in Classics. Initially, both he and his brother intended to make their careers in the Classics, but Hugh became bored with what he regarded as the pedantic technical aspects of the classics course at Oxford and switched to history, where he obtained first-class honours in 1936. Whilst at Oxford, he

2176-535: A former MI6 officer was an expert on clandestine affairs, to examine some of the more outlandish claims contained in the text. For an example, Backhouse claimed in Décadence Mandchoue that the wives and daughters of British diplomats in Beijing had trained their dogs and tamed foxes to perform cunnilingus on them, which the fascistic Backhouse used as evidence of British "decadence", which in turn explained why he

2312-535: A former criterion for a society having left " prehistory ". Critics of Trevor-Roper's claim have questioned the validity of systematic interpretations of the African past, whether by materialist , Annalist or the traditional historical methods used by Trevor-Roper. Some say approaches which compare Africa with Europe or directly integrate it into European history cannot qualify as accurate descriptions of African societies . Most scholars of any mettle now agree that Africa has

2448-406: A leader at the head of each column (or file) and a secondary leader in the middle so that the back rows could move off to the sides if more frontage was needed. A tetrarchia was a unit of four files and a tetrarchès or tetrarch was a commander of four files; a dilochia was a double file and a dilochitès was a double-file leader; a lochos was a single file and a lochagos was a file leader;

2584-504: A lieutenant colonel as a commanding officer and a major as an executive officer . Modern military services recognize three broad categories of personnel. These are codified in the Geneva Conventions , which distinguish officers , non-commissioned officers , and enlisted men . Apart from conscripted personnel one can distinguish: Officers are distinguished from other military members (or an officer in training ) by holding

2720-484: A mere title   ... a gewgaw, which has been bandied intermittently from family to family for six centuries, without tradition or continuity or distinction (except for murder, litigation and extravagance) or, for the last 250 years, land? They only acquired this pretty toy, in 1829, because a Mr Brand , of whom nothing whatever is known, had married into the Trevor-Ropers (who had themselves acquired it by marrying into

2856-464: A racist ideology that called for making Germany the world's greatest power and the extermination of perceived enemies such as the Jews and Slavs. Trevor-Roper wrote that the mind of Hitler was "a terrible phenomenon, imposing indeed in its granite harshness and yet infinitely squalid in its miscellaneous cumber, like some huge barbarian monolith; the expression of giant strength and savage genius; surrounded by

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2992-643: A satirical work on the student revolts and university politics of the late 1960s, originally published as letters in The Spectator . Another aspect of Trevor-Roper's outlook on history and on scholarly research that has inspired controversy is his statement about the historical experiences of pre-literate societies. Following Voltaire's remarks on the fall of the Roman Empire at the hands of barbarian tribes, he asserted that Africa had no history prior to European exploration and colonisation . Trevor-Roper said "there

3128-408: A science and that the attribute of a successful historian was imagination. He viewed history as full of contingency, with the past neither a story of continuous advance nor of continuous decline but the consequence of choices made by individuals at the time. In his studies of early modern Europe, Trevor-Roper did not focus exclusively upon political history but sought to examine the interaction between

3264-555: A special passion of Backhouse's. It was this embezzlement of the money Backhouse had raised for the Wilde defence fund that led to him fleeing Britain in 1895. The discrediting of Backhouse as a source led to much of China's history being re-written in the West. Backhouse had portrayed Prince Ronglu as a friend of the West and an enemy of the Boxers when the opposite was true. Trevor-Roper noted that in

3400-527: A strict hierarchy—a king was conceived of as first among equals , not a monarch as later or ancient societies understood the concept, and all nobles were theoretically equals (hence " peers "). A nobleman was obligated to bring a set number of troops when asked by his liege-lord, a king or merely a higher-ranked noble who had obtained his service by the gift of land . The troops' lord retained at least nominal control over them—many post-classical military planning sessions involved negotiating each lord's role in

3536-555: A successful campaign against the candidacy of Sir Oliver Franks who was backed by the heads of houses marshalled by Maurice Bowra , for the Chancellorship of the University of Oxford , helping the Prime Minister Harold Macmillan to be elected instead. In 1964, Trevor-Roper edited a Festschrift in honour of his friend Sir Keith Feiling 's 80th birthday. In 1970, he was the author of The Letters of Mercurius ,

3672-447: A title borne by the officer sent with military powers to represent the king in certain provinces. A lieutenant du roi was sometimes known as a lieutenant général to distinguish him from lieutenants subordinate to mere captains. The sergeant acting as staff officer to the captain general was known as the sergeant major general . This was eventually shortened to major general , while captain general began to be addressed, depending on

3808-519: A well-known French expression, but noted that Backhouse was fluent in French. Backhouse was fluent in Mandarin and Cantonese , lived most of his life in Beijing and after moving to China had declined to wear western clothes, preferring instead the gown of a Chinese mandarin, which led most Westerners to assume that Backhouse "knew" China. Trevor-Roper noted that despite his superficial appearance of affection for

3944-468: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . War substantive Uniforms denote the bearer's rank by particular insignia affixed to the uniforms of a number of countries . Ranking systems have been known for most of military history to be advantageous for military operations , in particular with regards to logistics, command, and coordination. As time went on and military operations became larger and more complex, more ranks were created and

4080-471: Is derived from the 17th-century French peloton , meaning a small ball or small detachment of men, which came from pelote , a ball. The commissioned officer carrying the (infantry) company's flag was the ensign . The word ensign was derived from the Latin word insignia . In cavalry companies the equivalent rank was cornet . In English usage, these ranks were merged into the single rank of second lieutenant in

4216-454: Is only the history of Europeans in Africa. The rest is darkness", its past "the unedifying gyrations of barbarous tribes in picturesque but irrelevant corners of the globe". These comments, recapitulated in a later article which called Africa "unhistoric", spurred intense debate between historians, anthropologists , sociologists , in the emerging fields of postcolonial and cultural studies about

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4352-511: The Führerbunker with Hitler, and who had been able to escape to the West, including Bernd Freytag von Loringhoven . For the most part Trevor-Roper relied on investigations and interviews by hundreds of British, American and Canadian intelligence officers. He did not have access to Soviet materials. Working rapidly, Trevor-Roper drafted his report, which served as the basis for his most famous book, The Last Days of Hitler , in which he described

4488-707: The Odyssey was a part of an oral tradition that was later written down, to the question of the responsibility for the Jameson Raid . On 4 October 1954, Trevor-Roper married Lady Alexandra Henrietta Louisa Howard-Johnston (9 March 1907 – 15 August 1997), eldest daughter of Field Marshal The 1st Earl Haig by his wife, the former Hon. Dorothy Maud Vivian. Lady Alexandra was a goddaughter of Queen Alexandra and had previously been married to Rear-Admiral Clarence Dinsmore Howard-Johnston , by whom she had had three children. There were no children by his marriage with her. Trevor-Roper

4624-568: The Albanian People's Army 1966–1991 ), but they have had to re-establish them after encountering operational difficulties in command and control . From 501 BC, the Athenians annually elected ten individuals to the rank of strategos , one for each of the ten "tribes" that had been created with the founding of the democracy . Strategos means "army leader" and is usually translated as " general ". Originally these generals worked together with

4760-626: The Double-Cross System . He formed a low opinion of most pre-war professional intelligence officers, but a higher one of some of the post-1939 recruits. In The Philby Affair (1968) Trevor-Roper argues that the Soviet spy Kim Philby was never in a position to undermine efforts by the chief of the Abwehr , German Military Intelligence, Admiral Wilhelm Canaris , to overthrow the Nazi regime and negotiate with

4896-596: The Shoah was a blind-spot for Trevor-Roper. Trevor-Roper was a very firm "intentionalist" who treated Hitler as a serious, if slightly deranged thinker who, from 1924 until his death in 1945, was obsessed with "the conquest of Russia, the extermination of the Slavs, and the colonization of the English". In his 1962 essay "The Mind of Adolf Hitler", Trevor-Roper again criticized Bullock, writing "Even Mr. Bullock seems content to regard him as

5032-555: The Warren Commission which concluded that a lone gunman by the name of Lee Harvey Oswald was responsible. In a 3500 word essay published in The Sunday Times he said that the commission employed a "smokescreen of often irrelevant material" and "accepted impermissible axioms, constructed invalid arguments, and failed to ask elementary and essential questions". He wrote the introduction to Mark Lane 's book Rush to Judgment and

5168-498: The military branch , as general of the infantry , general of the cavalry or general of the artillery , and these ones, over time, were shortened to simply general . This is the reason a major outranks a lieutenant, but a lieutenant general outranks a major general. In modern times recruits attending basic training, also referred to as boot camp by some branches, are instructed in the hierarchical structure of military rank. Many new enlisted civilians find it difficult to understand

5304-419: The sergeant was dropped from both titles since both ranks were used for commissioned officers. This gave rise to the modern ranks of major and major general. The full title of sergeant major fell out of use until the latter part of the 18th century, when it began to be applied to the senior non-commissioned officer of an infantry battalion or cavalry regiment. Regiments were later split into battalions with

5440-520: The "diary" of Ching Shan, which Backhouse claimed to have looted from Ching's house just before it was burned down by Indian troops in the Boxer Rebellion , it has Prince Ronglu saying in French about the government's support of the Boxers: "It was worse than a crime; it was a blunder." Trevor-Roper argued that it was extremely unlikely that Prince Ronglu – who only knew Manchu and Mandarin – would be quoting

5576-610: The 1950s, Trevor-Roper wrote that Braudel and other Annalists were doing much innovative historical work but were "totally excluded from Oxford which remains, in historical matters, a retrograde provincial backwater". In Trevor-Roper's opinion, the dispute between the Puritans and the Arminians was a major, although not the sole, cause of the English Civil War . For him, the dispute was over such issues as free will and predestination and

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5712-406: The 19th century. Not all officers received a commission from the king. Certain specialists were granted a warrant, certifying their expertise as craftsmen. These warrant officers assisted the commissioned officers but ranked above the non-commissioned officers (NCOs). They received their authority from superior officers rather than the king. The first NCOs were the armed servants ( men-at-arms ) of

5848-562: The 6th Viscount Hampden , "as titular head of the Brand family", inform Trevor-Roper that the Dacre title belonged to the Brand family "and no-one else should breach their monopoly", on the grounds of the title's antiquity of over six centuries. This high-handed treatment strengthened Trevor-Roper's resolve in the face of his initial ambivalence; he observed "why should the Brands be so 'proud', or so jealous, of

5984-489: The British government. In November 1945, Trevor-Roper was ordered by Dick White , then head of counter-intelligence in the British sector of Berlin , to investigate the circumstances of Adolf Hitler's death , and to rebut the Soviet propaganda that Hitler was alive and living in the West. Using the alias of "Major Oughton", Trevor-Roper interviewed or prepared questions for several officials, high and low, who had been present in

6120-429: The British historian David Cesarani called an " ad hominem attack", writing that Trevor-Roper in his writings on Nazi Germany was indifferent to Nazi antisemitism, because she believed that he was a snobbish antisemite, who was apathetic about the murder of six million Jews. Cesarani wrote that Dawidowicz was wrong to accuse Trevor-Roper of antisemitism but argued that there was an element of truth to her critique in that

6256-532: The Chinese, much of what Backhouse wrote about on China worked subtly to confirm Western " Yellow Peril " stereotypes, as Backhouse variously depicted the Chinese as pathologically dishonest, sexually perverted, morally corrupt and generally devious and treacherous – in short, Chinese civilization for Backhouse was a deeply sick civilization. Derek Sandhaus, however, notes that Trevor-Roper did not consult specialists in Chinese affairs, and seems to have read only enough of

6392-563: The English gentry were, economically, on the way down or up, in the century before the English Civil War and whether this helped cause that war. Stone, Tawney and Hill argued that the gentry were rising economically and that this caused the Civil War. Trevor-Roper argued that while office-holders and lawyers were prospering, the lesser gentry were in decline. A third group of history men around J. H. Hexter and Geoffrey Elton , argued that

6528-662: The Lennards). Now they behave as if they had owned it for six centuries and had a monopoly of it for ever. A fig for their stuffiness!" Notwithstanding objections, Trevor-Roper duly took the title of Baron Dacre of Glanton. Fellow of the British Academy Fellowship of the British Academy ( post-nominal letters FBA ) is an award granted by the British Academy to leading academics for their distinction in

6664-719: The Netherlands ; and revolts against the Spanish Crown in Portugal , the Kingdom of Naples and Catalonia ; were all manifestations of the same problems. The most important causes of the "general crisis" in Trevor-Roper's opinion were conflicts between "Court" and "Country"; that is, between the increasingly powerful centralizing, bureaucratic, sovereign princely states, represented by the Court, and

6800-672: The Radio Security Service of the Secret Intelligence Service , and then on the interception of messages from the German intelligence service, the Abwehr . In early 1940, Trevor-Roper and E. W. B. Gill decrypted some of these intercepts, demonstrating the relevance of the material and spurring Bletchley Park efforts to decrypt the traffic. Intelligence from Abwehr traffic later played an important part in many operations including

6936-628: The Russian ballet dancer Vaslav Nijinsky , the British Prime Minister Lord Rosebery and the Empress Dowager Cixi of China whom the openly gay Backhouse had maintained had forced herself on him. Backhouse also claimed to have been the friend of the Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy and the French actress Sarah Bernhardt . For the next two years, Trevor-Roper went on an odyssey that took him all over Britain, France, Switzerland,

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7072-708: The United States) or general of the army (mainly the United States because "marshal" is used as a peace officer's designation), fleet admiral ( U.S. Navy ), Marshal of the Royal Air Force , or other national air force. These ranks have often been discontinued, such as in Germany and Canada, or limited to wartime or honorific promotion, such as in the United Kingdom and the United States. In various countries, particularly

7208-846: The United States, Canada and China as he sought to unravel the mystery of just who the elusive Backhouse was. Backhouse had between 1898 and his death in 1944 worked as a sinologist, the business agent for several British and American companies in China, a British spy, gun-runner and translator before finally ending his days in World War II China as a fascist and a Japanese collaborator who wished fervently for an Axis victory which would destroy Great Britain. Trevor-Roper noted that despite Backhouse's homosexuality and Nazi Germany's policy of persecuting homosexuals, Backhouse's intense hatred of his own country together with his sadistic-masochistic sexual needs meant that Backhouse longed to be "ravished and possessed by

7344-431: The United States, these may be referred to as "star ranks" for the number of stars worn on some rank insignia: typically one-star for brigadier general or equivalent with the addition of a star for each subsequent rank. In the United States, five stars has been the highest rank regularly attainable (excluding the marines and coast guard , which have traditionally served as branches of the navy in times of war and thus under

7480-407: The age of 67, he became Master of Peterhouse , the oldest and smallest college in the University of Cambridge . His election, which surprised his friends, was engineered by a group of fellows led by Maurice Cowling , then the leading Peterhouse historian . The fellows chose him because Cowling's reactionary clique thought he would be an arch-conservative who would oppose the admission of women. In

7616-518: The anniversary of General Franco’s death, attend parties in SS uniform or insult black and Jewish guests at high table. For the next seven years, Trevor-Roper battled to suppress the insurgency of the Cowling clique ("a strong mind trapped in its own glutinous frustrations"), and to bring the college back to a condition in which students might actually want to go there. Neither side won this struggle, which soon became

7752-402: The aristocracy, assigned to command, organize and train the militia units raised for battle. After years of commanding a squad, an NCO could be promoted to sergeant , the highest NCO rank. While a sergeant might have commanded a squad upon promotion, he usually became a staff officer. While commissioned staff officers assisted their commander with personnel, intelligence, operations and logistics,

7888-603: The basis of Trevor-Roper's writings. Cesarani stated that Trevor-Roper was sincere in his hatred and contempt for the Nazis and everything they stood for but he had considerable difficulty when it came to writing about the complicity and involvement of traditional German elites in National Socialism, because the traditional elites in Germany were so similar in many ways to the British establishment, which Trevor-Roper identified with so strongly. In this respect, Cesarani argued that it

8024-459: The battle of Lützen 1632). It was introduced to overcome the normal army structure, consisting of regiments. The so-called " brigada " was a mixed unit, comprising infantry, cavalry and normally artillery , designated for a special task. The size of such brigada was a reinforced company up to two regiments. The brigada was a 17th-century form of the modern "task force". In some armies "brigadier general" has been shortened to " brigadier ". Around

8160-495: The brutal, but still perverted masculinity of the fascist Führerprinzip ". The end result was one of Trevor-Roper's most successful later books, his 1976 biography of Backhouse, originally entitled A Hidden Life but soon republished in Britain and the US as The Hermit of Peking . Backhouse had long been regarded as a world's leading expert on China. In his biography, Trevor-Roper exposed

8296-463: The causes of the Civil War had nothing to do with the gentry. In 1948, a paper put forward by Stone in support of Tawney's thesis was vigorously attacked by Trevor-Roper, who showed that Stone had exaggerated the debt problems of the Tudor nobility. He also rejected Tawney's theories about the rising gentry and declining nobility, arguing that he was guilty of selective use of evidence and that he misunderstood

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8432-476: The civil war. Military command properly so-called was a political office in Rome. A commander needed to be equipped with imperium , a politico-religious concept. The king who possessed it (the rex sacrorum ) was strictly forbidden to have it to avoid a return to the monarchy. In the republic, commanding was confined to consuls or (seldom) to praetors , or in cases of necessity a dictator . Proconsuls , after

8568-494: The cohorts by one of their three manipulum's centurions; the most senior cohort-commanding centurions was called primus pilus . The ranks of centurions in the individual cohorts were, in descending order, pilus prior , pilus posterior , princeps prior , princeps posterior , hastatus prior , and hastatus posterior . Individual soldiers were referred to as soldiers ( milites ) or legionaries ( legionarii ). See Mongol military tactics and organization . There were no ranks in

8704-416: The coming battle—and each lord was allowed to leave after a predetermined amount of time had passed. The command structure of armies was generally loose and varied considerably. Typically, the king and high-ranking lords would call out for all lords to gather their troops for a campaign. They would appoint a renowned noble to organize the assembling forces, the marshal . The term field marshal came from

8840-497: The command of a fleet admiral). There also exists the specialty ranks of General of the Armies of the United States and Admiral of the Navy which at their inception were considered senior four star officers but came to be considered six-star rank after the creation of five star officers. To date only one officer has held a six star rank in his lifetime, John J. Pershing . George Washington

8976-400: The company commanders using the money to recruit the troops. As armies grew larger, composed of multiple companies, one captain was granted general (overall) authority over the field armies by the king. (National armies were the armies of the kings. Field armies were armies raised by the king to enter the battle field in preparation for major battles.) In French history, lieutenant du roi was

9112-464: The company was the lieutenant . Lieutenant was derived from the French language ; the lieu meaning "place" as in a position; and tenant meaning "holding" as in "holding a position"; thus a "lieutenant" is somebody who holds a position in the absence of their superior. When he was not assisting the captain, the lieutenant commanded a unit called a platoon , particularly a more specialized platoon. The word

9248-481: The definition of "history". Historians have argued, in response, that historical myths of the kind perpetrated by Trevor-Roper need to be actively countered: "Only a process of counter-selection can correct this, and African historians have to concentrate on those aspects which were ignored by the disparaging mythologies". Many historians now argue, against Trevor-Roper, that historical evidence should also include oral traditions as well as any type of written history ,

9384-450: The diaries had come into the possession of their "discoverer", and about the age of the paper and ink used in them and of their authenticity. Nonetheless, this incident prompted the satirical magazine Private Eye to nickname him "Hugh Very-Ropey", "Lord Lucre of Claptout", or more concisely, "Lord Facre". Despite the shadow this cast over his later career, he continued to write and publish and his work remained well received. In 1980 at

9520-543: The diaries were forgeries. The ensuing fiasco gave Trevor-Roper's enemies the opportunity to criticise him openly, while Trevor-Roper's initial endorsement of the diaries raised questions about his integrity: The Sunday Times , a newspaper to which he regularly contributed book reviews and of which he was an independent director, had already paid a considerable sum for the right to serialise the diaries if and only if they were genuine. Trevor-Roper explained that he had been given assurances (that turned out to be false) about how

9656-409: The different tasks associated with running a ship were delegated to different subordinates. Specifically, the kybernètès was the helmsman, the keleustēs managed the rowing speed, and the trièraulès was the flute player who maintained the strike rate for the oarsmen. Following further specialization, the naval strategos was replaced by a nauarchos , a sea officer equating to an admiral . With

9792-476: The duties of a corporal themselves. It was this second function that made armies increasingly regard their lancepesades as a grade of corporal rather than a grade of private. As a result, the rank of lance corporal was derived from combining lancepesade and corporal. As the post-classical came to an end, kings increasingly relied on professional soldiers to fill the bottom ranks of their armies instead of militiamen. Each of these professionals began their careers as

9928-569: The end of the 16th century, companies were grouped into regiments. The officers commissioned to lead these regiments were called " colonels " (column officers). They were first appointed in Spain by King Ferdinand II of Aragon where they were also known as " coronellos " (crown officers) since they were appointed by the Crown. Thus the English pronunciation of the word colonel . The first colonels were captains granted command of their regiments by commission of

10064-520: The establishment of the office, were used. In imperial times, each legion was commanded by the emperor, who was technically either consul or proconsul. The commander could appoint a deputy, a so-called legate ( legatus ). The association of " legatus " with "legion" is folk etymology , as the meaning of legatus is "proxy" or "envoy". Legates were typically drawn from the Roman Senate for three-year terms. The political nature of high military command

10200-471: The event, Trevor-Roper feuded constantly with Cowling and his allies, while launching a series of administrative reforms. Women were admitted in 1983 at his urging. The British journalist Neal Ascherson summarised the quarrel between Cowling and Trevor-Roper as: Lord Dacre, far from being a romantic Tory ultra, turned out to be an anti-clerical Whig with a preference for free speech over superstition. He did not find it normal that fellows should wear mourning on

10336-631: The founding of the CIA front group Congress for Cultural Freedom and its magazine Encounter . In the 1950s and 1960s, he was a frequent contributor to Encounter , but had reservations about what he regarded as the over-didactic tone of some of its contributors, particularly Koestler and Borkenau. Trevor-Roper was famous for his lucid and acerbic writing style. In reviews and essays he could be pitilessly sarcastic, and devastating in his mockery. In attacking Arnold J. Toynbee 's A Study of History , for instance, Trevor-Roper accused Toynbee of regarding himself as

10472-446: The generals determined the battle plan by majority vote. Particular assignments might have been given to individual generals; inevitably there was a regular division of responsibilities. The rank that was subordinate to a top general was a taxiarchos or taxiarhos , something akin to the modern brigadier . In Sparta , however, the title was " polemarchos ". Below this was the syntagmatarchis , which can be translated as "leader of

10608-505: The ghastly character of Nazism was that it did not share them". Cesarani noted that while Trevor-Roper supported the Conservatives and ended his days as a Tory life-peer, he was broadly speaking a liberal and believed that Britain was a great nation because of its liberalism. Because of this background, Cesarani wrote that Trevor-Roper naturally saw the liberal democracy Britain as anathema to Nazi Germany. Cesarani concluded that "to maintain

10744-459: The great powers. He claimed that this theory had been promoted by the German government's policy of selective publication of documents, aided and abetted by most German historians in a policy of "self-censorship". He praised Röhl for finding and publishing two previously secret documents that showed German responsibility for the war. Trevor-Roper was critical of the official account of the assassination of John F. Kennedy . He voiced his scepticism of

10880-450: The hook , and that for this he deserved to die. Rosenbaum reports that Trevor-Roper told him this was the most extreme response he had ever received for one of his books. In June 1950, Trevor-Roper attended a conference in Berlin of anti-Communist intellectuals along with Sidney Hook , Melvin J. Lasky , Ignazio Silone , Arthur Koestler , Raymond Aron and Franz Borkenau that resulted in

11016-433: The humanities and social sciences. The categories are: The award of fellowship is based on published work and fellows may use the post-nominal letters FBA . Examples of Fellows are Edward Rand ; Mary Beard ; Roy Porter ; Nicholas Stern, Baron Stern of Brentford ; Michael Lobban ; M. R. James ; Friedrich Hayek ; John Maynard Keynes ; Lionel Robbins ; and Rowan Williams . This award -related article

11152-412: The illusion of virtuous British liberalism, Hitler had to be depicted as either a statesman like any other or a monster without equal, and those who did business with him as, respectively, pragmatists or dupes. Every current of Nazi society that made it distinctive could be charted, while the anti-Jewish racism that it shared with Britain was discreetly avoided". A notable thesis propagated by Trevor-Roper

11288-490: The importance of what Villari called the English Revolution (the usual Marxist term for the English Civil War ), and insisted that the "general crisis" was part of a Europe-wide revolutionary movement. Another Marxist critic of Trevor-Roper, the Soviet historian A. D. Lublinskaya , attacked the concept of a conflict between "Court" and "Country" as fiction, arguing there was no "general crisis"; instead she maintained that

11424-440: The king. The lieutenants of the colonel were the lieutenant colonels . In the 17th century, the sergeant of the colonel was the sergeant major . These were field officers, third in command of their regiments (after their colonels and lieutenant colonels), with a role similar to the older, army-level sergeants major (although on a smaller scale). The older position became known as sergeant major general to distinguish it. Over time,

11560-525: The last days of Hitler 's bunker. From interviews with a range of witnesses and study of surviving documents, he demonstrated that Hitler was dead and had not escaped from Berlin. He also showed that Hitler's dictatorship was not an efficient unified machine but a hodge-podge of overlapping rivalries. Trevor-Roper's reputation was "severely damaged" in 1983 when he authenticated the Hitler Diaries shortly before they were shown to be forgeries. Trevor-Roper

11696-435: The last ten days of Hitler's life and the fates of some of the higher-ranking members of the inner circle, as well as those of key lesser figures. Trevor-Roper transformed the evidence into a literary work, with sardonic humour and drama, and was much influenced by the prose styles of two of his favourite historians, Edward Gibbon and Lord Macaulay . The book was cleared by British officials in 1946 for publication as soon as

11832-465: The legion), each consisting of three manipula , each of them of two centuries (a rather small company in modern terms), each consisting of between 60 and 160 men. Each century was led by a centurion ( centurio , traditionally translated as captain ), who was assisted by a number of junior officers, such as an optio . Centuries were further broken into ten contubernia of eight soldiers each. The manipula were commanded by one of their two centurions,

11968-431: The marshal then leading the army on the march, and being in charge of organizing camps and logistics. Tactics for an upcoming battle were often decided by councils of war among the nobles leading the largest forces. Outside of campaigns, the high constable had authority over the local constables, and commanders of the garrisons of major castles. The high constable might have authority in the army due to his role of head of

12104-475: The modern sense of a hierarchy of titles, although the army was organized into a hierarchical command. The organization of the army was based on the decimal system, employed by Modun Chanyu . The army was built upon a squad of ten ( aravt ) led by an appointed chief. Ten of these would then compose a company of a hundred ( zuut ), also led by an appointed chief. The next unit was a regiment of a thousand ( myangat ) led by an appointed noyan . The largest organic unit

12240-445: The most senior) general , lieutenant general , major general , and brigadier general , although there are many variations like division general or (air-, ground-) force general. Flag-officer ranks, named after the traditional practice of showing the presence of such an officer with a flag on a ship and often land, typically include (from the most senior) admiral , vice admiral and rear admiral . In some navies, such as Canada's ,

12376-471: The old polemarchos ("warlord") but over time the latter figure was absorbed into the generalship: each of the ten generals would rotate as polemarch for one day, and during this day his vote would serve as tie-breaker if necessary. The ten generals were equal to one another; there was no hierarchy among them. However, a basic form of democracy was in effect: for example, at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC,

12512-401: The other hand, his biographer Adam Sisman also writes that "the mark of a great historian is that he writes great books, on the subject which he has made his own. By this exacting standard Hugh failed." Trevor-Roper's most commercially successful book was titled The Last Days of Hitler (1947). It emerged from his assignment as a British intelligence officer in 1945 to discover what happened in

12648-410: The people"; in addition, they must not either be confused with the "military tribunes with consular authority", who in early republican times could replace the consuls. The third highest officer of a legion, above the angusticlavian tribunes, was the praefectus castrorum . He, too, would have a colonel's rank in modern armies, yet he differed much from the tribunes in that his office was not part of

12784-563: The political, intellectual , social and religious trends. His preferred medium of expression was the essay rather than the book. In his essays in social history, written during the 1950s and 1960s, Trevor-Roper was influenced by the work of the French Annales school , especially Fernand Braudel and did much to introduce the work of the Annales school to the English-speaking world . In

12920-467: The post-classical army was the company , a band of soldiers assigned (or raised) by a vassal lord on behalf of his lord (in later times the king himself). The vassal lord in command of the company was a commissioned officer with the rank of captain . Captain was derived from the Late Latin word capitaneus (meaning "head man" or chief ). The commissioned officer assisting the captain with command of

13056-531: The pros and cons of the theory. At times the discussion became quite heated; the Italian Marxist historian Rosario Villari, speaking of the work of Trevor-Roper and Mousnier, claimed that: "The hypothesis of imbalance between bureaucratic expansion and the needs of the state is too vague to be plausible, and rests on inflated rhetoric, typical of a certain type of political conservative, rather than on effective analysis." Villari accused Trevor-Roper of downgrading

13192-539: The rank of commodore is a flag rank . In the United Kingdom and most other Commonwealth air forces, air-officer ranks usually include air chief marshal , air marshal , air vice-marshal and air commodore . For some air forces, however, such as those of Canada , United States and many other air forces, general officer rank titles are used. In the case of the United States Air Force , that service

13328-734: The rank of officer cadet corporal . On 28 February 1939, he was commissioned in the British Army as a second lieutenant with seniority in that rank from 1 October 1938, and attached to cavalry unit of the Oxford University Contingent of the OTC. On 15 July 1940, he was promoted to war substantive lieutenant and transferred to the Intelligence Corps , Territorial Army . During the Second World War , he served as an officer in

13464-433: The rather administrative cursus , but normally filled by former centurions. (Modern armies have a similar distinction on a lower scale—i.e., between commissioned and non-commissioned officers.) The fighting men in the legion were formed into "ranks", rows of men who fought as a unit. Under Marius's new system, legions were divided into ten cohorts ( cohortes ) (roughly equivalent to battalions and immediately subject to

13600-456: The reforms by Marius . Comparisons to modern ranks, however, can only be loose because the Roman army's command structure was very different from the organizational structure of its modern counterparts, which arose from the early modern, Thirty Years' War mercenary companies, rather than from the writings of fourth-century Roman writer Vegetius and Caesar 's commentaries on his conquest of Gaul and

13736-472: The regular cavalry. As the European and Asian Middle Ages came to an end, the rank structure of post-classical armies became more formalized. The top officers were known as commissioned officers because their rank came from a royal commission. Army commissions were usually reserved for those of high stature—the aristocracy of mainland Europe and the aristocracy and gentry of Great Britain. The basic unit of

13872-472: The rise of Macedonia under Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great , the Greek military became professional, tactics became more sophisticated and additional levels of ranking developed. Foot soldiers were organized into heavy infantry phalanxes called phalangites . These were among the first troops ever to be drilled, and they fought packed in a close rectangular formation, typically eight men deep, with

14008-512: The role of preaching versus the sacraments; only later did the dispute become a matter of the structure of the Church of England . The Puritans desired a more decentralised and egalitarian church, with an emphasis on the laity, while the Arminians wished for an ordered church with a hierarchy, an emphasis on divine right and salvation through free will. As a historian of early modern Britain, Trevor-Roper

14144-459: The rules of the College of Arms either ['Lord Trevor' or 'Lord Roper'] would require him to change his surname to either 'Trevor' or 'Roper.'" On mentioning the family's connection to the Dacre title to his wife, who liked the sound of it, Trevor-Roper was persuaded to opt for the title of "Baron Dacre", despite staunch opposition from the suo jure 27th Baroness Dacre (née Brand). She had her cousin,

14280-474: The sergeant was a jack of all trades, concerning himself with all aspects of administration to maintain the enlisted men serving under his commander. Over time, sergeants were differentiated into many ranks as various levels of sergeants were used by the commanders of various levels of units. A corporal commanded a squad . Squad derived from the Italian word for a "square" or "block" of soldiers. In fact, corporal

14416-449: The so-called Hitler Diaries . Others were unsure: holocaust denier David Irving , for example, initially decried them as forgeries but subsequently changed his mind and declared that they could be genuine, before finally stating that they were a forgery. Historians Gerhard Weinberg and Eberhard Jäckel had also expressed doubt regarding the authenticity of the diaries. Within two weeks, forensic scientist Julius Grant demonstrated that

14552-457: The so-called "general crisis" was merely the emergence of capitalism. In 1973, Trevor-Roper in the foreword to a book by John Röhl endorsed the view that Germany was largely responsible for the First World War . Trevor-Roper wrote that in his opinion far too many British historians had allowed themselves to be persuaded of the theory that the outbreak of war in 1914 had been the fault of all

14688-415: The statistics. Trevor-Roper attacked the philosophies of history advanced by Arnold J. Toynbee and E. H. Carr , as well as his colleague A. J. P. Taylor 's account of the origins of World War II . Another dispute was with Taylor and Alan Bullock over the question of whether Adolf Hitler had fixed aims. In the 1950s, Trevor-Roper was ferocious in his criticism of Bullock for his portrayal of Hitler as

14824-450: The structure of general staff ranks as stated before, it becomes somewhat complicated to understand when applying basic rationale. As armies grew bigger, heraldry and unit identification remained primarily a matter of the regiment. Brigades headed by brigadier generals were the units invented as a tactical unit by the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus II ("Gustav II Adolf", who was killed at

14960-563: The systems of ranking became more complex. Rank is not only used to designate leadership, but to establish pay-grade as well. As rank increases, pay-grade follows, but so does the amount of responsibility. In modern armed forces, the use of ranks is almost universal. Communist states have, on several occasions, abolished the use of ranks (e.g., the Soviet Red Army 1918–1935, the Chinese People's Liberation Army 1965–1988, and

15096-407: The term: of ranks major , lieutenant colonel , colonel , and with administrative duties. They did not command a formation of their own. The term military tribune is even sometimes translated into English as "colonel"—most notably by the late classicist Robert Graves in his Claudius novels and his translation of Suetonius ' Twelve Caesars —to avoid confusion with the political " tribunes of

15232-529: The text to have been disgusted by its homosexuality.[14] While conceding that Backhouse fabricated or imagined many of these assignations, Sandhaus finds that others are plausible or independently confirmed and he reasons that Backhouse spoke Chinese, Manchu, and Mongolian, the languages of the imperial household, and his account of the atmosphere and customs of the Empress Dowager's court may be more reliable than Trevor-Roper allowed. In 1960, Trevor-Roper waged

15368-595: The traditional, regional, land-based aristocracy and gentry, representing the country. In addition, he said that the religious and intellectual changes introduced by the Reformation and the Renaissance were important secondary causes of the "general crisis". The "general crisis" thesis generated controversy between supporters of this theory, and those, such as the Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm , who agreed with him that there

15504-426: The vast majority of Sir Edmund's life-story and virtually all of his scholarship as a fraud. In Décadence Mandchoue , Backhouse spoke of his efforts to raise money to pay the defence lawyers for Wilde while he was an undergraduate at Oxford. Trevor-Roper established that while Backhouse did indeed raise money for the Wilde defence fund, he spent it all on buying expensive jewellery, especially pearl necklaces, which were

15640-540: The war crimes trials ended. It was published in English in 1947; six English editions and many foreign language editions followed. According to American journalist Ron Rosenbaum , Trevor-Roper received a letter from Lisbon written in Hebrew stating that the Stern Gang would assassinate him for The Last Days of Hitler , which, they believed, portrayed Hitler as a "demoniacal" figure but let ordinary Germans who followed Hitler off

15776-419: The way we think about the past more than other men's books". This is echoed by Richard Davenport-Hines and Adam Sisman in the introduction to One Hundred Letters from Hugh Trevor-Roper (2014): "The bulk of his publications is formidable   ... Some of his essays are of Victorian length. All of them reduce large subjects to their essence. Many of them   ... have lastingly transformed their fields." On

15912-565: The world and those who argued that he sought only the conquest of Europe, Trevor-Roper was one of the leading continentalists. He argued that the globalist case sought to turn a scattering of Hitler's remarks made over decades into a plan. In his analysis, the only consistent objective Hitler sought was the domination of Europe, as laid out in Mein Kampf . The American historian Lucy Dawidowicz in The Holocaust and Historians (1981) delivered what

16048-511: Was a baivarabam and was commanded by a baivarapatis . The Greeks called such masses of troops a myrias or myriad . Among mounted troops, an asabam was a cavalry unit led by an asapatis . Historians have discovered the existence of the following ranks in Parthian and Sassanian armies: Post-classical militaries did not have a unified rank structure; while the feudal lords were in some ways equivalent to modern officers, they did not have

16184-705: Was a "general crisis", but saw the problems of 17th century Europe as more economic in origin than Trevor-Roper would allow. A third faction denied that there was any "general crisis", for example the Dutch historian Ivo Schöffer, the Danish historian Niels Steensgaard, and the Soviet historian A. D. Lublinskaya . Trevor-Roper's "general crisis" thesis provoked much discussion, and led experts in 17th century history such as Roland Mousnier , J. H. Elliott , Lawrence Stone , E. H. Kossmann, Eric Hobsbawm and J. H. Hexter to become advocates of

16320-568: Was a member of the exclusive Stubbs Society and was initiated as a Freemason in the Apollo University Lodge . In 1937, he moved from Christ Church to Merton College, Oxford to become a research fellow . His first book was a 1940 biography of Archbishop William Laud , in which he challenged many of the prevailing perceptions surrounding Laud. Trevor-Roper was a member of the University of Oxford's Officer Training Corps , reaching

16456-436: Was a nobleman who was headed for the senate. The latter is called laticlavian tribune ( tribunus laticlavius ) and was second in command. If in modern divisions the deputy commander is a brigadier general , the laticlavian tribune can perhaps be translated with this rank, though he commanded no formation of his own. The other tribunes are called tribuni angusticlavii and are equivalent to staff officers in both senses of

16592-418: Was a ten thousand man unit ( tumen ) also led by an appointed noyan . The army of ancient Persia consisted of manageable military groupings under the individual commands. Starting at the bottom, a unit of 10 was called a dathabam and was led by a dathapatis . A unit of 100 men was a satabam led by a satapatis . A unit of 1,000 was a hazarabam and was commanded by a hazarapatis . A unit of 10,000

16728-460: Was a unit of one hundred led by a hekatontarchos and a khiliostys or khiliarchia was a unit of a thousand led by a khiliarchos . The cavalry, for which Alexander became most famous (in a military sense), grew more varied. There were heavy cavalry and wing cavalry ( ilè ) units, the latter commanded by an ilarchos . The use of formalized ranks came into widespread use with the Roman legions after

16864-439: Was born at Glanton , Northumberland , England, the son of Kathleen Elizabeth Davidson (died 1964) and Bertie William Edward Trevor-Roper (1885–1978), a doctor, descended from Henry Roper, 8th Baron Teynham and second husband of Anne, 16th Baroness Dacre . Trevor-Roper "enjoyed (but not too seriously)   ... that he was a collateral descendant of William Roper , the son-in-law and biographer of Sir Thomas More   ... as

17000-493: Was composed of ordinary citizens. Heavily armed foot soldiers were called hoplitès or hoplites and a hoplomachos was a drill or weapons instructor. Once Athens became a naval power, the top generals of the land armies had authority over the naval fleets as well. Under them, each warship was commanded by a trièrarchos or trierarch , a word which originally meant " trireme officer" but persisted when other types of vessels came into use. Moreover, as in modern navies,

17136-430: Was derived from the Italian caporal de squadra (head of the squad). Corporals were assisted by lancepesades . Lancepesades were veteran soldiers; lancepesade was derived from the Italian lancia spezzata meaning broken spear—the broken spear being a metaphor for combat experience, where such an occurrence was likely. The first lancepesades were simply experienced privates; who either assisted their corporal or performed

17272-441: Was even reflected here, in that legions were always subordinate to the governor , and only the second and further legions stationed in a province had their own legatus legionis . The real commanders and the legates together were, in modern terms, the general officers . Immediately beneath the commander (or his legate) were six military tribunes ( tribuni militum ), five of whom were young men of equestrian rank and one of whom

17408-599: Was expansion overseas in the form of colonies and intellectual expansion in the form of the Reformation and the Enlightenment . In Trevor-Roper's view, the witch hunts of the 16th and 17th centuries can ultimately be traced back to the conflict between the religious values of the Reformation and the rationalistic approach of what became the Enlightenment. Trevor-Roper argued that history should be understood as an art, not

17544-447: Was known for his disputes with fellow historians such as Lawrence Stone and Christopher Hill , whose materialist (and in some measure "inevitablist") explanations of the English Civil War he attacked. Trevor-Roper was a leading player in the historiographical storm over the gentry (also known as the Gentry controversy ), a dispute with the historians R. H. Tawney and Stone, about whether

17680-552: Was made a life peer in 1979 on the recommendation of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher . He was raised to the Peerage on 27 September 1979, and was introduced to the House of Lords as Baron Dacre of Glanton , of Glanton in the County of Northumberland . He did not base his title on his surname, because "double-barrelled titles are an invention, and a monopoly, of Wilsonian peers", and "under

17816-408: Was once part of the U.S. Army and evolved as a separate service in 1947, carrying over its extant officer rank structure. Brazil and Argentina use a system of general officer ranks based on the term brigadier . In some forces, there may be one or more superior ranks to the common examples, above, that are given distinguishing titles, such as field marshal (most armies of the world, notably excluding

17952-453: Was supporting Germany and Japan in the Second World War. Trevor-Roper regarded Décadence Mandchoue with considerable distaste calling the manuscript "pornographic" and "obscene" as Backhouse related in graphic detail sexual encounters he claimed to have had with the French poet Paul Verlaine , the Irish playwright Oscar Wilde , Wilde's lover Lord Alfred Douglas , the French poet Arthur Rimbaud ,

18088-415: Was thanked in the acknowledgements section for being "kind enough to read the manuscript and make suggestions". In 1973, Trevor-Roper was invited to visit Switzerland to examine a manuscript entitled Décadence Mandchoue written by the sinologist Sir Edmund Backhouse (1873–1944) in a mixture of English, French, Latin and Chinese that had been in the custody of Reinhard Hoeppli, a Swiss diplomat who

18224-575: Was the " general crisis of the 17th century ". He argued that the middle years of the 17th century in Western Europe saw a widespread break-down in politics, economics and society caused by demographic, social, religious, economic and political problems. In this "general crisis", various events, such as the English Civil War; The Fronde in France; the climax of the Thirty Years' War in Germany; troubles in

18360-448: Was the Swiss consul in Beijing during World War II. Hoeppli, given Décadence Mandchoue in 1943 by his friend Backhouse, had been unable to publish it owing to its sexually explicit content. But by 1973 looser censorship and the rise of the gay rights movement meant a publisher was willing to release Décadence Mandchoue to the market. However, before doing so they wanted Trevor-Roper, who as

18496-537: Was very revealing that Trevor-Roper in The Last Days of Hitler was especially damning in his picture of the German Finance Minister, Count Lutz Schwerin von Krosigk , who Trevor-Roper noted "had been a Rhodes Scholar at Oxford, but he had acquired none of its values". Cesarani wrote "Thus, to Trevor-Roper the values of Oxford University stood at the opposite pole to those of Hitler's Reich, and one reason for

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