An exarch ( / ˈ ɛ k s ɑːr k / ; from Ancient Greek ἔξαρχος exarchos ) was the holder of any of various historical offices, some of them being political or military and others being ecclesiastical.
121-507: Heraclius ( Ancient Greek : Ἡράκλειος , romanized : Hērákleios ; c. 575 – 11 February 641) was Byzantine emperor from 610 to 641. His rise to power began in 608, when he and his father, Heraclius the Elder , the Exarch of Africa , led a revolt against the unpopular emperor Phocas . Heraclius's reign was marked by several military campaigns. The year Heraclius came to power,
242-413: A metropolitan who holds the office of exarch is the deputy of a patriarch and holds authority over bishops of the designated ecclesiastical region (thus, a position between that of patriarch and regular metropolitan); or an auxiliary or titular bishop appointed to be exarch over a group of the faithful not yet large enough or organized enough to be constituted an eparchy or diocese (thus the equivalent of
363-537: A pitch accent . In Modern Greek, all vowels and consonants are short. Many vowels and diphthongs once pronounced distinctly are pronounced as /i/ ( iotacism ). Some of the stops and glides in diphthongs have become fricatives , and the pitch accent has changed to a stress accent . Many of the changes took place in the Koine Greek period. The writing system of Modern Greek, however, does not reflect all pronunciation changes. The examples below represent Attic Greek in
484-458: A vicar apostolic ); or a priest or deacon who is appointed by a bishop as his executive representative in various fields of diocesan administration (in the Byzantine Empire, executive exarchs were usually collecting diocesan revenues for local bishops). In the civil administration of the Byzantine Empire the exarch was, as stated above, the imperial governor of a large and important region of
605-489: A Persian client state , even permitting Khosrow II to choose the emperor. In a letter delivered by his ambassadors, Heraclius acknowledged the Persian empire as superior, described himself as Khosrow II's "obedient son, one who is eager to perform the services of your serenity in all things", and even called Khosrow II the "supreme emperor". Khosrow II nevertheless rejected the peace offer, and arrested Heraclius' ambassadors. With
726-465: A Persian army commanded by Shahrbaraz, besieged Constantinople , but the siege ended in failure (the victory was attributed to the icons of the Virgin which were led in procession by Sergius about the walls of the city), while a second Persian army under Shahin suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of Heraclius's brother Theodore. With the Persian war effort disintegrating, Heraclius was able to bring
847-745: A bad ruler by some later religious writers. After the Monophysite provinces were finally lost to the Muslims, Monotheletism rather lost its raison d'être and was eventually abandoned. The Croats and Serbs of Byzantine Dalmatia initiated diplomatic relations and dependencies with Heraclius. The Serbs, who briefly lived in Macedonia, became foederati and were baptized at the request of Heraclius (before 626). At his request, Pope John IV (640–642) sent Christian teachers and missionaries to Duke Porga and his Croats , who practiced Slavic paganism . He also created
968-519: A certain religious official in Rome to confirm if Muhammad's claim of prophethood was legitimate, and, after receiving the reply to his letter, called the Roman assembly saying, "If you desire salvation and the orthodox way so that your empire remain firmly established, then follow this prophet," to the rejection of the council.. Heraclius eventually decided against conversion but the envoy was returned to Medina with
1089-533: A general who had replaced Heraclius the Elder, wrote to him "to leave the army and return to his own city in Armenia". Kaldellis interprets it as the command headquarters of Heraclius the Elder, and not his hometown. Beyond that, there is little specific information known about his origin. His father was a general during Emperor Maurice's war with Shah Bahram Chobin , usurper of the Sasanian Empire , during 590. After
1210-566: A grandson of Khosrow II, succeeded to the throne in 632 was there stability. But by then the Sasanid Empire was severely disorganised, having been weakened by years of war and civil strife over the succession to the throne. The war had been devastating, and left the Byzantines in a much-weakened state. Within a few years both empires were overwhelmed by the onslaught of the Arabs, ultimately leading to
1331-472: A lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period. They have the same general outline but differ in some of the detail. The only attested dialect from this period is Mycenaean Greek , but its relationship to the historical dialects and
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#17328488911421452-419: A lesser degree. Pamphylian Greek , spoken in a small area on the southwestern coast of Anatolia and little preserved in inscriptions, may be either a fifth major dialect group, or it is Mycenaean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native influence. Regarding the speech of the ancient Macedonians diverse theories have been put forward, but the epigraphic activity and the archaeological discoveries in
1573-438: A mutiny. Khosrow II (Chosroes) of the Sasanian Empire had been restored to his throne by Maurice, and they had remained allies until the latter's death. Thereafter, Khosrow seized the opportunity to attack the Byzantine Empire and reconquer Mesopotamia . Khosrow had at his court a man who claimed to be Maurice's son Theodosius , and Khosrow demanded that the Byzantines accept this Theodosius as emperor. The war initially went
1694-624: A new counter-offensive, which took on the character of a holy war; an acheiropoietos image of Christ was carried as a military standard. The Roman army proceeded to Armenia, inflicted a defeat on an army led by a Persian-allied Arab chief, and then won a victory over the Persians under Shahrbaraz. Heraclius would stay on campaign for several years. On 25 March 624, he again left Constantinople with his wife, Martina , and his two children; after he celebrated Easter in Nicomedia on 15 April, he campaigned in
1815-543: A prefix /e-/, called the augment . This was probably originally a separate word, meaning something like "then", added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectual meaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect, but not to any of the other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist). The two kinds of augment in Greek are syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment
1936-671: A separate historical stage, though its earliest form closely resembles Attic Greek , and its latest form approaches Medieval Greek , and Koine may be classified as Ancient Greek in a wider sense. There were several regional dialects of Ancient Greek; Attic Greek developed into Koine. Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language , divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic , Aeolic , Arcadocypriot , and Doric , many of them with several subdivisions. Some dialects are found in standardized literary forms in literature , while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms. Homeric Greek
2057-609: A standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance . This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the language, which are the best-attested periods and considered most typical of Ancient Greek. From the Hellenistic period ( c. 300 BC ), Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek , which is regarded as
2178-401: A struggle was taking place between Heraclius Constantine and Martina, who was trying to position her son Heraclonas to assume the throne. When Heraclius died, he devised the empire to both Heraclius Constantine and Heraclonas to rule jointly with Martina as empress. Ancient Greek language Ancient Greek ( Ἑλληνῐκή , Hellēnikḗ ; [hellɛːnikɛ́ː] ) includes the forms of
2299-724: A thousand virgins to the Persian King. The peace allowed him to rebuild the Empire's army by slashing non-military expenditure, devaluing the currency, and melting down, with the backing of Patriarch Sergius, Church treasures to raise the necessary funds to continue the war. On 4 April 622, Heraclius left Constantinople, entrusting the city to Sergius and general Bonus as regents of his son. He assembled his forces in Asia Minor, probably in Bithynia , and, after he revived their broken morale, he launched
2420-510: A vowel or /n s r/ ; final stops were lost, as in γάλα "milk", compared with γάλακτος "of milk" (genitive). Ancient Greek of the classical period also differed in both the inventory and distribution of original PIE phonemes due to numerous sound changes, notably the following: The pronunciation of Ancient Greek was very different from that of Modern Greek . Ancient Greek had long and short vowels ; many diphthongs ; double and single consonants; voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops ; and
2541-556: Is a literary form of Archaic Greek (derived primarily from Ionic and Aeolic) used in the epic poems , the Iliad and the Odyssey , and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic and other Classical-era dialects. The origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of
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#17328488911422662-418: Is added to stems beginning with consonants, and simply prefixes e (stems beginning with r , however, add er ). The quantitative augment is added to stems beginning with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel: Some verbs augment irregularly; the most common variation is e → ei . The irregularity can be explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels, or that of the letter w , which affected
2783-644: Is called 'East Greek'. Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian Greek had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, as exemplified in the poems of the Boeotian poet Pindar who wrote in Doric with a small Aeolic admixture. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to
2904-448: Is considered by some linguists to have been closely related to Greek . Among Indo-European branches with living descendants, Greek is often argued to have the closest genetic ties with Armenian (see also Graeco-Armenian ) and Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ). Ancient Greek differs from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and other Indo-European languages in certain ways. In phonotactics , ancient Greek words could end only in
3025-578: Is fully convinced of this fulfilled prophecy, that he tried previously to convince the Romans and invite them to salvation (Islam), but none listened to him, and soon the Romans would be expelled from Syria. Heraclius was married twice: first to Fabia Eudokia , a daughter of Rogatus, and then to his niece Martina . He had two children with Fabia ( Eudoxia Epiphania and Emperor Constantine III ) and at least nine with Martina, many of whom were sickly children. Of Martina's children at least two were disabled , which
3146-637: Is no evidence outside of Islamic sources to suggest Heraclius ever heard of Islam, and it is possible that he and his advisors actually viewed the Muslims as some special sect of Jews. Al-Waqidi recorded a story about a trader acting as a spy in Medina from the Lakhmid kingdom who reported the coming of the Muslim forces before The Battle of the Yarmuk. He described the caliph Abu Bakr to him as an ordinary-looking man who roams
3267-562: Is spelled βικάριος ( bikarios ). The office of exarch as a governor with extended political and military authority was later created in the Byzantine Empire , with jurisdiction over a particular territory, usually a frontier region at some distance from the capital Constantinople . In the Eastern Christian Churches ( Eastern Orthodox , Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Catholic ), the term exarch has three distinct uses:
3388-507: Is uncertain". According to the 7th century Armenian historian Sebeos , Heraclius was related to the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia . Elizabeth Redgate considers his Armenian origin likely. Anthony Kaldellis argues that there is no primary source that says that Heraclius [the Elder] was an Armenian and that the assertion is based on an erroneous reading of Theophylact Simocatta . In a letter, Priscus ,
3509-622: The Arabah south of Lake Tiberias , taking al-Karak . Other raids penetrated into the Negev , reaching as far as Gaza . The Battle of Yarmouk in 636 resulted in a crushing defeat for the larger Byzantine army; within three years, the Levant had been lost again. Heraclius died of an illness on 11 February 641; and most of Egypt had fallen by that time as well. Looking back at the reign of Heraclius, scholars have credited him with many accomplishments. He enlarged
3630-583: The Battle of Nineveh . Continuing south along the Tigris he sacked Khosrow's great palace at Dastagird and was only prevented from attacking Ctesiphon by the destruction of the bridges on the Nahrawan Canal. Discredited by this series of disasters, Khosrow was overthrown and killed in a coup led by his son Kavad II , who at once sued for peace, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories. In 629 Heraclius restored
3751-572: The Council in Trullo (692), the name "patriarch" became the official one for the heads of major autocephalous churches, and the title of "exarch" was further demoted by naming all metropolitans as "patriarchal exarchs" in their ecclesiastical provinces. The advance of Constantinople put an end to privileges of three older, original exarchates, which fell back to the state of ordinary metropolitan sees. Local ecclesiastical development in some regions also included
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3872-588: The Eastern Roman Empire remained stable through the beginning of the Middle Ages and retained the ability for future expansion. Justinian I reconquered North Africa, Italy, Dalmatia and finally parts of Spain for the Eastern Roman Empire. However, this put an incredible strain on the Empire's limited resources. Subsequent emperors would not surrender the re-conquered land to remedy the situation. Thus
3993-604: The Gokturks of the Western Turkic Khaganate , under Ziebel , who invaded Persian Transcaucasia . Heraclius exploited divisions within the Persian Empire, keeping Shahrbaraz neutral by convincing him that Khosrow had grown jealous of him and had ordered his execution. Late in 627 he launched a winter offensive into Mesopotamia, where, despite the desertion of his Turkish allies, he defeated the Persians under Rhahzadh at
4114-697: The Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek ( c. 1400–1200 BC ), Dark Ages ( c. 1200–800 BC ), the Archaic or Epic period ( c. 800–500 BC ), and the Classical period ( c. 500–300 BC ). Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers . It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been
4235-698: The Greek region of Macedonia during the last decades has brought to light documents, among which the first texts written in Macedonian , such as the Pella curse tablet , as Hatzopoulos and other scholars note. Based on the conclusions drawn by several studies and findings such as Pella curse tablet , Emilio Crespo and other scholars suggest that ancient Macedonian was a Northwest Doric dialect , which shares isoglosses with its neighboring Thessalian dialects spoken in northeastern Thessaly . Some have also suggested an Aeolic Greek classification. The Lesbian dialect
4356-603: The Late Antique Colossus of Barletta depicts Heraclius. Some scholars disagree with this narrative, Professor Constantin Zuckerman going as far as to suggest that the True Cross was actually lost, and that the wood contained in the allegedly-still-sealed reliquary brought to Jerusalem by Heraclius in 629 was a fake. In his analysis, the hoax was designed to serve the political purposes of both Heraclius and his former foe,
4477-637: The Muslim conquest of Persia and the fall of the Sasanian dynasty in 651. By 630, the Arabs had unified all the tribes of the Hijaz , previously too divided to pose a serious military challenge to the Byzantines or the Persians. They composed one of the most powerful states in the region. The first conflict between the Byzantines and the Arabs was the Battle of Mu'tah in September 629. A small Arabs skirmishing force attacked
4598-535: The Rashidun Caliphate . Emerging from the Arabian Peninsula , the Muslims quickly conquered the Sasanian Empire . In 636, the Muslims marched into Roman Syria , defeating Heraclius's brother Theodore . Within a short period of time, the Arabs conquered Mesopotamia , Armenia and Egypt . Heraclius responded with reforms which allowed his successors to combat the Arabs and avoid total destruction. One of
4719-825: The Slavs and Avars in the Balkans, the Sassanid Persians in the Middle East, and the Amazigh in North Africa) forced the imperial government to decentralize and devolve power to the former provinces. The term Exarch most commonly refers to the Exarch of Italy, who governed the area of Italy and Dalmatia, still remaining under Byzantine control after the Lombard invasion of 568. The exarchate's seat
4840-595: The True Cross to Jerusalem in a majestic ceremony. Heraclius took for himself the ancient Persian title of " King of Kings " after his victory. Later on, starting in 629, he styled himself as Basileus , the Greek word for "sovereign", and that title was used by the Byzantine emperors for the next 800 years. The reason Heraclius chose this title over previous Roman terms such as Augustus has been attributed by some scholars to his Armenian origins. Heraclius's defeat of
4961-501: The present , future , and imperfect are imperfective in aspect; the aorist , present perfect , pluperfect and future perfect are perfective in aspect. Most tenses display all four moods and three voices, although there is no future subjunctive or imperative. Also, there is no imperfect subjunctive, optative or imperative. The infinitives and participles correspond to the finite combinations of tense, aspect, and voice. The indicative of past tenses adds (conceptually, at least)
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5082-409: The 20th century, the pentarchy-number principle, already abandoned in the case of Bulgaria (10th century), Serbia (14th century) and Russia (16th century), gave way to the desire of the now politically independent Orthodox nations to see their sovereignty reflected in ecclesiastical autonomy – autocephaly – and the symbolic title to crown it: a 'national' Patriarch. For example, Bulgarian Exarchate
5203-462: The 3rd century or early 4th, every Roman diocese was governed by a vicarius , who was titled "exarch" in eastern parts of the Empire, where the Greek language and the use of Greek terminology dominated, even though Latin was the language of the imperial administration from the provincial level up until the 440s (Greek translations were sent out with the official Latin text). In Greek texts, the Latin title
5324-1031: The 5th century BC. Ancient pronunciation cannot be reconstructed with certainty, but Greek from the period is well documented, and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represent. /oː/ raised to [uː] , probably by the 4th century BC. Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages , is highly inflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European forms. In ancient Greek, nouns (including proper nouns) have five cases ( nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , and vocative ), three genders ( masculine , feminine , and neuter ), and three numbers (singular, dual , and plural ). Verbs have four moods ( indicative , imperative , subjunctive , and optative ) and three voices (active, middle, and passive ), as well as three persons (first, second, and third) and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated through seven combinations of tenses and aspect (generally simply called "tenses"):
5445-459: The Arab Muslim conquest of Carthage in 698. The term 'exarch' entered ecclesiastical language at first for a metropolitan (an archbishop) with jurisdiction not only for the area that was his as a metropolitan, but also over other metropolitans within local political dioceses . Since imperial vicarius (governor of a political diocese) was often called "exarch" in eastern, Greek-speaking parts of
5566-490: The Archaic period of ancient Greek (see Homeric Greek for more details): Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι· Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή· ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς. The beginning of Apology by Plato exemplifies Attic Greek from
5687-559: The Catholic defensor matrimonii ), is called the Exarch. The Oriental Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch currently has under his authority an Exarch in India, known by the ancient title Maphrian , although he is popularly referred to as Catholicos . This is not to be confused with the autocephalous Catholicate of the East , which is also located in India. Historically, there have been a very few cases of
5808-637: The Caucasian region, and for those territories the Caucasian Exarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church was created in the summer of 1917, with metropolitan Platon as Exarch of the Caucasus. In the spring of 1918, he was succeeded by metropolitan Cyril (Smirnov) as new Exarch of the Caucasus, but after his transfer to another post in the spring of 1920 no new exarch was appointed. On 28 February 1870
5929-509: The Caucasus, winning a series of victories in Armenia against Khosrow and his generals Shahrbaraz, Shahin, and Shahraplakan . In the same year the Visigoths succeeded in recapturing Cartagena , capital of the western Byzantine province of Spania , resulting in the loss of one of the few minor provinces that had been conquered by the armies of Justinian I . In 626 the Avars and Slavs supported by
6050-498: The Classical period of ancient Greek. (The second line is the IPA , the third is transliterated into the Latin alphabet using a modern version of the Erasmian scheme .) Ὅτι [hóti Hóti μὲν men mèn ὑμεῖς, hyːmêːs hūmeîs, Exarch In the late Roman Empire and early Byzantine Empire , an exarch was a governor of a particular territory. From the end of
6171-471: The Empire, and his reorganization of the government and military were great successes. His attempts at religious harmony failed, but he succeeded in returning the True Cross , one of the holiest Christian relics, to Jerusalem. Although the territories recovered by his defeat of the Persians were annulled again by the Early Muslim conquests , Heraclius still ranks among the great Roman emperors. His reforms of
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#17328488911426292-463: The Empire, it became customary for the metropolitans of the diocesan capitals ( Ephesus in the Diocese of Asia , Heraclea in the Diocese of Thrace and Caesarea in the Diocese of Pontus ) also to use the title "exarch" in order to emphasize their precedence and primatial status over other metropolitans within local political dioceses. The Council of Chalcedon (451), which gave special authority to
6413-577: The Empire. The Exarchates were a response to weakening imperial authority in the provinces and were part of the overall process of unification of civil and military offices, initiated in early form by Justinian I , which would lead eventually to the creation of the Thematic system by either the Emperor Heraclius or Constans II . After the dissolution of the Western Empire in the late fifth century,
6534-489: The Georgian Exarchate was expanded, encompassing the territories of modern-day Georgia , Armenia and Azerbaijan . On 7 April 1917, the Georgian Patriarchate was restored for the Archbishops of Mtsheta and Tbilisi, with the style Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, and the title Exarch of Georgia was extinguished, but only for the Georgian part of the Exarchate. The Russian Orthodox Church and its exarch Platon (Rozhdestvensky) kept their jurisdiction over non-Georgian parts of
6655-476: The Patriarchate of Jerusalem is "Exarch of the Holy Sepulcher". The Mexican Orthodox parishes in five deaneries (Mexico City, D.F., State of Mexico, State of Jalisco, State of Veracruz and State of Chiapas) of the Orthodox Church in America are governed as the "Exarchate of Mexico", currently under the leadership of Bishop Alejo of Mexico City. The third officer of the court of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople , who examines marriage cases (analogous to
6776-404: The Persian army took Damascus with the help of the Jews , seized Jerusalem in 614, damaging the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and capturing the True Cross , and afterwards capturing Egypt in 617 or 618. When the Sasanians reached Chalcedon in 615, it was at this point, according to Sebeos , that Heraclius had agreed to stand down and was about ready to allow the Byzantine Empire to become
6897-404: The Persian general Shahrbaraz . In early Islamic and Arab histories, Heraclius is the most popular Roman emperor, who is discussed at length. Owing to his role as Roman emperor at the time Islam emerged, he is remembered in Arabic literature , such as the Islamic hadith and sira . He is also indirectly mentioned in Sura Ar-Rum and his victory against Sassanid empire was prophesied here. In
7018-417: The Persians at the very gate of Constantinople, Heraclius thought of abandoning the city and moving the capital to Carthage, but the powerful church figure Patriarch Sergius convinced him to stay. Safe behind the walls of Constantinople, Heraclius was able to sue for peace in exchange for an annual tribute of a thousand talents of gold, a thousand talents of silver, a thousand silk robes, a thousand horses, and
7139-422: The Persians devastated parts of Asia Minor and captured Chalcedon across from Constantinople on the Bosporus . Over the following decade the Persians were able to conquer Palestine and Egypt (by mid-621, the whole province was in their hands) and to devastate Anatolia, while the Avars and Slavs took advantage of the situation to overrun the Balkans , bringing the Empire to the brink of destruction. In 613,
7260-435: The Persians ended a war that had been going on intermittently for almost 400 years and led to instability in the Persian Empire. Kavad II died only months after assuming the throne, plunging Persia into several years of dynastic turmoil and civil war. Ardashir III , Heraclius's ally Shahrbaraz , and Khosrow's daughters Boran and Azarmidokht all succeeded to the throne within months of each other. Only when Yazdegerd III ,
7381-421: The Persians' way, partly because of Phocas's brutal repression and the succession crisis that ensued as the general Heraclius sent his nephew Nicetas to attack Egypt , enabling his son Heraclius the younger to claim the throne in 610. Phocas, an unpopular ruler who is invariably described in historical sources as a " tyrant " (in its original meaning of the word, i.e. illegitimate king by the rules of succession),
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#17328488911427502-408: The Romans. Even the Strategicon of Maurice , a manual of war praised for the variety of enemies it covers, does not mention warfare against Arabs at any length. The religious zeal of the Arab army, which was a recent development following the rise of Islam , ultimately contributed to the latter's success in its campaigns against the Romans. The following year, the Arabs launched an offensive into
7623-449: The Russian Orthodox Church in Ukraine were reorganized as the Ukrainian Exarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church , headed by patriarchal exarch with seat in Kyiv. The Ukrainian Exarchate existed until 1990 when it was granted a higher degree of ecclesiastical autonomy within the Moscow Patriarchate. In 1989, an autonomous Belarusian Exarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church was formed, with jurisdiction over eparchies in Belarus . During
7744-430: The True Cross with a negotiator in 628. After a tour of the Empire, Heraclius returned the cross to Jerusalem on 21 March 629 or 630. For Christians of Western Medieval Europe, Heraclius was the "first crusader". The iconography of the emperor appeared in the sanctuary at Mont Saint-Michel ( c. 1060 ), and then it became popular, especially in France, the Italian Peninsula, and the Holy Roman Empire. The story
7865-550: The aorist. Following Homer 's practice, the augment is sometimes not made in poetry , especially epic poetry. The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; see below. Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. (A few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplicate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.) The three types of reduplication are: Irregular duplication can be understood diachronically. For example, lambanō (root lab ) has
7986-419: The augment when it was word-initial. In verbs with a preposition as a prefix, the augment is placed not at the start of the word, but between the preposition and the original verb. For example, προσ(-)βάλλω (I attack) goes to προσ έ βαλoν in the aorist. However compound verbs consisting of a prefix that is not a preposition retain the augment at the start of the word: αὐτο(-)μολῶ goes to ηὐ τομόλησα in
8107-402: The authenticity of Heraclius' letter due to the documentation of such letters in the majority of both early and later sources. Furthermore, she notes that the formulation and the wordings of different sources are very close and the differences are ones of detail: They concern the date on which the letter was sent and its exact phrasing. Muhammad Hamidullah , an Islamic research scholar, argues for
8228-587: The authenticity of the letter sent to Heraclius, and in a later work reproduces what is claimed to be the original letter. The account as transmitted by Muslim historians is translated as follows: In the name of God, the Gracious One, the Merciful From Muhammad, servant of God and His apostle to Heraclius, premier of the Romans: Peace unto whoever follows the guided path! Thereafter, verily I call you to submit your will to God. Submit your will to God and you will be safe. God shall compensate your reward two-folds. But if you turn away, then upon you will sins of
8349-438: The center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological-linguistic investigation. One standard formulation for the dialects is: West vs. non-West Greek is the strongest-marked and earliest division, with non-West in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or Attic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcadocypriot, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cypriot vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-West
8470-845: The civil title of Exarch granted by the civil authority to prelates of the Latin Church , as when Emperor Frederick I named the Archbishop of Lyon as Exarch of Burgundy in 1157. However, the ecclesiastical title of Exarch has disappeared in the Western Catholic Church, being replaced by the terms " Primate " (ranking above metropolitan archbishop) and " Apostolic Vicar " (ranking below suffragan bishop). Jus novum ( c. 1140 -1563) Jus novissimum ( c. 1563 -1918) Jus codicis (1918-present) Other Sacraments Sacramentals Sacred places Sacred times Supra-diocesan/eparchal structures Particular churches Juridic persons Philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law Clerics Office Juridic and physical persons Associations of
8591-452: The creation of a centralized Patriarchate. When the proposed government of universal Christendom by five patriarchal sees (Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem, known as the pentarchy ), under the auspices of a single universal empire, was formulated in the legislation of Emperor Justinian I (527–565), especially in his Novella 131 (De regulis ecclesiasticis etc., caput III), and received formal ecclesiastical sanction at
8712-611: The dialect of Sparta ), and Northern Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian ). All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally developed local characteristics, often under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects. After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek , but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowly replaced most of
8833-423: The emerging Islamic forces. The 14th-century scholar Ibn Kathir (d. 1373) went even further, stating that "Heraclius was one of the wisest men and among the most resolute, shrewd, deep and opinionated of kings. He ruled the Romans with great leadership and splendor." Historians such as Nadia Maria El-Cheikh and Lawrence Conrad note that Islamic histories even go so far as claiming that Heraclius recognized Islam as
8954-547: The empire was threatened on multiple frontiers. Heraclius immediately took charge of the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 . The first battles of the campaign ended in defeat for the Byzantines; the Persian army fought their way to the Bosphorus but Constantinople was protected by impenetrable walls and a strong navy, and Heraclius was able to avoid total defeat. Soon after, he initiated reforms to rebuild and strengthen
9075-549: The excavation of the cross. The scene usually shown is Heraclius carrying the cross; according to the Golden Legend , he insisted on doing this as he entered Jerusalem, against the advice of the Patriarch. At first, when he was on horseback (shown above), the burden was too heavy, but after he dismounted and removed his crown it became miraculously light, and the barred city gate opened of its own accord. Local tradition suggests that
9196-463: The exploits and trophies of six adventurous campaigns. [...] Since the days of Scipio and Hannibal , no bolder enterprise has been attempted than that which Heraclius achieved for the deliverance of the empire. Heraclius was long remembered favourably by the Western church for his reputed recovery of the True Cross from the Persians. As Heraclius approached the Persian capital during the final stages of
9317-568: The faithful Pars dynamica (trial procedure) Canonization Election of the Roman Pontiff Academic degrees Journals and Professional Societies Faculties of canon law Canonists Institute of consecrated life Society of apostolic life In Eastern Catholic Churches (of Eastern tradition but in full communion with the Bishop of Rome, the Pope ), the ecclesiastical title of Exarch
9438-493: The felicitations of the emperor. Scholarly historians disagree with this account, arguing that any such messengers would have received neither an imperial audience or recognition, and that there is no evidence outside of Islamic sources suggesting that Heraclius had any knowledge of Islam. This letter is mentioned in Sahih Al Bukhari. The Swahili Utendi wa Tambuka , an epic poem composed in 1728 at Pate Island (off
9559-505: The first and last years of a long reign, the emperor appears to be the slave of sloth, of pleasure, or of superstition, the careless and impotent spectator of the public calamities. But the languid mists of the morning and evening are separated by the brightness of the meridian sun; the Arcadius of the palace arose the Caesar of the camp; and the honor of Rome and Heraclius was gloriously retrieved by
9680-454: The government of Bosra after the Byzantine defeat of the Persians and reconquest of Jerusalem . Islamic sources say that after the letter was read to him, he was so impressed by it that he gifted the messenger of the epistle with robes and coinage. Alternatively, he also put it on his lap. He then summoned Abu Sufyan ibn Harb to his court, at the time an adversary to Muhammad but a signatory to
9801-564: The government reduced the corruption which had taken hold in Phocas's reign, and he reorganized the military with great success. Ultimately, the reformed Imperial army halted the Muslims in Asia Minor and held on to Carthage for another 60 years, saving a core from which the empire's strength could be rebuilt. The recovery of the eastern areas of the Roman Empire from the Persians once again raised
9922-527: The help of God. He helps whom He wills. And He is The Almighty, The Compassionate." According to Islamic traditions, a letter was sent from Muhammad to Heraclius, through the Muslim envoy Dihyah bin Khalifah al-Kalbi , although Shahid suggests that Heraclius may never have received it. He also advances that more positive sub-narratives surrounding the letter contain little credence. According to Nadia El Cheikh, Arab historians and chroniclers generally did not doubt
10043-556: The historical Dorians . The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who regarded themselves as descendants of the population displaced by or contending with the Dorians. The Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people – Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cypriot, far from
10164-472: The historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups already existed in some form. Scholars assume that major Ancient Greek period dialect groups developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasions —and that their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th century BC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to
10285-534: The magister Theodorus, and the Armenian noble David Saharuni . When Heraclius discovered the plot, he had Athalarichos's nose and hands cut off , and he was exiled to Prinkipo , one of the Princes' Islands . Theodorus received the same treatment, but was sent to Gaudomelete (possibly modern-day Gozo Island ) with additional instructions to cut off one leg. During the last years of Heraclius's life, it became evident that
10406-458: The market ensuring the strong fulfill the rights of the weak, and that he treats the strong and the weak equally. He then describes his physical features, and Heraclius states that there is a successor to the prophet Muhammad who is described as black-eyed, tall, wheat-colored like a lion, and would expel his enemies from their lands. The Lakhmid spy responds that he has a companion (the second caliph, Umar ) like this. Heraclius then responded that he
10527-464: The military. Heraclius drove the Persians out of Asia Minor and pushed deep into their territory, defeating them decisively in 627 at the Battle of Nineveh . The Persian Shah Khosrow II was overthrown and executed by his son Kavad II , who soon sued for a peace treaty, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territory. This way peaceful relations were restored to the two deeply strained empires. Heraclius soon lost many of his newly regained lands to
10648-489: The most famous bearer of the title of exarch; his adherents throughout region were called exarchists , as opposed to the Greek patriarchists . The ensuing struggle, waged especially in Macedonia , was not only religious but had a conspicuous political dimension of a contention between competing Greek and Bulgarian national aims. For more information see Bulgarian Exarchate and Bulgarian Orthodox Church . In 1921, eparchies of
10769-622: The most important legacies of Heraclius was changing the official language of the Empire from Latin to Greek. Heraclius entered diplomatic relations with the Croats and Serbs in the Balkans . He tried to repair the schism in the Christian church in regard to the Monophysites , by promoting a compromise doctrine called monothelitism . The Church of the East (commonly called Nestorian) was also involved in
10890-521: The office of sakellarios , a comptroller of the treasury. Up to the 20th century he was credited with establishing the Thematic system but modern scholarship now points more to the 660s, under Constans II . Edward Gibbon , in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , wrote: Of the characters conspicuous in history, that of Heraclius is one of the most extraordinary and inconsistent. In
11011-499: The older dialects, although the Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language , which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek . By about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosed into Medieval Greek . Phrygian is an extinct Indo-European language of West and Central Anatolia , which
11132-476: The peasants. Then "O People of the Scripture , come to a term equitable between us and you that we worship none but God and associate with Him nothing, and we take not one another as Lords apart from God. But if they turn away, then say: Bear witness that we peace makers." Seal : Muhammad, Apostle of God According to Islamic reports, Muhammad dispatched Dihyah al-Kalbi to carry the epistle to " Caesar " through
11253-487: The perfect stem eilēpha (not * lelēpha ) because it was originally slambanō , with perfect seslēpha , becoming eilēpha through compensatory lengthening. Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of the root's initial consonant followed by i . A nasal stop appears after the reduplication in some verbs. The earliest extant examples of ancient Greek writing ( c. 1450 BC ) are in
11374-402: The problem of religious unity centering on the understanding of the true nature of Christ . Most of the inhabitants of these provinces were Monophysites who rejected the Council of Chalcedon . Heraclius tried to promote a compromise doctrine called Monothelitism but this philosophy was rejected as heretical by both sides of the dispute. For this reason, Heraclius was viewed as a heretic and
11495-440: The process. Eventually, this project of unity was rejected by all sides of the dispute. Heraclius was the eldest son of Heraclius the Elder , who is almost universally recognized as being of Armenian origin. His mother, Epiphania, was probably of Cappadocian origin. Walter Kaegi considers Heraclius' Armenian origin "probable" and speculates that he was presumably "bilingual (Armenian and Greek) from an early age, but even this
11616-589: The province of Arabia in response to the Arab ambassador's death at the hands of the Ghassanid Roman governor, but were repulsed. Since the engagement was a Byzantine victory, there was no apparent reason to make changes to the military organization of the region. The Roman military wasn't accustomed to fighting Arab armies at scale, much like the Islamic forces of Hijaz who had no prior experience in their engagements against
11737-661: The province. Meanwhile, the younger Heraclius sailed eastward with another force via Sicily and Cyprus . As he approached Constantinople , he made contact with prominent leaders and planned an attack to overthrow aristocrats in the city. When he reached the capital, the Excubitors , an elite Imperial Guard unit led by Phocas's son-in-law Priscus , deserted to Heraclius, and he entered the city without serious resistance. When Heraclius captured Phocas, he asked him "Is this how you have ruled, wretch?" Phocas's reply—"And will you rule better?"—so enraged Heraclius that he beheaded Phocas on
11858-704: The ruling class of the Empire, but they resisted so strongly that he reversed course and claimed that he was just testing their faith in Christianity. El-Cheikh notes that these accounts of Heraclius add "little to our historical knowledge" of the emperor; rather, they are an important part of "Islamic kerygma ," attempting to legitimize Muhammad's status as a prophet. Most Western academic historians view such traditions as biased and proclamatory and of little historical value. Furthermore, they argue that any messengers sent by Muhammad to Heraclius would not have received an imperial audience or recognition. According to Kaegi, there
11979-570: The see of Constantinople as being "the residence of the emperor and the Senate", in its canons spoke of diocesan "exarchs", placing all metropolitans in dioceses of Asia, Thrace and Pontus (including metropolitans-exarchs of Ephesus, Heraclea and Caesarea) under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Constantinople. Metropolitans-exarchs of Ephesus tried to resist the supreme jurisdiction of Constantinople, but eventually failed since imperial government supported
12100-546: The shore of present-day Kenya ) and depicting the wars between the Muslims and Byzantines from the former's point of view, is also known as Kyuo kya Hereḳali ("The Book of Heraclius"). In that work, Heraclius is portrayed as declining the Prophet's request to renounce his belief in Christianity: he is therefore defeated by the Muslim forces. In Muslim tradition, he is seen as a just ruler of great piety, who had direct contact with
12221-510: The spot. He later had the genitalia removed from the body because Phocas had raped the wife of Photius, a powerful politician in the city. On 5 October 610, Heraclius was crowned in the Chapel of St. Stephen within the Great Palace . He then married Fabia, who took the name Eudokia . After her death in 612, he married his niece Martina in 613; this second marriage was considered incestuous and
12342-607: The stage was set for Emperor Maurice to establish the Exarchates to deal with the constantly evolving situation of the provinces. In Italy the Lombards were the main opposition to Byzantine power. In North Africa the Amazigh or Berber princes were ascendant due to Roman weakness outside the coastal cities. The problems associated with many enemies on various fronts (the Visigoths in Spain,
12463-517: The syllabic script Linear B . Beginning in the 8th century BC, however, the Greek alphabet became standard, albeit with some variation among dialects. Early texts are written in boustrophedon style, but left-to-right became standard during the classic period. Modern editions of ancient Greek texts are usually written with accents and breathing marks , interword spacing , modern punctuation , and sometimes mixed case , but these were all introduced later. The beginning of Homer 's Iliad exemplifies
12584-424: The then-recent Treaty of Hudaybiyyah , who was trading in the region of Syria at the time. Asked by Heraclius about the man claiming to be a prophet, Abu Sufyan responded, speaking favorably of Muhammad's character and lineage and outlining some directives of Islam. Heraclius was seemingly impressed by what he was told of Muhammad, and felt that Muhammad's claim to prophethood was valid.. Later reportedly he wrote to
12705-410: The third and fourth verses, the Muslim community is promised that the Byzantines will reverse their defeat into a victory and retake Jerusalem "in a few years' time". "The Romans were vanquished in the closer region, and they, after being vanquished, will prevail within a certain number of (from 3 to 9) years. To God belongs the command before and after. And that day, ones who believe will be glad with
12826-541: The title of exarch was often used to designate the highest hierarchical office under the rank of patriarch. When Russian Patriarch Adrian of Moscow died in 1700, Emperor Peter the Great abolished the patriarchal office and appointed Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky as exarch and head of the Most Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church . After imperial Russia annexed Georgia (the eastern part in 1801, and
12947-566: The title of exarch. Since the Church of Cyprus was declared autocephalous (431), its Primate received the title of Exarch of Cyprus. On a similar principle the Archbishop of Mount Sinai and Raithu is an exarch, though in this case, as in that of Cyprus, modern Eastern Orthodox usage generally prefers the title "Archbishop". In modern ecclesiastical practice of the Eastern Orthodox Church ,
13068-408: The true faith and Muhammad as its prophet, by comparing Islam to Christianity. Islamic historians often cite a letter in which they claim Heraclius wrote to Muhammad: "I have received your letter with your ambassador and I testify that you are the messenger of God found in our New Testament. Jesus, son of Mary, announced you." According to the Muslim sources reported by El-Cheikh, he tried to convert
13189-865: The twenty-year-old struggle between Greeks and Bulgarians for control of the Orthodox Church in Bulgaria culminated when the Ottoman Sultan Abdulaziz created an independent Bulgarian ecclesiastical organization, known as the Bulgarian Exarchate . The Orthodox Church in Bulgaria had now become independent of the Greek-dominated Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople . The Bulgarian Exarch, who resided in Constantinople, became
13310-422: The war, Khosrow fled from his favourite residence—Dastagird near Baghdad —without offering resistance. Meanwhile, some of the Persian grandees freed Khosrow's eldest son Kavad II , who had been imprisoned by his father, and proclaimed him King on the night of 23–24 February, 628. Kavad, however, was mortally ill and was anxious that Heraclius should protect his infant son Ardeshir. So, as a goodwill gesture, he sent
13431-601: The war, Maurice appointed Heraclius the Elder to the position of Exarch of Africa . In 608, Heraclius the Elder renounced his loyalty to the Emperor Phocas , who had overthrown Maurice six years earlier. The rebels issued coins showing both Heraclii dressed as hypatos , though neither of them explicitly claimed the imperial title at this time. Heraclius's younger cousin Nicetas launched an overland invasion of Egypt ; by 609, he had defeated Phocas's general Bonosus and secured
13552-584: The western part in 1810), the ancient Georgian Orthodox Church (autocephalous since 750, whose head was since 1008 styled Catholicos-Patriarchs) was reorganized into the Georgian Exarchate, and the newly appointed Exarch of Georgia (since 1817 always an ethnic Russian) sat in the Russian Holy Synod at St. Petersburg. Since the entire region of the Caucasus fell under Russian rule, the jurisdiction of
13673-440: Was crowned co-emperor ( augustus ) on 22 January 613, at the age of 8 months. Heraclonas was made caesar on 1 January 632, aged 6, and was later crowned augustus on 4 July 638. They ruled for a few months in 641, but were eventually succeeded by Constans II , the son of Constantine III, by the end of the year. Heraclius had at least one illegitimate son, John Athalarichos , who conspired against Heraclius with his cousin,
13794-475: Was Aeolic. For example, fragments of the works of the poet Sappho from the island of Lesbos are in Aeolian. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, or to an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric (including Cretan Doric ), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Laconian ,
13915-460: Was at Ravenna , whence it is known as the " Exarchate of Ravenna ". Ravenna remained the seat of the Exarch until the revolt of 727 over Iconoclasm . Thereafter, the growing menace of the Lombards and the split between eastern and western Christendom that Iconoclasm caused made the position of the Exarch more and more untenable. The last Exarch was killed by the Lombards in 751. A second exarchate
14036-622: Was created by Maurice to administer northern Africa, formerly a separate praetorian prefecture , the islands of the western Mediterranean and the Byzantine possessions in Spain . The capital of the Exarchate of Africa was Carthage . An emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, Heraclius , was the son of the exarch of Africa before Heraclius replaced the usurper emperor Phocas in 610. Phocas had revolted under emperor Maurice who had appointed Heraclius' father as exarch of Africa. The exarchate proved both financially and militarily strong, and survived until
14157-464: Was eventually deposed by Heraclius, who sailed to Constantinople from Carthage with an icon affixed to the prow of his ship. By this time, the Persians had conquered Mesopotamia and the Caucasus , and in 611 they overran Syria and entered Anatolia. A major counter-attack led by Heraclius two years later was decisively defeated outside Antioch by Shahrbaraz and Shahin , and the Roman position collapsed;
14278-538: Was included in the Golden Legend , the famous 13th-century compendium of hagiography, and he is sometimes shown in art, as in The History of the True Cross sequence of frescoes painted by Piero della Francesca in Arezzo , and a similar sequence on a small altarpiece by Adam Elsheimer ( Städel , Frankfurt). Both of these show scenes of Heraclius and Constantine I 's mother Saint Helena , traditionally responsible for
14399-614: Was raised to the rank of Patriarchate in 1953. In the Eastern Orthodox Church , the office of exarch can be also given to a special deputy of a Patriarch , with jurisdiction over a community outside the home territory of the Patriarchate. Thus, in the United States there are Exarchs representing, among others, the Serbian, Romanian, Bulgarian and Jerusalem Patriarchs. The style of the Exarchs of
14520-416: Was seen as punishment for the illegality of the marriage: Fabius had a paralyzed neck and Theodosius was a deaf-mute . The latter married Nike, daughter of the Persian general Shahrbaraz , or daughter of Niketas, cousin of Heraclius. Two of Heraclius's children would become emperor: Heraclius Constantine (Constantine III) , his son with Eudokia, and Martina's son Heraclius (Heraclonas) . Constantine
14641-487: Was very unpopular. In the reign of Heraclius's two sons, the divisive Martina was to become the center of power and political intrigue. Despite widespread hatred for Martina in Constantinople, Heraclius took her on campaigns with him and refused attempts by Patriarch Sergius to prevent and later dissolve the marriage. During his Balkan campaigns , Emperor Maurice and his family were murdered by Phocas in November 602 after
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