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139-673: The Huashu is a unique philosophical work of the period of the Five Dynasties, which syncretizes elements of Taoist, Buddhist, and Confucian thought, and which has been noted in recent times for its scientific observations (for instance regarding optics and acoustics) and for its unusual emphasis on epistemological considerations. Its influence during the Song and subsequent dynasties was substantial, both within Taoist and Confucian metaphysics, and especially as foundation of alchemical thought. Authorship of

278-454: A shengren ( 聖 人 "sagely person"). The true sage is a quail at rest, a little fledgling at its meal, a bird in flight who leaves no trail behind. When the world has the Way, he joins in the chorus with all other things. When the world is without the Way, he nurses his Virtue and retires in leisure. And after a thousand years, should he weary of the world, he will leave it and [ 上 ] ascend to [ 僊 ]

417-710: A shān ( 山 "mountain") phonetic. For a character analysis, Schipper interprets "'the human being of the mountain,' or alternatively, 'human mountain'. The two explanations are appropriate to these beings: they haunt the holy mountains, while also embodying nature." The Classic of Poetry (220/3) contains the oldest occurrence of the character 僊 , reduplicated as xiānxiān ( 僊僊 "dance lightly; hop about; jump around"), and rhymed with qiān ( 遷 ). "But when they have drunk too much, Their deportment becomes light and frivolous—They leave their seats, and [ 遷 ] go elsewhere, They keep [ 僊僊 ] dancing and capering." (tr. James Legge ) Needham and Wang suggest xian

556-424: A Sino-Tibetan connection between xiān (Old Chinese * san or * sen ) "'An immortal' ... men and women who attain supernatural abilities; after death they become immortals and deities who can fly through the air" and Classical Tibetan gšen < g-syen "shaman, one who has supernatural abilities, incl[uding] travel through the air". The word xiān is written with three characters 僊 , 仙 , or 仚 , which combine

695-523: A bamboo railing that made a ce-ce 策策 sound when leaned upon, and the Xin's had a wooden one that made a tang-tang 堂堂 sound. Both families fed their fish daily and the fish learned to leap out of the water when they heard these sounds. But even if they were not being fed, the fish leapt whenever they heard these respective sounds. Thus, the Geng's fish could be called with ce-ce and the Xin's fish with tang-tang , which

834-498: A borrowed pretext. That which we borrow to maintain our lives is merely so much dust. Life and death alternate like day and night. As you and I were observing evolution, it caught up with me. So why should I resent it? James D. Sellmann elucidates the Daoist significance of hua . There is no conclusion, no end, no finish for the Zhuangzi . Things transpose, and keep on changing. Therefore,

973-407: A bronze sword for a dragon tail inkstone. In the 13th century Yao Mian (姚勉) wrote a poem about a dragon tail inkstone once opened by Su Shi : Its shape is round as the moon, And its tripod feet are like a toad's. It was the dragon tail inkstone from the dark jade bank. And was once appreciated by Su Shi in a snowy hall. During the late Tang dynasty Xi Nai (奚鼐) established himself as

1112-402: A change of things and situations ( yi 易), but it also entails a complete renewal of the experience of life's meaning ( hua 化). Hua provides a way to move through various shapes or bodily forms within a species and across species to merge with each unique perspective, and to experience a mystical continuity with the particulars of nature. In chapter two of the Zhuangzi , the mystical experience

1251-481: A connection to the heavenly realms inaccessible to mortals. This is often achieved through spiritual self-cultivation , alchemy , or worship by others. This is different from the gods in Chinese mythology and Taoism , who were inherently supernatural. Xian is also used as a descriptor to refer to often benevolent figures of great historical, spiritual and cultural significance. The Quanzhen School of Daoism had

1390-665: A downturn of the Southern Tang economy. After forcible incorporation into the Song Empire the former southern kingdoms became the focal point of the Chinese economy. Throughout their brief period of independence they had "laid the groundwork for the great economic surge that followed." Copper mining in the north was heavily disrupted by the constant warfare of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms era. In consequence bronze coins became scarce. The situation became dire in northern China. In 955

1529-415: A gathering of notable scholars that included Liu Ban (劉攽), Mei Yaochen, Ouyang Xiu, Su Shi , noted its quality in poetic works. Ouyang Xiu later gifted Mei Yaochen two scrolls of Pure Heart Hall paper for calligraphy. Song painters utilized the paper for their artwork. Li Gonglin in particular only used Pure Heart Hall paper for his compositions. Among the culinary options available in the Southern Tang

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1668-658: A key topic in the Daoist Zhuangzi . For instance, Victor H. Mair translates it as "evolution" in this context. Nuncle Scattered and Nuncle Slippery were observing the mounds of the Earl of Darkness in the emptiness of K'unlun where the Yellow Emperor rested. Suddenly a willow began to sprout from Nuncle Slippery's left elbow. He looked startled, as though he resented it."Do you resent it?" asked Nuncle Scattered. "No," said Nuncle Slippery. "Why should I resent it? Our lives are just

1807-546: A more famous Daoist Tan Zixiao; both had the same Chinese surname , both lived in the 10th century, and both traveled in southern China. This mistaken identification began with the Huashu edition in the 1607 CE Daozang supplement Wanli xu daozang 萬歷緒道臧. Its preface notes that Tan Qiao's pseudonym ( hao 號) was Zixiao Zhenren 紫霄真人 "Perfected Person of the Purple Clouds/Skies". Lembert and Schenkel translate "The True Man of

1946-580: A parable or example and then elaborate upon it. Individual articles are identified by chapter and number, for instance 1.1 Ziji Gong bi 紫極宮碑 "Stele at the Palace of the Purple Ultimate", 1.2 Sheqiao 蛇雀 "Snakes and Sparrows," 1.3 Laofeng 老楓 "Old Maple Trees", 1.4 Ermu 耳目 "Ears and Eyes". Unlike this 1.1 with four Chinese characters , all the other 109 Huashu titles have two characters, which suggests textual corruption or alteration. The textual history of

2085-536: A person and a person upside-down. The left side is 亻 (人 rén ) 'person'. The right side 匕 was originally 人 upside-down. A person who flips, changes." The closest synonym is bian 變 "change, change into, become; transform; adapt; perform (magic, etc.), and their compound is bianhua 變化 "change; vary, variation; metamorphose; transmute". Two other common hua -compounds are huaxue 化學 (lit. "transformation study") "chemistry" and wenhua 文化 ("literacy transformation") "culture; civilization". Hua "transformations" are

2224-537: A person on a mountaintop". How Chinese texts describe xian "immortals; transcendents" can vary following the historical changes in how Daoists viewed immortality. Early text such as Zhuangzi , Chuci , and Liezi texts allegorically used xian immortals and magic islands to describe spiritual immortality, sometimes using the word yuren 羽人 or "feathered person" (later another word for "Daoist" ), and were described with motifs of feathers and flying, such as yǔhuà (羽化, with "feather; wing"). Later texts like

2363-753: A prominent inkstick manufacturer in Hebei. His son Xi Chao (奚超) migrated to Shezhou to escape the continual instability of the period. There the family utilized Huangshan pine trees to produce huimo (徽墨) inksticks. The highest quality were produced by Xi Chao's son, Xi Tinggui, whose skill was recognized by Li Yu. The Southern Tang ruler bestowed his family name (Li) to the Xi family in honor of their craftsmanship. Now called Li Tinggui, his products became known as Li Tinggui mo (李廷珪墨 "Li Tinggui Ink"), while those made by his relatives were called Lishi mo (李氏墨 "Li Family Ink"). Initial Song emperors did not value Lishi mo and used it as

2502-576: A rebellion in the Later Jin territory Anyuan . Li Bian broke his policy of maintaining peaceable relations with neighboring states in a campaign that ultimately ended in Southern Tang failure. The military commissioner of Anyuan, Li Jinquan , contacted the Southern Tang with an offer to change allegiance from the Later Jin to the Southern Tang realm. Li Bian accepted the offer and sent an army northwards. Southern Tang forces met up with Li Jinquan as planned. But against Li Bian's commands its commanders ordered

2641-565: A refined and perhaps immortal body, able to fly like a bird beyond the trammels of the base material world into the realms of aether, and nourish himself on air and dew.)" Schafer noted xian was cognate to xian 䙴 "soar up", qian 遷 "remove", and xianxian 僊僊 "a flapping dance movement"; and compared Chinese yuren 羽人 "feathered man; xian " with English peri "a fairy or supernatural being in Persian mythology " ( Persian pari from par "feather; wing"). Two linguistic hypotheses for

2780-512: A shadow." Two circa 3rd century BCE "Outer Chapters" of the Zhuangzi ("[Book of] Master Zhuang") use the archaic character xian ( 僊 ). Chapter 11 has a parable about "Cloud Chief" ( Chinese : 雲將 ; pinyin : Yún jiāng ) and "Big Concealment" ( Chinese : 鴻濛 ; pinyin : Hóngméng ) that uses the Shijing compound xianxian ("dance; jump"): Big Concealment said, "If you confuse

2919-490: A source of paint for restoration projects. It was not until the reign of Emperor Renzong that Lishi mo and Li Tinggui mo in particular were recognized for their quality. Emperors gave them as presents to their scholars. Cai Xiang created a collection of Lishi mo made by four generations of the Li family. Emperor Shenzong rewarded the polymath Su Song with Li Tinggui mo for his scholarly pursuits. Li Tinggui's ink remained

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3058-562: A striped stone, he says, under the impression that it is a tiger, or at a ripple on the water, under the impression that it is a crocodile. Moreover, even if these animals are really there, his attention may be so concentrated on them that he will simply not see the stones or the water beside them." The Huashu article Sijing 四鏡 "Four Lenses" (1.10), with the earliest known reference to the basic types of simple lenses , metaphorically illustrates relativism and, in modern terms, subjective idealism . I have always by me four lenses. The first

3197-454: A theory that Needham calls "far more advanced than the Pythagorean conception of sounds as a stuff composed of numbers." The void ([ xu ] 虛) is transformed into (magical) power ( shen 神). (Magical) power is transformed into [ qi ]. [ Qi ] is transformed into material things ([ xing ] 形). Material things and [ qi ] ride on one another ([ xing qi xiang cheng ] 形氣相乘), and thus sound is formed. It

3336-799: A thing among other things, and you may join in great unity with the deep and boundless. Undo the mind, slough off spirit, be blank and soulless, and the ten thousand things one by one will return to the root—return to the root and not know why. Dark and undifferentiated chaos—to the end of life none will depart from it. But if you try to know it, you have already departed from it. Do not ask what its name is, do not try to observe its form. Things will live naturally end of themselves." Cloud Chief said, "The Heavenly Master has favored me with this Virtue, instructed me in this Silence. All my life I have been looking for it, and now at last I have it!" He bowed his head twice, stood up, took his leave, and went away. (11) Chapter 12 uses xian when mythical Emperor Yao describes

3475-501: A transformation from xing to jing 精 "essence" (cf. the Three Treasures ), to underlie all human problems (1.15). Other scholars quote the Huashu from Needham. Galeotti, Menconi, and Fronzoni suggest "surprising references to the butterfly effect " in "Great Containment" (1.24). Davies compares Francis Crick 's The Astonishing Hypothesis with "Shooting Tigers" (1.11) that uses "optical illusions and human inattention to press

3614-589: A unique style of landscape painting known as the Southern School, which influence artists in the Song and Yuan dynasties. Sculptures crafted with detailed pictorial reliefs became widespread and surviving examples can be found at the Qixia Temple outside Nanjing. The Hanlin Academy (翰林院) was founded in 943 and had large amounts of accomplished painters. There were only two other artistic academies in operation during

3753-495: A variety of definitions about what xian means during its history, including a metaphorical meaning where the term simply means a good, principled person. Xian have been venerated from ancient times to the modern day in a variety of ways across different cultures and religious sects in China. Akira Akahori, the author of Drug Taking and Immortality, gives this description: Legends of so-called immortals were widely accepted by

3892-465: Is a Food Transformation. [庚氏穴池，构竹为凭槛，登之者其声“策策”焉。辛氏穴池，构木为凭槛，登之者其“堂堂”焉。二氏俱牧鱼于池中，每凭槛投饥，鱼必踊跃而出。他日但闻“策策”“堂堂”之声，不投饵亦踊跃而出，则是庚氏之鱼可名“策策”，辛氏之鱼可名“堂堂”，食之化也。] The Huashu , unlike most other Daoist classics, is not available in English translation, with the unpublished exceptions of a MA thesis and a PhD dissertation. Footnotes Southern Tang Southern Tang ( Chinese : 南唐 ; pinyin : Nán Táng )

4031-539: Is akin to the Tao. Moeller notes Tan's room of parallel mirror images "is obviously indebted to an earlier Buddhist example." The Huayan patriarch Fazang used an illuminated statue of the Buddha inside a room of mirroring mirrors to illustrate Indra's net to Empress Wu Zetian . Needham additionally cites a zoological example of subjectivity from Xiaoji 梟雞 "Owls and Hens" (1.9) – written eight centuries before John Locke made

4170-617: Is also translated "Book of Alternations" and "Scripture of Changes" — not to be confused with the Yijing ". "Book of Transformations" is used in titles of books about the Yijing and magic, and "Book of Transformation" in one by the Dalai Lama . While generations of Chinese literati have studied the Huashu as a philosophical text, notably in terms of Neo-Confucianism , Western scholars are only beginning to appreciate it. Alexander Wylie first described

4309-515: Is an influential Daoist healing tradition that combines Tianshi automatic writing talismans with shamanistic exorcisms. Reflecting the extent of Tan Zixiao's celebrity, Li Yu 李煜, the famous poet and last king of the Southern Tang (r. 961–975 CE), summoned the Daoist priest to court and lavished wealth and honors on him. Didier definitively establishes that Tan Qiao and Tan Zixiao were two different people, contrasting aspects in each man's period, region, and activities. He concludes that while Tan Qiao

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4448-530: Is apparent, [but] the sloughing off of the body's mortality remains to be done." There are three levels of Shījiě immortals: Dìxià zhǔ ( Chinese : 地下主 ; pinyin : Dìxià zhǔ ) - "Agents Beneath the Earth" – Are in charge of keeping the peace within the Chinese underworld . They are eligible for promotion to earthbound immortality after 280 years of faithful service. Dìshàng zhǔzhě ( Chinese : 地上主者 ; pinyin : Dìshàng zhǔ zhě ) - "Agents Above

4587-400: Is called [ gui ] 璧 (the 'sceptre', a diverging bi-concave lens). The second is called [ zhu ] 珠 (the 'pearl', biconvex). The third is called [ zhi ] 砥 (the 'whetstone', plano-concave). The fourth is called [ yu ] 盂 (the 'bowl', plano-convex). With [ gui ] the object is larger (than the image). With [ zhu ] the object is smaller (than the image). With [ zhi ] the image appears upright. With [ yu ]

4726-433: Is described in these terms; "heaven and earth were born together with me, and the myriad things and I are one" (5/2/52-53). The way hua is played out in the Zhuangzi is very telling, especially in the context of elaborating on the mystical experience. This 10th-century Huashu "Book of Transformations", written by Tan Qiao and edited by Song Qiqiu, should be distinguished from a similarly titled 13th-century Daoist text —

4865-417: Is found in the 12th-century Nan Tangshu 南唐書 "History of the Southern Tang" by Ma Ling 馬令 and Lu You 陸游. Tan Zixiao was from Quanzhou ( Fujian ), which was part of Min (Ten Kingdoms) . He was a renowned Daoist priest ( daoshi 道師) and shaman ( wu 巫), and served at the court of King Wang Chang 王昶 (r. 935–939), who gave Tan the honorific title Zhengyi Xiansheng 正一先生 "Elder of Orthodox/Correct Unity". After

5004-502: Is not a true form of immortality. For each misdeed a person commits, the Director of allotted life spans subtracts days and sometimes years from their allotted life span. This method allows a person to live out the entirety of their allotted lifespan and avoid the agents of death. But the body still has to be transformed into an immortal one, hence the phrase Xiānsǐ hòutuō ( Chinese : 先死後脱 ; pinyin : Xiān sǐhòu tuō ) - "The 'death'

5143-528: Is not the ear which listens to sound but sound which of itself makes its way into the ear. It is not the valley which of itself gives out echoing sound, but sound of itself fills up the entire valley. An ear is a small hollow ([ qiao ] 竅) and a valley is a large hollow. Mountains and marshes are a 'small valley' and Heaven and Earth are a 'large valley'. (Theoretically speaking, then) if one hollow gives out sound ten thousand hollows will all give out sound; if sound can be heard in one valley it should be heard in all

5282-537: Is strengthened by the importance of 5 among numbers in Chinese culture . Take for instance the Huashu articles Wuxing 五行 "Five Phases/Elements" (4.2) and Wuchang 五常 "Five Constant [Virtues]" (3.1). The textual theme and namesake is hua 化 " transform, change, convert, turn into; (physically) melt, dissolve; digest; incinerate; (individually) change into; metamorphose; take the form of; disguise oneself; (Buddhism) reincarnate; (euphemism) die; pass away". Wenlin interprets this Chinese character, "化 huà depicts

5421-752: The Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou , cede all territory north of the Yangtze River , and relinquish his title of emperor. In 960, the Southern Tang became a vassal of the newly established Northern Song dynasty . After the Emperor Taizu of Song had defeated the Later Shu and the Southern Han , he ordered the conquest of the Southern Tang , which was completed in 975. The names and titles used by Southern Tang rulers changed several times throughout its existence. In

5560-527: The Huashu credited to Tan Qiao. Didier concludes that in 14th-century China, the book "was widely known and read" and "two of what we might call Hua shu cultures existed, the secular or external and the Taoist/alchemical or internal." The secular Huashu text, called the Qiqiuzi 齊丘子 "[Book of] Master [Song] Qiqiu" or Song Qiqiu Huashu 宋齊丘化書, is related to the 1144–46 CE Daozang "Daoist Canon" edition of

5699-403: The Huashu except that it begins "The Utmost Way has five transformations therein" and that the "Way Transformations" (chapter 1 in received texts) subsumes the 5 Huashu chapters "Techniques, Potency, Humaneness, Food, and Frugality Transformations". His hypothesis that the original Huashu text had a quinary instead of sexpartite structure, and that the first chapter was Tan's original preface,

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5838-436: The Huashu is associated with three people. The Southern Tang (937–975 CE) chancellor Song Qiqiu 宋齊丘 first published it under his name, but evidence suggests he plagiarized the Huashu from its primary author Tan Qiao 譚峭, who later scholars confabulated with another roughly contemporaneous Daoist Tan Zixiao 譚紫霄. Didier analyzes the authorship in detail, and believes "one reasonably can conclude only that while T'an Ch'iao wrote

5977-408: The Huashu was analyzed by Didier who differentiated two lines of transmission, the "secular" text originally published under the authorship of Song Qiqiu and the "Daoist" text written by Tan Qiao. The first transmission dates back to Song's 930 CE preface, which describes the Huashu as having 6 chapters and 110 articles. The second textual transmission dates back to Chen Jingyuan's 1060 CE edition of

6116-431: The Huashu were titled the Qiqiuzi 齊丘子 "[Book of] Master Qiqiu". Song Qiqiu's authorship was debunked in the 11th century. The Daoist priest Chen Jingyuan 陳景元 (ca. 1024–1094 CE) published the Huashu with his colophon dated 1060 CE, which records a story that Song stole the book from Tan Qiao. Chen heard this story from his master Zhang Wumeng 張無夢 (fl. ca. 960–1040), who heard it from his master Chen Tuan (871–989) who

6255-471: The Huashu . Texts in this lineage have 110 articles, beginning with 1.1 "Stele at the Palace of the Purple Ultimate". The Daoist Huashu text, called the Tanzi 譚子 "[Book of] Master Tan [Qiao]" or Tanzi Huashu 譚子化書, is related to the 1457–1464 Daiwang 代王 ( Hubei ) government-printed Huashu edition. Texts in this lineage have 109 articles, or 110 beginning with different 1.1 Daohua 道化 "Way Transformations" (also

6394-660: The Shenxian zhuan and Baopuzi took immortality literally and described esoteric Chinese alchemical techniques for physical longevity, with techniques such as neidan ("internal alchemy") and waidan ("external alchemy"). Neidan techniques included taixi ("embryonic respiration") breath control, meditation , visualization , sexual training, and daoyin exercises (which later evolved into qigong and tai chi ), while waidan techniques for immortality included alchemical recipes, magic plants, rare minerals, herbal medicines, drugs, and dietetic techniques like inedia . Besides

6533-593: The Ten Kingdoms . He was born in Luling 廬陵 (present-day Jiangxi ), orphaned as a child, and self-educated. While serving as an official in the kingdom of Wu (907–937), he befriended Xu Zhigao 徐知誥, and helped him to establish the Southern Tang and become Emperor Liezu (r. 937–943). Song was appointed to various important administrative posts, including Chancellor on the Left. After the emperor died, Song retired to Mount Jiuhua and

6672-534: The Tianshi "Celestial Masters" movement, which emphasized communal rituals, registers, and talismans; Tan Qiao's heritage was more from the 5th-century southern Shangqing Highest Clarity" tradition, which emphasized personal cultivation, meditation, and visualization. The received Huashu text contains 110 articles or sections ( pian 篇) arranged in 6 chapters ( juan 卷), named after types of hua 化 "transformation; change; conversion". Most Huashu articles begin with

6811-608: The Wendi huashu 文帝化書 "Book on the Transformations of Lord Wen" or Zitong dijun huashu 梓潼帝君化書 "Book of Transformations of the Divine Lord of Zitong". It was supposedly revealed in automatic writing in 1181 and 1194 CE, and details the transformations of Wenchang 文昌, patron deity of the literary arts, also known as Zitong dijun 梓潼帝君. The English title of the Huashu is usually "Book of Transformations" or "Book of Transformation", but it

6950-690: The Yelü Deguang to overthrow his brother-in-law Li Congke of the Later Tang with Khitan forces. He ceded the Sixteen Prefectures , promised annual tribute, and accepted a subordinate role to Yelü Deguang. In return the Khitan ruler appointed Shi Jingtang as Emperor of the Later Jin . Throughout his reign Shi Jingtang maintained amicable relations with his overlord, despite criticism from many officials. In

7089-578: The fox gods or "huxian" common in the region. The Three Sovereigns had similarities to xian because of some of their supernatural abilities and could have been considered such. Upon his death, the Yellow Emperor was "said to have become" a xian . During the Six Dynasties , xian were a common subject of zhiguai stories. They often had "magical" Tao powers including the abilities to "walk...through walls or stand...in light without casting

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7228-470: The history of science and technology in China have rediscovered the Huashu , which Needham called "a work of much importance". Note that Needham's unusual system of romanization is changed to pinyin , for instance, substituting [Tan Qiao] for "Than Chhiao". Evaluating Chinese proto-scientific texts from the Tang and Song dynasties, Needham cites Xingying 形影 "Objects and Images" (1.7), Of all these books,

7367-417: The primary/secondary quality distinction . "For the owl, [Tan Qiao] says, the night is bright and the day dark; for the hen the converse is true, as for ourselves. Which of the two, he asks, in good Taoist style, is to be considered 'normal' and which 'abnormal'?" Needham refers to Shehu 射虎 "Shooting Tigers" (1.11), which relates optical illusions with Daoist philosophy of perception . "A man may shoot at

7506-562: The " Ruler of the State of Jiangnan " ( 江南國主 ). He however used the title " Ruler of Tang " ( 唐國主 ) and " Seal of Tang " ( 唐國之印 ) for the government. Li Yu , the third and final Southern Tang monarch, initially used the title and seal of his father. He attempted to demonstrate obeisance to Emperor Taizu after the Song conquest of Southern Han . Li Yu created a more modest " Seal of Jiangnan " ( 江南國印 ) and abandoned "Ruler of Tang" in favor of "Ruler of

7645-537: The "usurpers and thieves" in control of the Central Plains he declared he would act. After their defeat the Imperial Court would relocate to Chang'an and rebuild the dilapidated city. The restored Tang Empire would then encourage the remaining Southern states to recognize their legitimate rule and submit. Officials pushed for attacking the Later Jin. Li Bian refused to engage in a conflict at that time as he felt it

7784-567: The 930s Xu Zhigao ruled as king over a sizeable territory called Qi ( 齊 ) that existed within Wu. After deposing the Yang Imperial family in 937 he adopted the title of emperor and announced the creation Great Qi ( 大齊 ). The Zizhi Tongjian referred to this state as Tang from its foundation, while the majority of historical sources, including the Old History of the Five Dynasties , New History of

7923-675: The Central Plains for the time being. Xian (Taoism) Model humanity: Main philosophical traditions: Ritual traditions: Devotional traditions: Salvation churches and sects : Confucian churches and sects: A xian ( Chinese : 仙/僊 ; pinyin : xiān ; Wade–Giles : hsien ) is any manner of immortal, mythical being within the Taoist pantheon or Chinese folklore. Xian has often been translated into English as "immortal". Traditionally, xian refers to entities who have attained immortality and supernatural or magical abilities later in life, with

8062-527: The Central Plains logisitically challenging. Hino Kaisaburō has detailed the principle routes used for inland economic and diplomatic exchanges between northern and southern Chinese states. These were the Grand Canal , Gan River , and Xiang River . Control of the Grand Canal was divided between several states, therefore it was the least used route in the era. In 936 Shi Jingtang secured an alliance with

8201-428: The Central Plains, the Southern Tang were economically prosperous. This created bottlenecks for any army advancing north as long supply trains were required. The Southern Tang military utilized a combination of infantry and naval forces, while cavalry was seldom employed. However, in the open Central Plains cavalry forces held the advantage. Peter A. Lorge concluded that these circumstances made Southern Tang campaigns into

8340-484: The Central Plains. The greater agricultural productivity of the region created favorable conditions. Consistent tax revenues were secured with the growing disposable income of the populace. Interstate trading of specialized crafts like colored silks and salt reclaimed from the Huai River likewise was promoted by the Southern Tang. Agricultural practices along the lower Yangtze River had undergone major modifications in

8479-629: The Daoist classics, particularly the hagiographies of xian 仙 "immortals; transcendents". Tan Qiao left home to study Daoism on Mount Zhongnan and never returned. After travelling through the Sacred mountains of China , he lived for a decade on Mount Song 嵩山 ( Henan ), where Daoist priests taught him neidan alchemical techniques of bigu 辟穀 "abstention from cereals" and yangqi 養氣 "nourishing qi ", roughly corresponding with Western practices of inedia and breatharianism . "He wore furs in summer and thin garments in winter, and he would often lie about in

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8618-522: The Earth" - Are given magic talismans which prolong their lives (but not indefinitely) and allow them to heal the sick and exorcize demons and evil spirits from the earth. This level was not eligible for promotion to earthbound immortality. Zhìdì jūn ( Chinese : 制地君 ; pinyin : Zhì de jūn )- "Lords Who Control the Earth" - A heavenly decree ordered them to "disperse all subordinate junior demons, whether high or low [in rank], that have cause afflictions and injury owing to blows or offenses against

8757-557: The Five Dynasties , and the Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms , referred to the state as Qi. They begin to use Tang only after Xu Zhigao adopted the name Li Bian in 939. Unlike the continual unrest and rebellions of the Central Plains, Tang rule across the Yangtze and Southern China had been generally more successful. These halcyon days had become a source of nostalgia for people in

8896-519: The Imperial Court for the Southern Tang "to secure the four quarters" (經營四方) through military conquest. These typically disastrous schemes were formed by certain officials keen on creating opportunities for their own advancement. The term "Five Dynasties" was coined by Song dynasty historians and reflects the view that the successive regimes based in Bian possessed the Mandate of Heaven . Compared to regimes of

9035-482: The Later Zhou Emperor Chai Rong banned the possession of bronze utensils upon pain of death. The Southern Tang and their neighbors minted coinage from clay, iron, or lead. These coins for domestic circulation (despite having minimal value intrinsically) and to prevent the export of precious bronze coinage to neighboring states. Li Bian possibly cast a coin with the inscription Daqi Tongbao (大唐通寶) while

9174-667: The Motion of the Year, the Original Destiny, Great Year, the Kings of the Soil or the establishing or breaking influences of the chronograms of the tome. Annihilate them all." This level was also not eligible for promotion to immortality. These titles were usually given to humans who had either not proven themselves worthy of or were not fated to become immortals. One such famous agent was Fei Changfang , who

9313-519: The Purple Sky"). Later gazetteers and histories repeated this pseudonym, but Zixiao already referred to another Daoist named Tan. Tan Zixiao ( simplified Chinese : 谭紫霄 ; traditional Chinese : 譚紫霄 ; pinyin : Tán Zǐxiāo ; Wade–Giles : T'an Tzu-hsiao ; ca. 910 CE- ca. 995 CE) was a celebrated Daoist in the Zhengyi Dao 正一 "Orthodox/Correct Unity" School. Tan's earliest biography

9452-522: The Song Dynasty. The foreign policy maintained by Li Bian has been described as maintaining a "martial conservatism." He recruited disaffected officials exiled from the north who found his realm to have bountiful resources. This made some of the newcomers contemplate its ability to expand territorially. The perceived need for Li Bian to prove his legitimacy through military conquest likewise motivated many Southern Tang officials. Li Bian however felt it

9591-562: The Southern Tang "the status of an independent state." Reign titles of rulers were likewise seen as unacceptable and their personal names were used exclusively. Yang Xingmi was the Jiedushi of Huainan Circuit during the final years of the Tang dynasty . Throughout a series of conflicts with neighboring officials he expanded his control over most contemporary Jiangsu and Anhui , along with parts of Jiangxi and Hubei . In 902 Emperor Zhaozong recognized Yang Xingmi's conquests and granted him

9730-405: The Southern Tang literati, a tradition that continued into the Song dynasty. The most valued dragon tail inkstone contained minerals of a golden hue and were called jinxing yan (金星硯). Emperor Zhenzong had a dragon tail inkstone among his collection, which provoked further interest in them by Song literati. Su Shi considered them second only to Phoenix beak inkstones (鳳咮硯), at point trading

9869-551: The Southern Tang, which created the most developed agricultural economy among the southern states. Rice farmers had better yields and in general had more disposable income than their predecessors. This led to more state revenue by taxes on cereal and cash crops. Li Bian pursued the economic development of his realm through a number of fiscal policies. Song Qiqiu drafted many initiatives that focused on tax reform that were implemented. According to Sima Guang these were successful, as "the lands of Huai were fully planted, sericulture

10008-452: The State of Jiangnan", which remained used until 976 when he surrendered to the invading Song armies. Taizu gave Li Yu the humiliating title of Marquis of Disobedience (違名侯) when he arrived in Bian. Historical texts produced during the Song dynasty were named after Jiangnan, with variants of Jiangzuo ( 江左 ) and Jiangbiao ( 江俵 ) also used. By not using the formal name it claimed, authors denied

10147-565: The Transmission of the Dao from Zhong[li Quan] to Lü [Dongbin]" ) is a Song dynasty Taoist compendium, following the "Zhong-Lü" ( Chinese : 鍾呂 ; pinyin : Zhōng lǚ ) textual tradition of internal alchemy ( neidan ), which lists five classes of immortals: The 4th century CE Baopuzi ( 抱朴子 "[Book of] Master Embracing Simplicity"), written by Ge Hong , gives some highly detailed descriptions of xian , listing three classes: However, this

10286-502: The Wuyue gained control of the prosperous port city Fuzhou. Chu was subjugated in 951 but much of the state was lost in a rebellion against the deeply unpopular Southern Tang administration. According to Sima Guang these initially successful campaigns against Chu and Min made Li Jing grow an "ambition for the empire." Xuan Xu recorded in the Jiangnan Lu that certain officials sent requests to

10425-551: The Zhuge brushes in popularity. Dragon tail inkstones were another literary tool produced by the Southern Tang. They were made in the vicinity of Wuyuan . Li Jing established the Inkstone Bureau (硯務) to set annual quotas of their production. Skilled craftsmen that worked for the bureau received monthly salaries. Efforts were overseen by an Inkstone Officer (硯官). Dragon tail inkstones were prized possessions and offered as gifts among

10564-466: The ancient Chinese. Although the concept of immortals was not exactly the same through the ages, some general images persisted. Immortals usually live in clean and pure places such as high mountains; they do not eat cereals; they appear only to people who perform the proper religious practices or have the right kind of destiny. Some immortals also live in grottoes underneath the sacred mountains. They can freely change their appearance: sometimes they appear in

10703-503: The book under his own name. He was posthumously called Choumiu 醜繆 "Disgraceful Error". The Huashu was originally written by the Daoist Tan Qiao ( simplified Chinese : 谭峭 ; traditional Chinese : 譚峭 ; pinyin : Tán Qiào ; Wade–Giles : T'an Ch'iao ; ca. 860 CE-ca. 940 CE), whom Anderson describes as a "shadowy figure". The 10th-century Xu xian zhuan 續仙傳 "Continued Biographies of Immortals", by Shen Fen 沈汾, has

10842-455: The book, "The 化書 Hwa shoo or "Book of Transformation," written by 譚峭 T'an Seaou in the early part of the 10th century, is an ethical treatise, strongly impregnated with Taouist [ sic ] tendencies". The earliest European-language translation of the Huashu was in German. Alfred Forke discussed Tan Qiao's philosophy and translated over 20 articles. Joseph Needham and others studying

10981-462: The brushes. They later received praise from Song literati like Mei Yaochen and Ouyang Xiu . Zhuge brushes kept a position of prominence until the mid-Northern Song era. The quality of Zhuge brushes began to decline. Song scholars developed a new calligraphic style of writing frame-less characters (無骨字) which required more flexible brushes than those made by the Zhuge family. Competing brush producers from other areas, especially from Huizhou , overtook

11120-481: The bureaucratization of his court, taking power away from military officers. The constant turmoil of the Central Plains created a pool of experienced émigré officials that relocated to the more stable south. Li Bian was in particular interested in men versed in Confucian rituals. Ma Ling (馬令) reported that the civilian government maintained by Li Bian "was humane and attracted men from far and near." Among these recruits

11259-558: The chapter 1 title) or Shenhua 神化 "Spirit Transformations" titles. Many Huashu editions are currently available, and the Daozang includes two versions (CT 1044 and 1478). Based on differences among Huashu editions (variant characters, taboo usages, etc.) and a 1023–33 CE text called the Wuhua 五化 "Five Transformations" credited to Tanzi "Master Tan", Didier suggests the original Huashu had 5 chapters instead of 6. This Wuhua closely resembles

11398-506: The child, and so Yang decided to give the child to his lieutenant Xu Wen . The child was given the name Xu Zhigao. Using the threat of Wu-Yueh raids as an excuse, Xu Wen turned Chiang-nan into his base of operations. This in time would morph into the Kingdom of Qi. While Xu Wen assumed a position of power over the Yang family, he likely did not depose them due to unfavorable circumstances rather than

11537-410: The compassionate meaning and empathic understanding of "transformation" as it is mentioned in the context of the Zhuangzi encompasses each and every thing – in the natural world and the human world. From this perspective, transformation entails a magnitude of meaning, or "spiritual" dimension (in the sense of "high spirits" or "laughter"). Transformation is not just change of form and shape ( bian 變) or

11676-826: The constant strands of Heaven and violate the true form of things, then Dark Heaven will reach no fulfillment. Instead, the beasts will scatter from their herds, the birds will cry all night, disaster will come to the grass and trees, misfortune will reach even to the insects. Ah, this is the fault of men who 'govern'!" "Then what should I do?" said Cloud Chief. "Ah," said Big Concealment, "you are too far gone! [( Chinese : 僊僊 ; pinyin : Xiān xiān )] Up, up, stir yourself and be off!" Cloud Chief said, "Heavenly Master, it has been hard indeed for me to meet with you—I beg one word of instruction!" "Well, then—mind‑nourishment!" said Big Concealment. "You have only to rest in inaction and things will transform themselves. Smash your form and body, spit out hearing and eyesight, forget you are

11815-583: The earliest account of Tan Qiao. He was from Quanzhou (in present-day Fujian ) and his courtesy name ( zi 字) was Jingsheng 景升 "Brightness Ascending". His father Tan Zhu 譚洙, who was a director of the Guozijian "Imperial Academy" during the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), educated him in the Confucian classics and histories to prepare him for the Imperial examination . Qiao was an excellent student but more interested in

11954-450: The essence of the Hua shu text, Sung edited and also emended it, and in the process corrupted both the structure of and the apparent philosophy expressed through the work." Song Qiqiu ( simplified Chinese : 宋齐丘 ; traditional Chinese : 宋齊丘/邱 ; pinyin : Sòng qíqiū ; Wade–Giles : Sung Ch'i-ch'iu ; 886–959 CE) was Chancellor of the Southern Tang kingdom, which was one of

12093-616: The etymology of xian involve Arabic and Sino-Tibetan languages . Wu and Davis suggested the source was jinn , or jinni "genie" (from Arabic جني jinnī ). "The marvelous powers of the Hsien are so like those of the jinni of the Arabian Nights that one wonders whether the Arabic word, jinn , may not be derived from the Chinese Hsien ." Axel Schuessler's etymological dictionary suggests

12232-454: The everyday world looking like ordinary men, to test young immortal aspirants. They move very swiftly and fly though the air, sometimes using wings. (1989:73-98) Victor H. Mair describes the xian archetype as: They are immune to heat and cold, untouched by the elements, and can fly, mounting upward with a fluttering motion. They dwell apart from the chaotic world of man, subsist on air and dew, are not anxious like ordinary people, and have

12371-670: The fall of Min, Tan escaped to Mount Lu ( Jiangxi Province ) and established the Daoist Qiyin guan 悽隱觀 "Abbey of Dwelling in Concealment". He supposedly possessed ancient talismans from Zhang Daoling , the founder of the Tianshi Dao "Way of Celestial Masters". Within this school, Tan Zixiao is considered the founder of the Tianxin zhengfa 天心正法 "Correct Methods of the Celestial Heart", which

12510-571: The final years of the Tang dynasty. Irrigation and water management systems were more complex than in previous years. Intensive cultivation of rice was conducted in lowlands and adjacent reclaimed areas from waterways. Silk production developed into a regional cottage industry as farmers planted mulberry trees alongside their cereal crop. Meanwhile, in nearby piedmont areas agriculturalists became specialized in growing tea or textile plants like hemp (麻) or ramie (苧). These practices were in efflorescence during

12649-611: The following major Chinese texts, many others use both graphic variants of xian . Xian ( 仙 ) occurs in the Chunqiu Fanlu , Fengsu Tongyi , Qian fu lun , Fayan , and Shenjian ; xian occurs in the Caizhong langji , Fengsu Tongyi , Guanzi , and Shenjian . They are usually found in Taoist texts, although some Buddhist sources mention them. Chinese folk religion and writings on it also use them, such as in Northeast China with

12788-531: The geopolitical position of the Southern Tang. He felt if the Southern Tang were to invade Wuyue, then the Later Jin would surely launch a counter-attack to protect their vassal. While the Min Kingdom was much easier to conquer, it was also likely to be a financial burden and source of disorder. Both states were much more useful as buffers against the North than areas of expansion. If a propitious opportunity arose to strike

12927-515: The image appears inverted. When one looks at shapes or human forms through such instruments, one realizes that there is no such thing as (absolute) large or small, short or long, beautiful or ugly, desirable or hateful. Needham notes that Giambattista della Porta 's 1593 De refraction, optics parte was the first European treatment of these fundamental lens types. Dahan 大含 "Great Containment" (1.24) discusses how sound originates from disturbances in qi 氣 "air; vapor; pneuma; energy; vital force",

13066-408: The immortals, riding on those white clouds all the way up to the village of God. (12) Without using the word xian , several Zhuangzi passages employ xian imagery to describe individuals with superhuman powers, such as flying in the clouds. For example, Chapter 1, within the circa 3rd century BCE "Inner Chapters", has two portrayals. First is this description of Liezi (below). Lieh Tzu could ride

13205-473: The kingdom of Qi as having 10 of the 25 prefectures then under Wu control. Yang Pu awarded Xu Zhigao the title of King of Qi (齊王) in March of 937. In May he dropped the ranking character 'zhi' from his given name to distinguish from his adopted brothers and was now known as Xu Gao. In October of the same year Yang Pu surrendered the state seal to him, ending Yang rule of Wu On 11 November 937 Xu Gao formally ascended

13344-407: The lack of will to do so. In 927 Xu Zhigao inherited Xu Wen's position of power behind the Wu monarchy and laid out the groundwork for his seizure of the throne. He feared that the majority of the bureaucracy still supported the imperial Yang family. The Crown Prince Yang Lian was arranged to marry one of his daughters. In September 935 Yang Pu and Xu Zhigao settled on the territorial extent of

13483-678: The lifespan of humans depending on the human's level of their discretion. Xian were also thought by some Taoists to be synonymous with the gods inside the body, and as beings that would sometimes cause mortals problems but could be fought with martial virtue and martial arts. Xian could be good or evil. Not all Xian are Taoist, but they are usually associated with Taoist adepts who have ascended to immortality and godhood through spiritual practice and mastery. Besides enlightened humans and fairy-like humanoid beings, xiān can also refer to supernatural animals, including foxes, fox spirits , and Chinese dragons . Xian dragons were thought to be

13622-448: The logographic " radical " rén ( 人 or 亻 "person; human") with two "phonetic" elements (see Chinese character classification ). The oldest recorded xiān character 僊 has a xiān ("rise up; ascend") phonetic supposedly because immortals could "ascend into the heavens". (Compare qiān 遷 "move; transfer; change" combining this phonetic and the motion radical.) The usual modern xiān character 仙 , and its rare variant 仚 , have

13761-519: The looting Anlu . Afterwards, the Southern Tang army began to return home. Later Jin forces eventually caught up to the sluggish Southern Tang army and decisively defeated them in Mahuang Valley. The disobedience of his commanders upset Li Bian greatly. In a letter to Shi Jingtang, he claimed his generals were uncontrollable, as they were keen on career advancement through combat, and pressed for amicable relations. Thus, ended Southern Tang pretensions to

13900-478: The middle of the 11th century the Four Treasures were appreciated by Song literati who amassed private collections of them. While Song literati noted the quality of writing instruments, they did not perceive the Southern Tang regime itself as exceptional. Brushes produced by the Zhuge family of Xuanzhou were popular among the Southern Tang. Li Congqian (李從謙) of the imperial family in particular greatly cherished

14039-623: The most original from the point of view of the philosophy of science is probably the Hua Shu . [Tan Qiao] (if he was really its author) developed a special kind of subjective realism, in which he emphasized that though the external world was real, our knowledge of it was so deeply affected by subjective factors that its full reality could not be said to have been seized (this, of course, is an attempt to express his point of view in modern terms). First he considers an infinite regress of images of an object in oppositely placed plane mirrors. The form and colour of

14178-1032: The mountains." Its writing is a combination of 人 ( pinyin : rén ; lit. 'human') and 山 ( pinyin : shān ; lit. 'mountain'). Its historical form is 僊 : a combination of 人 ( pinyin : rén ; lit. 'human') and 遷/䙴 ( pinyin : qiān ; lit. 'moving into'). Xian is often used as Chinese compound , such as the Bāxiān ( 八仙 "the Eight Immortals "). Other common words include xiānrén ( 仙人 , sennin in Japanese, "immortal person; transcendent", see Xianren Cave ), xiānrénzhăng ( 仙人掌 "immortal's palm; cactus "), xiānnǚ ( 仙女 "immortal woman; female celestial; angel"), and shénxiān ( 神仙 "gods and immortals; divine immortal"). Edward H. Schafer defined xian as "transcendent, sylph (a being who, through alchemical, gymnastic and other disciplines, has achieved

14317-565: The mounts of gods and goddesses or manifestations of the spirit of Taoists such as Laozi that existed in a mental realm sometimes called "the Heavens ". The mythological húlijīng ( Chinese : 狐狸精 ; pinyin : Húlíjīng ) (lit. "fox spirit") "fox fairy; vixen; witch; enchantress" has an alternate name of húxiān ( Chinese : 狐仙 ; pinyin : Hú xiān ) (lit. "fox immortal"). The Zhong Lü Chuan Dao Ji ( Chinese : 鐘呂傳道集 ; pinyin : Zhōng lǚ chuándào jí ), "Anthology of

14456-501: The name of Li Bian. He additionally authorized a genealogy that claimed descent from the Tang Imperial family. Records vary about whom his supposed Tang progenitor was. Johannes L. Kurz concluded that the more reliable sources state his ancestor was either son or a younger brother of Xuanzong . On 2 May 939 Li Bian performed the traditional sacrifices to Heaven. Jingnan and Wuyue sent ambassadors praising this event. Li Bian encouraged

14595-434: The object ([ xing ] 形) is perfectly retained in each of the successive images ( ying 影). Since it can exist without them, it is not alone and in itself complete ([ shi ] 實), but since they perfectly reproduce its form and colour, they are not in themselves empty ([ xu ] 虛); or, as might be said in modern terms, it is not fully real, but they are not fully unreal. Now that which is neither real nor not-real, concludes [Tan Qiao],

14734-479: The official paper for royal proclamations. Only privileged officials were given any for use in creating government documents. Pure Heart Hall paper retained its importance throughout the Southern Tang, it was so prized that it was not sold in marketplaces. After the Song defeated the Southern Tang a multitude of imitation Pure Heart Hall papers appeared as the process for creating genuine articles had become lost. Song literati began to value Pure Heart Hall paper after

14873-476: The period. Those employed by the institution held hierarchical titles that denoted rank. The lowest ranked were likely apprentices to established artists. The Emperors of Southern Tang took part in the administration of the Hanlin Academy and oversaw the hiring of new painters. Wu Daozi and Zhou Fang were among the stylistic standards for Southern Tang painters. As successful artists took on apprenticeships

15012-418: The political and economic activity pursued by" Tan Zixiao, who "was a professional institutionalized Taoist priest, that is, a priest engaged in externally directed shamanic or sorcerous methods of healing and liturgy for the sake of gaining emolument." In terms of affiliation with schools of religious Daoism, Tan Zixiao's activities derived primarily from the 2nd-century Zhengyi "Orthodox/Correct Unity" sect of

15151-420: The populace, which caused a rapid depreciation of the newer coins. Kaiyuan Tongbao (開元通寶) coins that were created during the Tang dynasty remained in circulation. Li Yu later minted coins with the same inscription in clerical and seal scripts . The Southern Tang were the first in Chinese history to issue vault protector coins , which served as numismatic charms . They were hung on red silk and tassels in

15290-461: The realm. During the reign of Li Jing he authorized several military ventures that according to He Jainming incurred heavy financial burdens that inhibited further economic development of the Southern Tang realm. Tributes were paid to the Later Zhou once they defeated the Southern Tang in 958. After the Song dynasty was established in 960 these payments became exorbitant. Tribute to the Song incurred

15429-428: The role of xian also as folk heroes who can offer assistance to "worthy human followers" and whose existence fosters the relationship between the living and the dead. Sometimes, they and other xian were viewed as similar in nature to ghosts , rather than deities. The Eight Immortals and other xian were thought to have powers linked to their tools that were ultimately of a single nature that can add to or subtract

15568-516: The smooth skin and innocent faces of children. The transcendents live an effortless existence that is best described as spontaneous. They recall the ancient Indian ascetics and holy men known as Rishi who possessed similar traits. Xian were thought of as "personal gods" who were formerly humans, a human who ascended through ascetics, scholarly pursuits and the warrior art's". Taoists would venerate them, and emulate their example in everyday life. The Eight Immortals are an example of xian , and

15707-726: The snow and rain, to all appearances dead". This compares with the Himalayan tradition of tummo , which is still practiced by the Kagyu school. Tan's father regularly sent him money and clothing, which he promptly spent on wine and gave away. Tan later went south to Mount Nanyue 南岳, or Mount Heng (Hunan) , where he allegedly perfected the jindan 金丹 "golden elixir" and could change shape, become invisible, and enter fire or water without being harmed (all Daoist metaphors for xian transcendence). Finally, he travelled to Mount Qingcheng 青城 ( Sichuan ), where he disappeared. Some sources confuse Tan Qiao with

15846-433: The south. This respect paid to the deposed dynasty became a useful political tool for Li Bian. The Later Tang were overthrown in late 936, which opened the way for Li Bian to claim it. In February 939 Li Bian renamed his realm to Great Tang ( 大唐 ). Taking on the name of Tang increased his status. Such a move could be easily construed to mean "the potential unification of [Chinese] territories under one ruler." Li Jing

15985-764: The spirit hall of the Imperial Treasury for offerings to the gods of the Chinese pantheon , especially the Chinese God of Wealth . The majority of Southern Tang court painters with surviving documentation were natives of Jiangnan . It is likely that the area had a potent artistic tradition before the formation of the Southern Tang. While most subjects were inherited, Southern Tang painters developed relatively new genres such as "landscape, ink bamboo, and flower-and-bird painting." Additionally they developed artwork focused on marine life. Their Tang predecessors apparently did not paint fish. Dong Yuan and his students developed

16124-414: The standard to which other inksticks were compared until the reign of Emperor Huizong . An important paper medium for the Southern Tang was Pure Heart Hall paper. During the Tang dynasty generations of Jiangnan craftsmen developed their skills and artistic talent in creating paper. These trends were used by their successors in the Southern Tang to create Pure Heart Hall paper. This distinctive paper became

16263-467: The state still had its original name of Qi. During the reign of Li Jing several cash coins were created of different commercial value. Datang Tongbao (大唐通寶) and Tangguo Tongbao (唐國通寶) coins maintained the same inscription, size, and weight but used different fonts of Chinese calligraphy Yongtong Quanhuo (永通泉貨) coins were initially valued at 10 copper coins but counterfeits were widely circulated leading to distrust of them. Copper coins were still preferred by

16402-552: The styles and genres popular with the Southern Tang court were likely transmitted to many artists outside the Hanlin Academy. In 975 the Song conquered the Southern Tang. Talented painters and poets were subsequently hired and brought to the Song capital. The Four Treasures of the Study of the Southern Tang or Nan Tang Wenfang Sibao (南唐文房四寶) focused on brushes made by the Zhuge family, dragon tail inkstones (龙尾砚), inksticks crafted by Li Tinggui (李廷珪), and Pure Heart Hall paper (澄心堂紙). By

16541-466: The summer of 938 Song Qiqiu proposed for the assassination of a Khitan dignitary that was visiting the Southern Tang court when they returned north through Later Jin territory. He felt that the murder could provoke a war between the Later Jin and the Khitans. While successful in killing the envoy, the harmonious relations between the Later Jin and Khitan continued. In 940 the Southern Tang supported backed

16680-474: The ten thousand valleys. Sound leads (back again) to [ qi ]; [ qi ] leads (back again) to (magical) power ( shen 神); (magical) power leads (back again) to the void. (But) the void has in it (the potentiality for) power. The power has in it (the potentiality for) [ qi ]. [ Qi ] has in it (the potentiality for) sound. One leads (back again) to the other, which has (a potentiality for) the former within itself. (If this reversion and production were to be prolonged) even

16819-481: The throne. Xu Gao took inspiration from Tang governance and established two capitals. Jingling was already his seat of power and became the principal location of the court. The old Wu capital of Guangling meanwhile maintained some significance as the secondary capital. His reign according to Robert Krompart represented the initial rebuilding "of the social, economic, administrative, and religious forces that produce stability in China." On 12 March 939 Xu Gao took on

16958-486: The tiny noises of mosquitoes and flies would be able to reach everywhere. Several other Huashu articles mention this Daoist transformational series between xu 虚 "emptiness; void", shen 神 "spirit; god", qi 氣 , and xing 形 "form; shape; material things". They are said to be reversible back to emptiness (1.1), to exist everywhere (1.3), to all be one (1.16), to all contain each other (2.19), to transform from life to death and back to emptiness (1.20), and, adding

17097-508: The title of the Prince of Wu (吳王). He ruled for three more years and died in 905. Yang Wo succeeded his father as the Prince of Wu. In 907 the last Tang Emperor was evicted from power by Zhu Quanzhong , who declared the Later Liang dynasty . Yang Wo did not recognize this regime change as legitimate and continued to use the Tang era name of 'Tianyou'. Without a reigning Tang emperor, however, he

17236-482: The view that we pick out certain elements of reality to form our world-picture." The Huashu has untold significance to the histories of philosophy and science. One final example mentions classical conditioning a millennium before Ivan Pavlov discovered it. Geng Xin 庚辛 "The Geng and Xin [Families]" (5.10) recounts how two neighbors, figuratively named after the 7th and 8th Celestial stems , used different materials to construct fish ponds. The Geng's fish pond had

17375-461: The wind and go soaring around with cool and breezy skill, but after fifteen days he came back to earth. As far as the search for good fortune went, he didn't fret and worry. He escaped the trouble of walking, but he still had to depend on something to get around. If he had only mounted on the truth of Heaven and Earth, ridden the changes of the six breaths, and thus wandered through the boundless, then what would he have had to depend on? Therefore, I say,

17514-411: Was Han Xizai , who rose in prominence during the reign of Li Jing. The question of succession arose near the end of Li Bian's reign. He preferred his second son Li Jingda. However, his oldest son Li Jing was eventually picked as his heir. In 943 Li Bian died and Li Jing succeeded his father. The Southern Tang and its neighbors were relatively prosperous compared to regimes successively in control of

17653-510: Was "engaged in internally directed mystical alchemical pursuits in primarily the north between the years 860 and 940", Tan Zixiao "was active in the externally directed work of shamanic ritual manipulations exclusively in the southeast between approximately 910 and 995". Didier further differentiates activities and affiliations of the two Tans. Tan Qiao "was a wandering eccentric engaged in the internally directed pursuit of immortality or perfection who favored loneliness and remote mountain retreats to

17792-463: Was a dynastic state of China that existed during Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period . Located in southern China, the Southern Tang proclaimed itself to be the successor of the Tang dynasty . The capital was located at Nanjing in present-day Jiangsu Province . At its territorial peak in 951, the Southern Tang controlled the whole of modern Jiangxi , and portions of Anhui , Fujian , Hubei , Hunan , and Jiangsu provinces. The Southern Tang

17931-424: Was a friend of Tan Qiao. This contemporary witness said Tan wrote the Huashu on Mount Zhongnan 終南 ( Shaanxi ) and met Song Qiqiu while traveling through the capital Nanjing to nearby Mount Mao 茅山, which was the center of Shangqing School "Supreme Clarity" Daoism. Tan said, "The transformations of this book endlessly transform. I want you to preface it and pass it on to later generations." Song edited and published

18070-412: Was a pastry called yunying chao (雲英麨). It was often given as a gift during celebrations. Yunying chao was made from ground melon and a medley of flower bulbs and corms : lilies (百合), lotus (蓮), arrowhead (慈姑), fox nuts (雞頭), taro (芋), and two kinds of water chestnuts, 荸薺 and 菱 . The mixture was steamed, sweetened with honey and then sliced into pieces. The dish continued to be made during

18209-406: Was called Jiuhua Xiansheng 九華先生 "Elder of [Mt.] Jiuhua". Liezu's successor Emperor Yuanzong (r. 943–961) reappointed Song as chancellor and made him Duke of Chu (state) . In 958 CE, Song was accused of treason and exiled to Jiuhua, where he hanged himself. Song wrote a still-extant Huashu preface dated 930 CE and published the book under his name. Beginning in the Song dynasty some editions of

18348-528: Was cognate with wu 巫 "shamanic" dancing. Paper writes, "the function of the term xian in a line describing dancing may be to denote the height of the leaps. Since, "to live for a long time" has no etymological relation to xian , it may be a later accretion." The 121 CE Shuowen Jiezi , the first important dictionary of Chinese characters, does not enter 仙 except in the definition for 偓佺 ( Wòquán "name of an ancient immortal"). It defines 僊 as "live long and move away" and 仚 as "appearance of

18487-449: Was defeated in 958 by Later Zhou Emperor Chai Rong . The Southern Tang were forced to cede their territories north of the Yangtze and become a vassal of the Later Zhou. Li Jing additionally had to renounce claims to emperorship. The rump state was centered on Jiangnan , which was used by both the Later Zhou and the Song to refer to the Southern Tang. Later Zhou correspondence called Li Jing

18626-483: Was eventually murdered by evil spirits because he lost his book of magic talismans. However, some immortals are written to have used this method in order to escape execution. The Chinese word xian is translatable into English as: The etymology of xiān remains uncertain. The circa 200 CE Shiming , a Chinese dictionary that provided word-pun "etymologies", defines xiān ( 仙 ) as "to get old and not die," and explains it as someone who qiān ( 遷 "moves into")

18765-450: Was founded by Li Bian in 937, when he overthrew emperor Yang Pu of Wu . He largely maintained peaceable relations with neighboring states. His son Li Jing did not follow this foreign policy, conquering the Min and Ma Chu dynasties in 945 and 951 respectively. The Later Zhou dynasty invaded the Southern Tang domain in 956 and defeated them by 958. Li Jing was forced to become a vassal of

18904-516: Was in effect an independent ruler. In 921 Yang Longyan proclaimed his own reign title. His brother Yang Pu continued this trend of asserting ideological independence from the Kaifeng-based regimes by claiming the title of Emperor in 927. This irrevocably ended diplomatic contact with the Later Tang . During a campaign in 895 an orphaned child was captured, whom Yang Xingmi initially took into his household. However, his oldest son Yang Wo disliked

19043-415: Was inopportune: "As a child I grew up in the army and saw the profound damage soldiers did to the people. I cannot bear to hear words about this again. When I leave other people alone and in peace, then my people will be in peace as well. Why do you ask me to start a war then!" Unlike his father Li Jing pursued territorial expansion against neighboring states. In 945 the Min Kingdom was conquered, although

19182-506: Was sensible to foster friendly relations with the other southern states. He dispatched ambassadors to the neighboring states of Jingnan , Min, Southern Han, and Wuyue on 21 November 937 to announce his assumption of the throne. By spring of the following year all four states had sent their own envoys to congratulate Li Bian on becoming emperor. Thus began interactions between the Southern Tang and their neighboring and often competing states. In 941 Li Bian held meetings with his officials about

19321-586: Was widespread, and the [Southern Tang] state grew rich and strong." Mulberry trees (桑樹) were planted in large numbers in the Huai and Yangtze River basins. In May 939 farmers that had cultivated 3,000 or more in the past three years were given fifty bolts of silk from Li Bian's treasury. Payment of 20,000 copper cash was awarded to those that reclaimed at least 80 mu (≈1,040 acres) of land. All new fields they cultivated were not taxed for 5 years. These measures have been credited with increasing agricultural production across

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