Telex is a telecommunication service that provides text-based message exchange over the circuits of the public switched telephone network or by private lines. The technology operates on switched station-to-station basis with teleprinter devices at the receiving and sending locations. Telex was a major method of sending text messages electronically between businesses in the post– World War II period. Its usage went into decline as the fax machine grew in popularity in the 1980s.
139-577: The Führerbunker ( German pronunciation: [ˈfyːʁɐˌbʊŋkɐ] ) was an air raid shelter located near the Reich Chancellery in Berlin , Germany . It was part of a subterranean bunker complex constructed in two phases in 1936 and 1944. It was the last of the Führer Headquarters ( Führerhauptquartiere ) used by Adolf Hitler during World War II . Hitler took up residence in
278-448: A bomb penetrated the road and tunnel at Balham tube station , blew up the water mains and sewage pipes, and killed 66 people. At Bank station , a direct hit caused a crater of 37 by 30 metres (120 ft × 100 ft) on 11 January 1941; the road above the station collapsed and killed 56 occupants. The highest death toll was caused by an incident at the unfinished Bethnal Green tube station on 8 March 1943, when 1,500 people entered
417-556: A cage-like construction beneath it. It was designed by John Baker and named after Herbert Morrison , the Minister of Home Security at the time. It was the result of the realisation that due to the lack of house cellars it was necessary to develop an effective type of indoor shelter. The shelters came in assembly kits , to be bolted together inside the home. They were approximately 1.98 metres (6 ft 6 in) long, 1.2 metres (4 ft) wide and 0.76 metres (2 ft 6 in) high, had
556-498: A constant interior temperature of 7 to 10 °C (45 to 50 °F), which made them perfectly suitable for laboratories, both during and after the war. They were used to protect people, administrative centres, important archives and works of art. Their structures took many forms: usually consisting of square blocks or of low, long rectangular or triangular shapes; straight towers of a square plan rising to great heights, or round tower-like edifices, even pyramidal constructions. Some of
695-400: A five-hole paper-tape punch and reader. Once the paper tape had been prepared, the message could be transmitted in minimum time. Telex billing was always by connected duration, so minimizing the connected time saved money. However, it was also possible to connect in "real-time", where the sender and the recipient could both type on the keyboard and these characters would be immediately printed on
834-443: A great deal of energy through plastic deformation without falling apart. (This was in marked contrast to other trench shelters which used concrete for the sides and roof, which were inherently unstable when disturbed by the effects of an explosion – if the roof slab lifted, the walls fell in under the static earth pressure; if the walls were pushed in, the roof would be unsupported at one edge and would fall.) However, when
973-400: A high degree of certainty by the "answerback", which is a transmission-control enquiry character . At the beginning of the message, the sender would transmit a WRU ( Who are you? ) code, and the recipient machine would automatically initiate a response which was usually encoded in a rotating drum with pegs, much like a music box . The position of the pegs sent an unambiguous identifying code to
1112-511: A high degree of resilience through diversely routed dual-path network configurations. After privatization of the telecommunications network under Margaret Thatcher's government at the start of the 1980s, Mercury Communications also provided a telex network, based on T200-series switching equipment supplied by the Swiss company Hasler in 1986 (after 1987 a member of the Ascom company). In 1996 Mercury
1251-515: A high-density area of the capital. An estimated 170,000 people sheltered in the tunnels and stations during the war. Although not a great number in comparison to the population of the capital, it almost certainly saved the lives of the people who probably would have had to find alternative, less secure means of protection. Artists and photographers such as Henry Moore and Bill Brandt were employed as war artists to document life in London's shelters during
1390-515: A house was sucked or blown out by a nearby blast, and the floor of the first storey pivoted about its other end (supported by a largely intact wall) and killed the inhabitants. The Morrison shelter was therefore designed to be able to withstand the upper floor falling, of a typical two storey-house undergoing a partial collapse. The shelter was designed to absorb this energy by plastic deformation, since this can absorb two or three orders of magnitude more energy than elastic deformation. Its design enabled
1529-427: A live operator. A TWX customer would place a call to the 10A/B board operator for Baudot–ASCII calls, ASCII–Baudot calls, and also TWX conference calls . The code and speed conversion was facilitated by a special service unit made by Western Electric . Multiple code and speed conversion units were placed at each operator position. During the conversion to Telex II, the remaining 3-row Baudot customers were converted to
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#17328487800061668-466: A number of IBM Officevision, Digital Equipment Corporation ALL-IN-1 and Microsoft Mail systems. In addition to permitting email to be sent to telex, formal coding conventions adopted in the composition of telex messages enabled automatic routing of telexes to email recipients. The Teletypewriter Exchange Service (TWX) was developed by the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) in
1807-440: A policy of dispersal and eschewed the use of deep shelters, including the use of tube stations and underground tunnels as public shelters. Reasons given were the spread of disease due to the lack of toilet facilities at many stations, the inherent danger of people falling onto the lines, and that people sheltering in the stations and tunnels might be tempted to stay in them day and night because they would feel safer there than outside
1946-492: A public air raid shelter at Aldwych. Floodgates were installed at various points to protect the network should bombs breach the tunnels under the Thames, or large water mains in the vicinity of stations. Seventy-nine stations were fitted with bunks for 22,000 people, supplied with first aid facilities and equipped with chemical toilets. 124 canteens opened in all parts of the tube system. Shelter marshals were appointed, whose function it
2085-730: A serious lack of data on which to base any design recommendations and the Committee proposed that the Home Office should have its own department for research into structural precautions, rather than relying on research work done by the Bombing Test Committee to support the development of bomb design and strategy. This proposal was eventually implemented in January 1939. During the Munich crisis , local authorities dug trenches to provide shelter. After
2224-532: A small civil ceremony within the Führerbunker . He then took secretary Traudl Junge to another room and dictated his last will and testament . Hans Krebs, Wilhelm Burgdorf , Goebbels, and Bormann witnessed and signed the documents at approximately 04:00. Hitler then retired to bed. Late in the evening of 29 April, Krebs contacted Jodl by radio: "Request immediate report. Firstly of the whereabouts of Wenck's spearheads. Secondly of time intended to attack. Thirdly of
2363-548: A solid 3.2 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 8 in) steel plate "table" top, welded wire mesh sides, and a metal lath "mattress"-type floor. Altogether it had 359 parts and had three tools supplied with the pack. The shelter was provided free to households whose combined income was less than £400 per year (equivalent to £31,000 in 2023). Head of the Engineering Department at Cambridge University , Professor John Baker (later Lord Baker) presented an undergraduate lecture on
2502-777: A speed of 50 baud , which is approximately 66 words per minute. Soon after telex services were developed by other nations. Telex spread within Europe and after 1945 around the world. By 1978 West Germany , including West Berlin , had 123,298 telex connections. Long before automatic telephony became available, most countries, even in central Africa and Asia , had at least a few high-frequency shortwave telex links. Often, government postal and telegraph services (PTTs) initiated these radio links. The most common radio standard, CCITT R.44 had error-corrected retransmitting time-division multiplexing of radio channels. Most impoverished PTTs operated their telex-on-radio (TOR) channels non-stop, to get
2641-416: A stairway set at right angles and could be closed off from each other by a bulkhead and steel door. The Vorbunker was located 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) beneath the cellar of a large reception hall behind the old Reich Chancellery at Wilhelmstrasse 77. The Führerbunker was located about 8.5 m (28 ft) beneath the garden of the old Reich Chancellery, 120 m (390 ft) north of
2780-519: A telex address, e.g., "14910 ERIC S", where 14910 is the subscriber number, ERIC is an abbreviation for the subscriber's name (in this case Telefonaktiebolaget L.M. Ericsson in Sweden) and S is the country code or location code. Solutions also exist for the automatic routing of messages to different telex terminals within a subscriber organization, by using different terminal identities, e.g., "+T148". The country codes (formally, network identification codes) for
2919-504: A type of air raid shelters found in Israel inside homes, near residential areas and in other places across the country. These places are also called Merkhav Mugan ( Hebrew : מרחב מוגן , lit. ' protected space ' ). They are reinforced security rooms required in all new buildings by Israeli law. Cellars in the UK, were mainly included only in larger houses, and in houses built up to
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#17328487800063058-612: A week (equivalent to £390 in 2023, when adjusted for inflation ). Those with a higher income were charged £7 (£550 in 2023) for their shelter. One and a half million shelters of this type were distributed between February 1939 and the outbreak of war. During the war a further 2.1 million were erected. Large numbers were manufactured at John Summers & Sons ironworks at Shotton on Deeside with production peaking at 50,000 units per week. The Anderson shelters performed well under blast and ground shock, because they had good connectivity and ductility, which meant that they could absorb
3197-466: Is still in operation but not in the sense described in the CCITT Blue Book documentation. iTelegram offers telex-like service without subscriber telex lines. Individual subscribers can use Deskmail, a Windows program that connects to the iTelegram telex network, using IP as the last mile . Telex has been mostly superseded by fax , email , and SWIFT , although radiotelex (telex via HF radio )
3336-571: The Führerbunker on 16 January 1945, and it became the centre of the Nazi regime until the last week of World War II in Europe. Hitler married Eva Braun there on 29 April 1945, less than 40 hours before they committed suicide . After the war, both the old and new Chancellery buildings were levelled by the Soviet Red Army . The underground complex remained largely undisturbed until 1988–89, despite some attempts at demolition. The excavated sections of
3475-747: The Führerbunker . The third breakout attempt from the Reich Chancellery was made around 01:00 on 2 May, and Bormann managed to cross the Spree . Artur Axmann followed the same route and reported seeing Bormann's body a short distance from the Weidendammer bridge . At 01:00, the Soviet forces picked up a radio message from the LVI Panzer Corps requesting a cease-fire. Down in the Führerbunker , General Krebs and General Burgdorf committed suicide by gunshot to
3614-502: The Hochbunker was the Winkelturm , named after its designer, Leo Winkel of Duisburg . Winkel patented his design in 1934, and from 1936 onward, Germany built 98 Winkeltürme of five different types. The towers had a conical shape with walls that curved downward to a reinforced base. The dimensions of the towers varied. Diameters ranged between 8.4 and 10 metres (28 and 33 ft) and
3753-669: The Anderson shelter would be built in a garden and equipped with beds as a refuge from air raids. Cellars have always been much more important in Continental Europe than in the United Kingdom and especially in Germany almost all houses and apartment blocks have been and still are built with cellars. Air-raid precautions during World War II in Germany could be much more readily implemented by
3892-590: The Cold War , NATO used the shelter for food storage. The cost of demolishing these edifices after the war would have been enormous, as the attempts at breaking up one of the six so-called Flak towers of Vienna proved. The attempted demolition caused no more than a crack in one of the walls of the tower, after which efforts were abandoned. Only the Zoo Tower in Berlin was successfully demolished. One particular variant of
4031-501: The Institution of Civil Engineers , the design was released for production. Anderson shelters were designed to accommodate up to six people. The main principle of protection was based on curved and straight galvanised corrugated steel panels . Six curved panels were bolted together at the top, so forming the main body of the shelter, three straight sheets on either side, and two more straight panels were fixed to each end, one containing
4170-574: The International Telecommunication Union . Customers on any telex exchange could deliver messages to any other, around the world. To reduce connecting line usage, telex messages were encoded onto paper tape and then read into the line as quickly as possible. The system normally delivered information at 50 baud or approximately 66 words per minute, encoded using the International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 . In
4309-605: The Red Army started the Battle of Berlin , and they started to encircle the city by 19 April. Hitler made his last trip to the surface on 20 April, his 56th birthday, going to the ruined garden of the Reich Chancellery where he awarded the Iron Cross to boy soldiers of the Hitler Youth . That afternoon, Berlin was bombarded by Soviet artillery for the first time. Hitler was in denial about
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4448-508: The Soviet 8th Guards Army , at about 04:00 on 1 May, and Chuikov demanded unconditional surrender of the remaining German forces. Krebs did not have the authority to surrender, so he returned to the bunker. In the late afternoon, Goebbels had his children poisoned , and he and his wife left the bunker at around 20:30. There are several different accounts on what followed. According to one account, Goebbels shot his wife and then himself. Another account
4587-509: The Vorbunker with the clear mark of cyanide shown on their faces. The first post-war photos of the interior of the Führerbunker were taken in July 1945. On 4 July, American writer James P. O'Donnell toured the bunker after giving the Soviet guard a pack of cigarettes. Many soldiers, politicians, and diplomats visited the bunker complex in the following days and months. Winston Churchill visited
4726-541: The 1970s, under pressure from the Bell operating companies wanting to modernize their cable plant and lower the adjacent circuit noise that these telex circuits sometimes caused, Western Union migrated customers to a third option called F1F2. This F1F2 option replaced the DC voltage of the local and long distance options with modems at the exchange and subscriber ends of the telex circuit. Western Union offered connections from telex to
4865-612: The AT&;T Teletypewriter Exchange (TWX) system in May 1966 via its New York Information Services Computer Center. These connections were limited to those TWX machines that were equipped with automatic answerback capability per CCITT standard. USA-based telex users could send the same message to several places around the world at the same time, like email today, using the Western Union InfoMaster Computer. This involved transmitting
5004-754: The Artillery Helmuth Weidling , commander of the LVI Panzer Corps , as the commander of the Berlin Defense Area, replacing Lieutenant Colonel ( Oberstleutnant ) Ernst Kaether . The Red Army had consolidated their investment of Berlin by 25 April, despite the commands being issued from the Führerbunker . There was no prospect that the German defence could do anything but delay the city's capture. Hitler summoned Field Marshal Robert Ritter von Greim from Munich to Berlin to take over command of
5143-722: The District of Columbia, Virginia, and West Virginia). 810 was assigned from Michigan southward and east of the Mississippi River to Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky, and the entire South and 910 served west of the Mississippi to the Southwest and West Coast. TWX lines were configured with a special Class of Service to prevent interconnections with voice services. Western Union purchased the TWX system from AT&T in January 1969. The TWX system and
5282-589: The Luftwaffe from Hermann Göring , and he arrived on 26 April along with his mistress, the test pilot Hanna Reitsch . On 28 April, Hitler learned that Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler was trying to discuss surrender terms with the Western Allies through Count Folke Bernadotte , and Hitler considered this treason. Himmler's SS representative in Berlin, Hermann Fegelein , was shot after being court-martialed for desertion, and Hitler ordered Himmler's arrest. On
5421-526: The Ninth Army. Meanwhile, Bormann wired to German Admiral Karl Dönitz : "Reich Chancellery a heap of rubble." He said that the foreign press was reporting fresh acts of treason and "that without exception Schörner, Wenck and the others must give evidence of their loyalty by the quickest relief of the Führer". That evening, von Greim and Reitsch flew out from Berlin in an Arado Ar 96 trainer. Field Marshal von Greim
5560-541: The Reich Chancellery and bunker on 14 July 1945. On 11 December 1945, the Soviets allowed a limited investigation of the bunker grounds by the other Allied powers. Two representatives from each nation watched several Germans dig up soil; this included the site where Hitler's remains had been exhumed that May. Found during the dig were two hats identified as Hitler's, an undergarment with Braun's initials, and some reports to Hitler from Goebbels. The representatives planned to continue
5699-569: The Reich Chancellery. General Weidling surrendered with his staff at 6:00, and his meeting with Chuikov ended at 8:23. Johannes Hentschel , the master electro-mechanic for the bunker complex, stayed after everyone else had either left or committed suicide, as the field hospital in the Reich Chancellery above needed power and water. He surrendered to the Red Army as they entered the bunker complex at 09:00 on 2 May. The bodies of Goebbels' six children were discovered on 3 May. They were found in their beds in
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5838-560: The Soviets, including measurements, took place on 16 May 1946. Thereafter, the bunker largely survived, although some areas were partially flooded. In December 1947, the Soviets tried to blow up the bunker, but only the separation walls were damaged. In 1959, the East German government began a series of demolitions of the Chancellery, including the bunker. Because it was near the Berlin Wall ,
5977-459: The Tubes for shelter, at some stations, they began to arrive as early as 4:00 pm, with bedding and bags of food to sustain them for the night. By the time the evening rush hour was in progress, they had already staked their "pitches" on the platforms. The Police did not intervene and some station managers, on their own initiative, provided additional toilet facilities. Transport Minister John Reith , and
6116-449: The UK for air raid protection during World War II . Railway arches were deep, curved structures of brick or concrete, set into the vertical sidewalls of railway lines, which had been intended originally for commercial depots, etc. The arches were covered usually with wooden or brick screen - or curtain walls , thus giving a considerable amount of protection against air raids – provided, of course, that railway lines were not
6255-446: The UK to build 80 specially adapted London Underground stations as shelters. However, during World War II, the government initially ruled out using these as shelters. After Londoners flooded into underground stations during The Blitz , the government reversed its policy. The UK began building street communal shelters as air raid shelters in 1940. Anderson shelters, designed in 1938 and built to hold up to six people, were in common use in
6394-595: The UK. Indoor shelters known as Morrison shelters were introduced as well. Air raid shelters are still in use to some extent in various nations such as Spain, Switzerland, Israel, Singapore and Taiwan. Air raid shelters were built to serve as protection against enemy air raids . Existing edifices designed for other functions, such as underground stations (tube or subway stations ), tunnels , cellars in houses or basements in larger establishments and railway arches, above ground, were suitable for safeguarding people during air raids. A commonly used home shelter known as
6533-456: The United Kingdom, it was being recognised early that public shelters in open spaces, especially near streets, were urgently needed for pedestrians, drivers and passengers in passing vehicles, etc. The programme of building street communal shelters commenced in March 1940, the government supplying the materials, and being the moving force behind the scheme, and private builders executing the work under
6672-463: The United States, commencing service on November 21, 1931. From 1942 to 1952, AT&T published progress with the system in the trade magazine TWX . It published articles that touched upon many aspects of the technology. From inception to 1962, access to the service was provided by operator-assisted, manual switching. By 1962, the network had grown to one hundred switchboard locations to handle
6811-503: The United States, was based on the major exchange where the customer's telex machine terminated. For example, all telex customers that terminated in the New York City exchange were assigned a telex number that started with a first digit "1". Further, all Chicago-based customers had telex numbers that started with a first digit of "2". This numbering plan was maintained by Western Union as the telex exchanges proliferated to smaller cities in
6950-606: The United States. Bell's original consent agreement limited it to international dial telephony, and the Western Union Telegraph Company had given up its international telegraphic operation in a 1939 bid to monopolize U.S. telegraphy by taking over ITT's postal, telegraph and telephone service (PTT) business. The result was a de-emphasis on telex in the U.S. and the creation of several international telex and telegraphy companies, collectively called IRCs: Bell Telex users had to select which IRC to use, and then append
7089-460: The United States. The Western Union Telex network was built on three levels of exchanges. The highest level was made up of the nine exchange cities previously mentioned. Each of these cities had the dual capability of terminating telex customer lines and setting up trunk connections to multiple distant telex exchanges. The second level of exchanges, located in large cities such as Buffalo, Cleveland, Miami, Newark, Pittsburgh and Seattle, were similar to
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#17328487800067228-481: The amenities in existing shelters", he promised. "We're setting about providing better lighting and better accommodation for sleeping and better sanitary arrangements." The Ministries of Home Security and Transport jointly issued an "urgent appeal", telling the public "to refrain from using Tube stations as air-raid shelters except in the case of urgent necessity". Over the night of 19/20 September, thousands of Londoners took matters in their own hands. They had flocked to
7367-432: The analog telephone system, which used varying voltage to represent sound. For this reason, telex exchanges were entirely separate from the telephone system, with their own signalling standards, exchanges and system of telex numbers (the counterpart of telephone numbers). Telex provided the first common medium for international record communications using standard signalling techniques and operating criteria as specified by
7506-444: The arrival of inhabitants from other buildings rendered unsafe in earlier attacks. Some occupants perished from heat stroke or carbon monoxide poisoning. Hochbunker ( lit. ' high-rise bunkers ' or blockhouses ), were a type of construction designed to relieve the pressure Nazi German authorities were facing to accommodate additional numbers of the population in high-density housing areas, as well as pedestrians on
7645-424: The authorities than was possible in the UK. All that was necessary was to ascertain that cellars were being prepared to accommodate all the residents of a building; that all the cellar hatch and window protections were in place; that access to the cellars was safe in the event of an air raid; that once inside, the occupants were secure for any incidents other than direct hits during the air raid and that means of escape
7784-421: The bunker complex for the night. After several weeks of this routine, Hitler seldom left the bunker except for short strolls in the chancellery garden with his dog Blondi . The bunker was crowded, the atmosphere was oppressive, and air raids occurred daily. Hitler mostly stayed on the lower level, where it was quieter and he could sleep. Conferences took place for much of the night, often until 05:00. On 16 April,
7923-478: The capital during most of the war. Increased bombing of Berlin led to expansion of the complex as an improvised permanent shelter. The elaborate complex consisted of two separate shelters, the Vorbunker ("forward bunker"; the upper bunker), completed in 1936, and the Führerbunker , located 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) lower than the Vorbunker and to the west-southwest, completed in 1944. They were connected by
8062-493: The chairman of London Transport, Lord Ashfield , inspected Holborn tube station to see for themselves. The government realised that it could not contain this popular revolt. On 21 September, it abruptly changed policy, removing its objections to the use of tube stations. In what it called part of its "deep shelter extension policy", it decided to close the short section of Piccadilly line from Holborn to Aldwych , and convert different sections for specific wartime use, including
8201-480: The circular towers contained helical floors that gradually curved their way upward within the circular walls. Many of these structures may still be seen. They have been converted into offices, storage space; some have even been adapted for hotels, hospitals and schools, as well as many other peacetime purposes. In Schöneberg , a block of flats was built over the Pallasstrasse air-raid shelter after World War II. During
8340-631: The collieries to the river Tyne, had been closed in 1860 and remained so until 1939. In places the tunnels were 12 metres (39 ft) deep, the tunnels, stretching in parts beneath the city of Newcastle, were converted to air raid shelters with a capacity for 9,000 people. Tunnels linked to landing stages built on the River Irwell in Manchester at the end of the nineteenth century were also used as air-raid shelters. The medieval labyrinth of tunnels beneath Dover Castle had been built originally as part of
8479-640: The crisis, the British Government decided to make these a permanent feature, with a standard design of precast concrete trench lining. Unfortunately these turned out to perform very poorly. They also decided to issue free to poorer households the Anderson shelter , and to provide steel props to create shelters in suitable basements. During World War II, many types of structures were used as air raid shelters, such as cellars, Hochbunker (in Germany), basements, and underpasses. Bombing raids during World War I led
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#17328487800068618-481: The defensive system of the approaches to England, extended over the centuries and further excavated and reinforced during the world wars, until it was capable of accommodating large parts of the secret defence systems protecting the British Isles. On 26 May 1940, it became the headquarters under Vice Admiral Bertram Ramsay of Operation Dynamo , from which the rescue and evacuation of up to 338,000 troops from France
8757-594: The defensive." SS- Brigadeführer Wilhelm Mohnke , commander of the centre government district of Berlin, informed Hitler during the morning of 30 April that he would be able to hold for less than two days. Later that morning, Weidling informed Hitler that the defenders would probably exhaust their ammunition that night and again asked him for permission to break out. Weidling finally received permission at about 13:00. Hitler shot himself later that afternoon, at around 15:30, while Eva took cyanide . In accordance with Hitler's instructions, his and Eva's bodies were burned in
8896-429: The different sections. Sections were normally furnished with six bunks. The construction work then went on rapidly, until the resources of concrete and bricks began to be depleted due to the excessive demand placed on them so suddenly. Also, the performance of the early street shelters was a serious blow to public confidence. Their walls were shaken down either by earth shock or blast, and the concrete roofs then fell onto
9035-554: The dire situation and placed his hopes on the units commanded by Waffen-SS General Felix Steiner , the Armeeabteilung Steiner (" Army Detachment Steiner "). On 21 April, Hitler ordered Steiner to attack the northern flank of the encircling Soviet salient and ordered the German Ninth Army , south-east of Berlin, to attack northward in a pincer attack . That evening, Red Army tanks reached the outskirts of Berlin. Hitler
9174-447: The distant machine. Telex could also be used as a rudimentary but functional carrier of information from one IT system to another, in effect a primitive forerunner of electronic data interchange . The sending IT system would create an output (e.g., an inventory list) on paper tape using a mutually agreed format. The tape would be sent by telex and collected on a corresponding paper tape by the receiver and this tape could then be read into
9313-420: The door—a total of fourteen panels. A small drainage sump was often incorporated in the floor to collect rainwater seeping into the shelter. The shelters were 1.8 metres (6 ft) high, 1.4 metres (4.5 ft) wide, and 2.0 metres (6.5 ft) long. When installed underground, they were buried 1.2 metres (4 ft) deep in the soil and then covered with a minimum of 38 centimetres (15 in) of soil above
9452-475: The ensuing years into the 1990s. The dominant supplier of the telex machines was Creed & Company , a division of the ITT Corporation . A separate service Secure Stream 300 (previously Circuit Switched Data Network) was a variant of telex running at 300 baud, used for telemetry and monitoring purposes by utility companies and banks, among others. This was a high-security virtual private wire system with
9591-455: The exchange equipment, provisioned the exchange trunks via the Western Union national microwave system and leased the exchange to customer site facilities from the local telephone company. Teleprinter equipment was originally provided by Siemens & Halske AG and later by Teletype Corporation. Initial direct international telex service was offered by Western Union, via W.U. International, in
9730-414: The family to sleep under the shelter at night or during raids, and to use it as a dining table in the daytime, making it a practical item in the house. Half a million Morrison shelters had been distributed by the end of 1941, with a further 100,000 being added in 1943 to prepare the population for the expected German V-1 flying bomb (doodlebug) attacks. In one examination of 44 severely damaged houses it
9869-430: The first countries to adopt telex are single letters, while other countries have two-letter codes. Some specialty services and American cities have three-letter network or location codes (such as MAS for Inmarsat or LSA for Los Angeles), and a few towns have four-letter codes (such as ROVE for Rockville, Maryland ). A major advantage of telex is that the receipt of the message by the recipient could be confirmed with
10008-409: The forerunner of modern fax , email , and text messaging – both technically and stylistically. Abbreviated English (like "CU L8R" for "see you later") as used in texting originated with telex operators exchanging informal messages in real time – they became the first "texters" long before the introduction of mobile phones . Telex users could send the same message to several places around the world at
10147-493: The garden behind the Reich Chancellery. Goebbels became the new Head of Government and Chancellor of Germany ( Reichskanzler ) in accordance with Hitler's last will and testament. Reichskanzler Goebbels and Bormann sent a radio message to Dönitz at 03:15, informing him of Hitler's death, and that he was the new Head of State and President of Germany ( Reichspräsident ), in accordance with Hitler's last will and testament. Krebs talked to General Vasily Chuikov , commander of
10286-521: The garden. The Führerbunker development was built by the Hochtief company as part of an extensive programme of subterranean construction in Berlin begun in 1940. The construction cost for the Führerbunker totaled 1,349,899.29 Reichsmarks . Hitler's accommodations were in this newer, lower section, and by February 1945 it had been decorated with high-quality furniture taken from the Chancellery, along with several framed oil paintings. After descending
10425-486: The government. The Anderson shelter was designed in 1938 by William Paterson and Oscar Carl (Karl) Kerrison in response to a request from the Home Office. It was named after Sir John Anderson , then Lord Privy Seal with special responsibility for preparing air-raid precautions immediately prior to the outbreak of World War II, and it was he who then initiated the development of the shelter. After evaluation by David Anderson, Bertram Lawrence Hurst, and Sir Henry Jupp, of
10564-473: The head. The last defenders in the area of the bunker complex were mainly made up of Frenchmen of the 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne , others being Waffen-SS from the remnants of the 11th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division Nordland , Latvian SS and Spanish SS units. A group of French SS remained in the area of the bunker until the early morning of 2 May. The Soviet forces then captured
10703-509: The height between 20 and 25 metres (66 and 82 ft). The walls of the towers had a minimum thickness for reinforced concrete of 0.8 metres (2 ft 7 in) and 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) for ordinary concrete. The towers were able to shelter between 164 and 500 people, depending on the type. The intent with the Winkeltürme and the other Hochbunker was to protect workers in rail yards and industrial areas. Because of their shape,
10842-560: The helpless occupants, and this was there for all to see. At around the same time rumours of accidents started to circulate, such as on one occasion people being drowned due to a burst main filling up the shelter with water. Although much improved designs were being introduced whose performance had been demonstrated in explosion trials, communal shelters became highly unpopular, and shortly afterwards householders were being encouraged to build or have built private shelters on their properties, or within their houses, with materials being supplied by
10981-433: The highest level of exchanges in capability of terminating telex customer lines and setting up trunk connections. However, these second level exchanges had a smaller customer line capacity and only had trunk circuits connected to regional cities. The third level of exchanges, located in small to medium-sized cities, could terminate telex customer lines and had a single trunk group running to its parent exchange. Loop signaling
11120-445: The houses. Telex The term "telex" may refer to the service, the network, the devices, or the actual message. Point-to-point teleprinter systems had been in use long before telex exchanges were built in the 1930s. Teleprinters evolved from telegraph systems, and, like the telegraph, use binary signals , with mark and space logic represented by the presence or absence of a certain level of electric current. This differs from
11259-502: The intensive bombing of London on 7 September 1940 and the overnight raids of 7/8 September, there was considerable pressure to change the policy but, even following a review on 17 September, the government stood firm. On 19 September, William Mabane , parliamentary secretary to the Ministry of Home Security, urged the public not to leave their Anderson shelters for public shelters, saying it deprived others of shelter. "We're going to improve
11398-400: The keyboard. In 1963, AT&T implemented a new coding technology for TWX, called 4-row (64 characters in four key rows) based on the new Teletype Model 33 teleprinter using a 110-baud modem and a subset of the seven-bit ASCII code without lower-case letters. TWX was offered in both 3-row Baudot and 4-row ASCII versions up to the late 1970s. The modem for the 4-row ASCII service
11537-590: The largest 3,850 (subsequently expanded to take up to 6,500 people.) The largest of the Stockport Air Raid Shelters are open to the public as part of the town's museum service. In southeast London, residents made use of the Chislehurst Caves beneath Chislehurst , a 35-kilometre-long (22 mi) network of caves which have existed since the Middle Ages for the mining of chalk and flint . In
11676-465: The last days of the traditional telex networks, end-user equipment was often replaced by modems and phone lines , reducing the telex network to what was effectively a directory service running on the telephone network. Telex began in Germany as a research and development program in 1926 that became an operational teleprinter service in 1933. The service, operated by the German Reichspost had
11815-412: The last vestiges of these Nazi landmarks. The construction of the buildings in the area around the Führerbunker was a strategy for ensuring the surroundings remained anonymous and unremarkable. The emergency exit point for the Führerbunker (which had been in the Chancellery gardens) was occupied by a car park . On 8 June 2006, during the lead-up to the 2006 FIFA World Cup , an information board
11954-435: The location of the Ninth Army. Fourthly of the precise place in which the Ninth Army will break through. Fifthly of the whereabouts of General Rudolf Holste 's spearhead." In the early morning of 30 April, Jodl replied to Krebs: "Firstly, Wenck's spearhead bogged down south of Schwielow Lake . Secondly, Twelfth Army therefore unable to continue attack on Berlin. Thirdly, bulk of Ninth Army surrounded. Fourthly, Holste's Corps on
12093-470: The maximum value from them. The cost of TOR equipment has continued to fall. Although the system initially required specialised equipment, as of 2016 many amateur radio operators operate TOR, also known as radioteletype (RTTY), with special software and inexpensive hardware to connect computer sound cards to short-wave radios. Modern cablegrams or telegrams actually operate over dedicated telex networks, using TOR whenever required. Telex served as
12232-563: The message via paper tape to the InfoMaster Computer (dial code 6111) and specifying the destination addresses for the single text. In this way, a single message could be sent to multiple distant telex and TWX machines as well as delivering the same message to non-telex and non-TWX subscribers via Western Union Mailgram . International record carrier (IRC) was a term created by the Federal Communications Commission in
12371-494: The necessary routing digits. The IRCs converted between TWX and Western Union Telegraph Co. standards. Telex began in the UK as an evolution from the 1930s Telex Printergram service, appearing in 1932 on a limited basis. This used the telephone network in conjunction with a Teleprinter 7B and signalling equipment to send a message to another subscriber with a teleprinter, or to the Central Telegraph Office. In 1945, as
12510-401: The new Reich Chancellery building at Voßstraße 6. Besides being deeper under ground, the Führerbunker had significantly more reinforcement. Its roof was made of concrete almost 3 m (9 ft 10 in) thick. About 30 small rooms were protected by approximately 4 m (13 ft 1 in) of concrete; exits led into the main buildings, as well as an emergency exit up to
12649-565: The new service during the period 1979 to 1981. In February 1969, AT&T installed the first electronic switching system (ESS) for TWX service. It was a version of the No. 1ESS switch, arranged for data features (1ESS-AFD) in the Long Lines Department of AT&T. It had a capacity of handling 1,250 4-row teletypewriters. However, due to the purchase of TWX by Western Union, further installations were canceled. Western Union's Telex II system
12788-410: The old bunker complex were mostly destroyed during reconstruction of that area of Berlin. The site remained unmarked until 2006, when a small plaque was installed with a schematic diagram. Some corridors of the bunker still exist but are sealed off from the public. The Reich Chancellery bunker was initially constructed as a temporary air-raid shelter for Hitler, who actually spent very little time in
12927-446: The pattern of all-night alerts became established, it was realised that in winter Anderson shelters installed outside were cold damp holes in the ground and often flooded in wet weather, and so their occupancy factor would be poor. This led to the development of the indoor Morrison shelter . At the end of the war in Europe, households who had received an Anderson shelter were expected to remove their shelters and local authorities began
13066-505: The period of World War I , after which detached and semi-detached properties were constructed without cellars, usually to avoid the higher building costs entailed. Since house building had increased vastly between the wars, the lack of cellars in more recent housing became a major problem in the Air Raid Precautions (ARP) programmes in the UK during World War II. Alternatives had to be found speedily once it became clear that Germany
13205-416: The prime target of the attack at the particular time and so being more likely to suffer from direct hits. Each arch could accommodate anything from around 60 to 150 people. However, fewer people could find shelter at night as sleeping areas for the occupants took up more of the space available – a limitation applying to any other type of shelter as well. Subways were actual thoroughfares also in
13344-450: The principles of design of the shelter as an introduction to his theory of plastic design of structures, which can be summarised as follows: It was impractical to produce a design for mass production that could withstand a direct hit, and so it was a matter of selecting a suitable design target that would save lives in many cases of blast damage to bombed houses. Examination of bombed buildings indicated that in many instances, one end wall of
13483-408: The protection of non-combatants as well as combatants against enemy attacks from the air. They are similar to bunkers in many regards, although they are not designed to defend against ground attack (but many have been used as defensive structures in such situations). Prior to World War II , in 1924, an Air Raid Precautions Committee was set up in the United Kingdom. For years, little progress
13622-430: The receiving IT system. One use of telex circuits, in use until the widescale adoption of X.400 and Internet email, was to facilitate a message handling system, allowing local email systems to exchange messages with other email and telex systems via a central routing operation, or switch. One of the largest such switches was operated by Royal Dutch Shell as recently as 1994, permitting the exchange of messages between
13761-403: The remains were only partially burned and not buried. Weidling had given the order for the survivors to break out to the northwest, and the plan got underway at around 23:00. The first group from the Reich Chancellery was led by Mohnke; they tried unsuccessfully to break through the Soviet rings and were captured the next day. Mohnke was interrogated by SMERSH , like others who were captured from
13900-466: The roof. When they were buried outside, the earth banks could be planted with vegetables and flowers, that at times could be quite an appealing sight and in this way would become the subject of competitions of the best-planted shelter among householders in the neighbourhood. The internal fitting out of the shelter was left to the owner and so there were wide variations in comfort. Anderson shelters were issued free to all householders who earned less than £5
14039-523: The same day, General Hans Krebs made his last telephone call from the Führerbunker to Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel , Chief of German Armed Forces High Command (OKW) in Fürstenberg . Krebs told him that all would be lost if relief did not arrive within 48 hours. Keitel promised to exert the utmost pressure on Generals Walther Wenck , commander of the Twelfth Army , and Theodor Busse , commander of
14178-480: The same time, like email today, using the Western Union InfoMaster Computer. This involved transmitting the message via paper tape to the InfoMaster Computer (dial code 6111) and specifying the destination addresses for the single text. In this way, a single message could be sent to multiple distant telex and TWX machines as well as delivering the same message to non-telex and non-TWX subscribers via Western Union Mailgram . Telex messages are routed by addressing them to
14317-486: The sender, so the sender could verify connection to the correct recipient. The WRU code would also be sent at the end of the message, so a correct response would confirm that the connection had remained unbroken during the message transmission. This gave telex a major advantage over group 2 fax, which had no inherent error-checking capability. The usual method of operation was that the message would be prepared off-line, using paper tape . All common telex machines incorporated
14456-405: The shape of arches, normally allowing passage underneath railway lines. Prior to the beginning of the war, shelter policy had been determined by John Anderson , then Lord Privy Seal and, on the declaration of war, Home Secretary and Minister of Home Security. Anderson announced the policy to Parliament on 20 April 1939, based on a report from a committee chaired by Lord Hailey. This reaffirmed
14595-630: The shelter, and insufficient support structures threatened to cause the collapse of basements. When the Wilkinson's Lemonade factory in North Shields received a direct hit on Saturday, 3 May 1941 during a German attack on the north-east coast of England, 107 occupants lost their lives when heavy machinery fell through the ceiling of the basement in which they were sheltering. British cities, prepared for use of railway arches and underpasses in 1935. And railway arches and subways were operationalized in
14734-414: The site was undeveloped and neglected until 1988–89. During extensive construction of residential housing and other buildings on the site, work crews uncovered several underground sections of the old bunker complex; for the most part these were destroyed. Other parts of the Chancellery underground complex were uncovered, but these were ignored, filled in, or resealed. Government authorities wanted to destroy
14873-441: The stairs into the lower section and passing through the steel door, there was a long corridor with a series of rooms on each side. On the right side were a series of rooms which included generator/ventilation rooms and the telephone switchboard. On the left side was Eva Braun's bedroom/sitting room (also known as Hitler's private guest room), an antechamber (also known as Hitler's sitting room), which led into Hitler's study/office. On
15012-400: The station. The crowd suddenly surged forward upon hearing the unfamiliar sound of a new type of anti-aircraft rocket being launched nearby. Someone stumbled on the stairs, and the crowd pushing on, were falling on top of one another, and 173 people were crushed to death in the disaster. The London Underground system was considered one of the safest means of protecting relatively many people in
15151-543: The stations. None of these concerns had been borne out by experience during the bombing raids of the First World War, when eighty specially adapted tube stations had been pressed into use, but in a highly controversial decision in January 1924, Anderson, then chairman of the Air Raid Precautions Committee of Imperial Defence, had ruled out the tube station shelter option in any future conflict. Following
15290-437: The streets during air raids. In contrast to other shelters, these buildings were considered completely bomb-proof. They had the advantage of being built upward, which was much cheaper than downward excavation. Hochbunker usually consisted of large concrete blocks above ground with walls between 1 and 1.5 metres (3 ft 3 in and 4 ft 11 in) thick and with huge lintels above doorways and openings. They often had
15429-402: The summer of 1960 with limited service to London and Paris. In 1962, the major exchanges were located in New York City (1), Chicago (2), San Francisco (3), Kansas City (4) and Atlanta (5). The telex network expanded by adding the final parent exchange cities of Los Angeles (6), Dallas (7), Philadelphia (8) and Boston (9), starting in 1966. The telex numbering plan, usually a six-digit number in
15568-438: The supervision of surveyors. These shelters consisted of 360-millimetre (14 in) brick walls and 300-millimetre-thick (1 ft) reinforced concrete roofs, similarly to, but much larger than, the private shelters in backyards and gardens being introduced slightly later. The communal shelters were usually intended to accommodate about fifty persons, and were divided into various sections by interior walls with openings connecting
15707-440: The task of reclaiming the corrugated iron. Householders who wished to keep their Anderson shelter (or more likely the valuable metal) could pay a nominal fee. Because of the large number made and their robustness, many Anderson shelters still survive. Many were dug up after the war and converted into storage sheds for use in gardens and allotments . The Morrison shelter , officially termed Table (Morrison) Indoor Shelter , had
15846-583: The towers became known colloquially as "cigar stubs" or "sugar beets". The theory behind the Winkeltürme was that the curved walls would deflect any bomb hitting the tower, directing it down towards the base. The towers had a small footprint, which was probably a greater protection. A US bomb did hit one tower in Bremen in October 1944; the bomb exploded through the roof, killing five people inside. Miklat ( Hebrew : מקלט , lit. ' protected place ' ) Is
15985-400: The traffic increased, it was decided to have a separate network for telex traffic, and the first manual exchange opened in London. By 1954, the public inland telex service opened via manually switched exchanges. A number of subscribers were served via automatic sub-centres which used relays and Type 2 uniselectors , acting as concentrators for a manual exchange. In the late 1950s, the decision
16124-518: The traffic, causing considerable delay in the speed of connections of up to 2 1 ⁄ 2 minutes on average. On August 31, 1962, the service was integrated into the Direct Distance Dialing (DDD) network, which improved connection times to about thirty seconds. For the new dial technology, each station was assigned a ten-digit telephone number from a reserved set of N10 area codes, designated as Service Access Codes (SAC). Area code 510
16263-508: The upper Vorbunker . Two or three dozen support, medical, and administrative staff were also sheltered there. These included Hitler's secretaries (including Traudl Junge ), a nurse named Erna Flegel , and Sergeant Rochus Misch , who was both bodyguard and telephone switchboard operator. Initially, Hitler continued to use the undamaged wing of the Reich Chancellery, where he held afternoon military conferences in his large study. Afterwards, he would have tea with his secretaries before returning to
16402-581: The use of the special US area codes continued until 1981, when Western Union completed the conversion to the Western Union Telex II system. Canada moved its TWX-numbers, as well as Datalink services, to the non-geographic area code 600 , effective October 1, 1993, in exchange for returning 610. The network originally transmitted at a speed of 45.45 baud, or approximately 60 words per minute, using five-bit Baudot code , often referred to as 3-row coding with 32 characters arranged in three key rows of
16541-579: The wall hung a large portrait of Frederick the Great , one of Hitler's heroes. A door led into Hitler's modestly furnished bedroom. Next to it was the conference/map room (also known as the briefing/situation room) which had a door that led out into the waiting room/anteroom. The bunker complex was self-contained. However, as the Führerbunker was below the water table , conditions were unpleasantly damp, with pumps running continuously to remove groundwater . A diesel generator provided electricity, and well water
16680-463: The war. Many other types of tunnels were adapted for shelters to protect the civil population, and the military and administrative establishment in the UK during the war. Some had been built many years before, some had been part of an ancient defence system, and some had belonged to commercial enterprises, such as coal mining. The Victoria tunnels at Newcastle upon Tyne , for example, completed as long ago as 1842, and used for transporting coal from
16819-430: The work, but when they arrived the next morning, an NKVD armed guard met them and accused them of removing documents from the Chancellery. This was denied, but no further outside investigation was allowed until years later. The outer ruins of both Chancellery buildings were levelled by the Soviets between 1945 and 1949 as part of an effort to destroy the landmarks of Nazi Germany. A detailed interior site investigation by
16958-501: Was assigned for the United States and Area Code 610 in Canada. Sixteen operating centers were established across the United States. Later in the decade, the United States was subdivided into three service regions. and assigned codes from the remaining set of SACs (710, 810, and 910). SAC 710 covered the Northeast of the United States (New England, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland,
17097-444: Was available. The inadequacies of cellars and basements became apparent in the firestorms during the incendiary attacks on the larger German inner cities, especially Hamburg and Dresden . When burning buildings and apartment blocks above them collapsed in the raging winds (which could reach well over 800 °C or 1,470 °F), the occupants often became trapped in these basement shelters, which had also become overcrowded after
17236-631: Was contemplating air raids as a means of demoralising the population and disrupting supply lines in the UK. Initial recommendations were that householders should shelter under the stairs. Later, authorities supplied materials to households to construct communal street shelters and Morrison and Anderson shelters . Basements also became available for the use of air raid shelters. Basements under factory premises, schools, hospitals, department stores and other businesses were utilised. However, these ad hoc shelters could bring additional dangers, as heavy machinery and materials or water storage facilities above
17375-480: Was directed. In Stockport , 6 mi (9.7 km) south of Manchester, four sets of underground air raid shelter tunnels for civilian use were dug into the red sandstone on which the town centre stands. Preparation started in September 1938 and the first set of shelters was opened on 28 October 1939. (Stockport was not bombed until 11 October 1940.) The smallest of the tunnel shelters could accommodate 2,000 people and
17514-420: Was found that 3 people had been killed, 13 seriously injured, and 16 slightly injured out of a total of 136 people who had occupied Morrison shelters; thus 120 out of 136 escaped from severely bomb-damaged houses without serious injury. Furthermore, it was discovered that the fatalities had occurred in a house which had suffered a direct hit, and some of the severely injured were in shelters sited incorrectly within
17653-510: Was incorporated into Cable & Wireless Communications , which continued telex operation until 2006 when the remaining telex subscribers were transferred to Swiss Telex, which operated a multinational telex network until 2020 (also with T200 equipment). British Telecom stopped offering the telex service to new customers in 2004 and discontinued the service in 2008, allowing users to transfer to Swiss Telex if they wished to continue to use telex. Canada-wide automatic teleprinter exchange service
17792-455: Was installed to mark the location of the Führerbunker . The board, including a schematic diagram of the bunker, can be found at the corner of In den Ministergärten and Gertrud-Kolmar-Straße, two small streets about three minutes' walk from Potsdamer Platz . Rochus Misch , one of the last people living who was in the bunker at the time of Hitler's suicide, attended the ceremony. Air raid shelter Air raid shelters are structures for
17931-803: Was introduced by the CPR Telegraph Company and CN Telegraph in July 1957 (the two companies, operated by rivals Canadian National Railway and Canadian Pacific Railway , would join to form CNCP Telecommunications in 1967). This service supplemented the existing international telex service that was put in place in November 1956. Canadian telex customers could connect with nineteen European countries in addition to eighteen Latin American, African, and trans-Pacific countries. The major exchanges were located in Montreal (01), Toronto (02), and Winnipeg (03). Telex
18070-497: Was made to convert to automatic switching and this was completed by 1961; there were 21 exchanges spread across the country, with one international exchange in London. The equipment used the Strowger system for switching, as was the case for the telephone network. Conversion to Stored Programme Control (SPC) began in 1984 using exchanges made by Canadian Marconi , with the last Strowger exchange closing in 1992. User numbers increased over
18209-534: Was made with shelters because of the apparently irreconcilable conflict between the need to send the public underground for shelter and the need to keep them above ground for protection against gas attacks . In 1935, every city in the country was given a document to prepare air raid shelters. In February 1936 the Home Secretary appointed a technical Committee on Structural Precautions against Air Attack. By November 1937, there had only been slow progress, because of
18348-459: Was offered in two different configurations for Western Union Telex in the United States. The first option, sometimes called local or loop service , provided a 60 milliampere loop circuit from the exchange to the customer teleprinter. The second option, sometimes called long distance or polar was used when a 60 milliampere connection could not be achieved, provided a ground return polar circuit using 35 milliamperes on separate send and receive wires. By
18487-453: Was ordered to get the Luftwaffe to attack the Soviet forces that had just reached Potsdamer Platz , only a city block from the Führerbunker . During the night of 28 April, General Wenck reported to Keitel that his Twelfth Army had been forced back along the entire front and it was no longer possible for his army to relieve Berlin. Keitel gave Wenck permission to break off the attempt. Hitler married Eva Braun after midnight on 28–29 April in
18626-619: Was pumped in as the water supply. Communications systems included a telex , a telephone switchboard, and an army radio set with an outdoor antenna. As conditions deteriorated at the end of the war, Hitler received much of his war news from BBC radio broadcasts and via courier. Hitler moved into the Führerbunker on 16 January 1945, joined by his senior staff, including Martin Bormann . Eva Braun and Joseph Goebbels joined them in April, while Magda Goebbels and their six children took residence in
18765-400: Was re-acquired by AT&T in 1990 in the purchase of the Western Union assets that became AT&T EasyLink Services . In 1958, Western Union started to build a telex network in the United States. This telex network started as a satellite exchange located in New York City and expanded to a nationwide network. Western Union chose Siemens & Halske AG, now Siemens AG, and ITT to supply
18904-566: Was that they each bit on a cyanide ampule and were given a coup de grâce immediately afterwards. Goebbels' SS adjutant Günther Schwägermann testified in 1948 that the couple walked ahead of him up the stairs and out to the Chancellery garden. He waited in the stairwell and heard the shots, then walked up the remaining stairs and saw the lifeless bodies of the couple outside. He then followed Joseph Goebbels' order and had an SS soldier fire several shots into Goebbels' body, which did not move. The bodies were then doused with petrol and set alight, but
19043-508: Was the Bell 101 dataset, developed by 1958 for military applications. It is the direct ancestor of the Bell 103 modem that launched computer time-sharing . The 101 was revolutionary because it allowed the Bell System to run TWX on its regular voice telephone lines. The code and speed conversion between 3-row Baudot and 4-row ASCII TWX service was accomplished using a special Bell 10A/B board via
19182-454: Was to keep order, give first aid and assist in case of the flooding of the tunnels. Businesses (for example Plessey Ltd ) were allowed to use the Underground stations and unopened tunnels; government offices were installed in others and the anti-aircraft centre for London used a station as its headquarters. Tube stations and tunnels were still vulnerable to a direct hit and on 14 October 1940,
19321-404: Was told at his afternoon situation conference on 22 April that Steiner's forces had not moved, and he fell into a tearful rage when he realised that the attack was not going to be carried out. He openly declared for the first time the war was lost—and he blamed his generals. Hitler announced that he would stay in Berlin until the end and then shoot himself. On 23 April, Hitler appointed General of
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