91-620: Henry Douglas Warden (2 February 1800 – 2 December 1856) was a British Resident of the Orange River Sovereignty from 1848-1852, bought the farm Bloemfontein from Johannes Nicolaas Brits. He went to the Cape in 1819 and was sent to Natal in 1842, where he participated in the siege of Congela. Four years later he was appointed magistrate of the Transoranje and bought the farm Bloemfontein where he and his family settled. The town later became
182-426: A residency . "Resident" may also refer to resident spy , the chief of an espionage operations base. This full style occurred commonly as a diplomatic rank for the head of a mission ranking just below envoy , usually reflecting the relatively low status of the states of origin and/or residency or else difficult relations. On occasion, the resident minister's role could become extremely important, as when in 1806
273-725: A Durban concentration camp, Magistrate of Harrismith, the town Warden was named after him, x Johanna Agnes Adam. They had no children but brought up one of George Horatio's sons William Gustavus. 2. George Horatio *Chelsea London Oct 1839, +1915, transport driver, sailor, later farmer in Ladybrand, x Johanna Lucretia van der Hoven. 3. William Gustavus Douglas *March 1841 Fort Beaufort + 7/12/1922 Ladybrand (death notice MGH 15861), prospector in Barkly-west, x Anna Maria Jacobs (1848 -1890 D/N 1890 6/9/284 1768). They had 4 daughters, including Johanna Catharina x Jacobus Hercules de la Rey. 4. Edward Minnaar
364-420: A career in diplomacy. They were supported by their embassy staff. These professionals would be sent on longer assignments and would be far more knowledgeable than the higher-ranking officials about the host country. Embassy staff would include a wide range of employees, including some dedicated to espionage. The need for skilled individuals to staff embassies was met by the graduates of universities, and this led to
455-436: A diplomat does commit a serious crime while in a host country he or she may be declared as persona non grata (unwanted person). Such diplomats are then often tried for the crime in their homeland. Diplomatic communications are also viewed as sacrosanct, and diplomats have long been allowed to carry documents across borders without being searched. The mechanism for this is the so-called " diplomatic bag " (or, in some countries,
546-514: A dispute. These are similar to the conferences mentioned above, as there are technically no established rules or procedures. However, there are general principles and precedents which help define a course for such proceedings. Some examples are: Small state diplomacy is receiving increasing attention in diplomatic studies and international relations . Small states are particularly affected by developments which are determined beyond their borders such as climate change , water security and shifts in
637-751: A former Italian colony, put under UN administration since 1946 prior to their unification as a Libyan kingdom, Britain maintained a Resident in Tripolitania April 1949 – 24 December 1951 and another in Cyrenaica 17 September 1949 – 24 December 1951, and France one in Fezzan 1950 – 24 December 1951. In a later phase a former colony could itself appoint such Residents, as India did 5 December 1950 – 16 May 1975 in its Himalayan protectorate Sikkim , then still an independent monarchy (afterwards absorbed into India as an additional constitutive state) where Britain had obtained
728-517: A great increase in the study of international law , French, and history at universities throughout Europe. At the same time, permanent foreign ministries began to be established in almost all European states to coordinate embassies and their staffs. These ministries were still far from their modern form, and many of them had extraneous internal responsibilities. Britain had two departments with frequently overlapping powers until 1782. They were also far smaller than they are currently. France, which boasted
819-572: A grouping of states which the European power decided for its convenience. This could create an artificial geographical unit, as in Residency X in some parts of the Indian Empire . Similar positions could carry alternative titles, such as political agent and resident commissioner . In some cases, the intertwining of the European power with the traditional native establishment went so far that members of
910-459: A number of support staff; the term diplomat is thus sometimes applied broadly to diplomatic and consular personnel and foreign ministry officials. The term diplomacy is derived from the 18th-century French term diplomate ("diplomat" or "diplomatist"), based on the ancient Greek diplōma , which roughly means "an object folded in two". This reflected the practice of sovereigns providing a folded document to confer some official privilege; prior to
1001-691: A number of the many native princes in present Indonesia, compared to Regentschap . For example, in Sumatra , there were Dutch residents at Palembang , at Medan in Deli sultanate ; another was posted with the Sultan of and on Ternate , and one in Bali . France also maintained residents, the French word being résident . However the 'Jacobin' tradition of strict state authority didn't agree well with indirect rule, so often direct rule
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#17328518423941092-679: A protectorate over the Maharaja in 1861, see above. In the Colony of Western Australia , colonial administration and local government were sometimes controlled at the regional level, by government residents, under the direction of the Colonial Secretary (i.e. the "Governor in Council"). The main responsibility of a government resident was the role of Resident Magistrate , and the two titles were often used interchangeably. However, they also often directed
1183-410: A rajmandala (grouping of states), a model that places the home state surrounded by twelve competing entities which can either be potential adversaries or latent allies, depending on how relations with them are managed. This is the essence of realpolitik. It also offers four upaya (policy approaches): conciliation, gifts, rupture or dissent, and force. It counsels that war is the last resort, as its outcome
1274-448: A rung below ambassador. Somewhere between the two was the position of minister plenipotentiary . Diplomacy was a complex affair, even more so than now. The ambassadors from each state were ranked by complex levels of precedence that were much disputed. States were normally ranked by the title of the sovereign; for Catholic nations the emissary from the Vatican was paramount, then those from
1365-527: A ship's doctor, and the 19 year old Henry Douglas went to the Cape where he obtained a commission in the Cape Corps. On his arrival at Cape Town in 1820 Major Warden joined the Cape Corps as a standard-bearer. By 1825 he became a Lieutenant and during 1835, after displaying extraordinary courage in the sixth Frontier War, he was promoted to Captain of the Cape Mounted Riflemen. He then built Fort Warden at
1456-486: A situation of mutually contesting kingdoms, the wise king builds alliances and tries to checkmate his adversaries. The envoys sent at the time to the courts of other kingdoms tended to reside for extended periods of time, and Arthashastra contains advice on the deportment of the envoy, including the trenchant suggestion that "he should sleep alone". The highest morality for the king is that his kingdom should prosper. New analysis of Arthashastra brings out that hidden inside
1547-441: A temporary expression of down-graded relations or where representation was merely an interim arrangement. Some official representatives of European colonial powers, while in theory diplomats, in practice exercised a degree of indirect control . Some such residents were former military officers, rather than career diplomats, who resided in smaller self-governing protectorates and tributary states and acted as political advisors to
1638-461: A time in which rival states were starting to pay less attention to traditional respects of tutelage to the Zhou dynasty (c. 1050–256 BC) figurehead monarchs while each vied for power and total conquest. However, a great deal of diplomacy in establishing allies, bartering land, and signing peace treaties was necessary for each warring state, and the idealized role of the "persuader/diplomat" developed. From
1729-630: A very important part in building up the Orange Free State. His son Charles later became the magistrate of Harri-smith. Three well-known streets in Bloemfontein, namely Charles Street, Henry Street and Eliza-beth Street bear the names of his children up to this day (named after the Royal House of Stuart). Warden sold his farm Douglas Valley outside Bloemfontein after the Declaration of Inde-pendence of
1820-484: Is Résident-général . (Belgium mainly used French in the colonies; the word in its other official language, Dutch, is Resident-generaal ) In the protectorate Korea , accredited to the Choson Monarch (rendered as King or Emperor) 21 Dec 1905 – 1 Oct 1910 three incumbents (including Hirobumi Ito the former Prime Minister of Japan), all Japanese peers (new western-type styles, rendered as: Marquess/Duke or Viscount);
1911-822: Is a policy of making concessions to an aggressor in order to avoid confrontation; because of its failure to prevent World War 2, appeasement is not considered a legitimate tool of modern diplomacy. "The theme that “appeasement in the face of tyranny never works and always leads to conflict eventually” is based on historical lessons." Counterinsurgency diplomacy, or expeditionary diplomacy, developed by diplomats deployed to civil-military stabilization efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan, employs diplomats at tactical and operational levels, outside traditional embassy environments and often alongside military or peacekeeping forces. Counterinsurgency diplomacy may provide political environment advice to local commanders, interact with local leaders, and facilitate
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#17328518423942002-708: Is always uncertain. This is the first expression of the raison d'etat doctrine, as also of humanitarian law; that conquered people must be treated fairly, and assimilated. The key challenge to the Byzantine Empire was to maintain a set of relations between itself and its sundry neighbors, including the Georgians , Iberians , the Germanic peoples , the Bulgars , the Slavs , the Armenians ,
2093-566: Is to illegally gather intelligence, usually by coordinating spy rings of locals or other spies. For the most part, spies operating out of embassies gather little intelligence themselves and their identities tend to be known by the opposition. If discovered, these diplomats can be expelled from an embassy, but for the most part counter-intelligence agencies prefer to keep these agents in situ and under close monitoring. The information gathered by spies plays an increasingly important role in diplomacy. Arms-control treaties would be impossible without
2184-567: The Battle of Baideng (200 BC) to the Battle of Mayi (133 BC), the Han dynasty was forced to uphold a marriage alliance and pay an exorbitant amount of tribute (in silk, cloth, grain, and other foodstuffs) to the powerful northern nomadic Xiongnu that had been consolidated by Modu Shanyu . After the Xiongnu sent word to Emperor Wen of Han (r. 180–157) that they controlled areas stretching from Manchuria to
2275-612: The French Revolution . Some of the earliest known diplomatic records are the Amarna letters written between the pharaohs of the eighteenth dynasty of Egypt and the Amurru rulers of Canaan during the 14th century BC. Peace treaties were concluded between the Mesopotamian city-states of Lagash and Umma around approximately 2100 BC. Following the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC during
2366-668: The Huns , the Avars , the Franks , the Lombards , and the Arabs , that embodied and so maintained its imperial status. All these neighbors lacked a key resource that Byzantium had taken over from Rome, namely a formalized legal structure. When they set about forging formal political institutions, they were dependent on the empire. Whereas classical writers are fond of making a sharp distinction between peace and war, for
2457-604: The Mughal emperor was taken under the protection of the East India Company , the districts of Delhi and Hisar were assigned for the maintenance of the royal family, and were administered by a British Resident, until in 1832 the whole area was annexed to British Residents were also posted in major states considered to be connected with India, neighbouring or on the sea route to it, notably: And elsewhere: Even in overseas territories occupied ('preventively' or conquered) to keep
2548-659: The Northern Territory , government residents were appointed by the Government of South Australia from the establishment of the territory in 1864 until its transfer to the Australian Government on 1 January 1911. The last incumbent stayed on as first of six administrators; then again 1 February 1927 Robert Hunter Weddell was Government Resident for North Australia , until from 12 June 1931. Administrators were (and still are) appointed, even after 1978 when self-government
2639-624: The Ottoman sultans reasserted control over it (1831) and its Wali (governor). After the Congress of Vienna restored the Grand Duchy of Tuscany in 1815, the British posted a resident to Florence to handle their affairs there. As international relations developed, it became customary to give the highest title of diplomatic rank – ambassador – to the head of all permanent missions in any country, except as
2730-709: The Ptolemaic Kingdom and Seleucid Empire , which fought several wars in the Near East and often negotiated peace treaties through marriage alliances . Relations with the Ottoman Empire were particularly important to Italian states, to which the Ottoman government was known as the Sublime Porte . The maritime republics of Genoa and Venice depended less and less upon their nautical capabilities, and more and more upon
2821-527: The Tarim Basin oasis city-states, a treaty was drafted in 162 BC proclaiming that everything north of the Great Wall belong to nomads' lands, while everything south of it would be reserved for Han Chinese . The treaty was renewed no less than nine times, but did not restrain some Xiongnu tuqi from raiding Han borders. That was until the far-flung campaigns of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC) which shattered
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2912-563: The global economy . Diplomacy is the main vehicle by which small states are able to ensure that their goals are addressed in the global arena. These factors mean that small states have strong incentives to support international cooperation. But with limited resources at their disposal, conducting effective diplomacy poses unique challenges for small states. There are a variety of diplomatic categories and diplomatic strategies employed by organizations and governments to achieve their aims, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Appeasement
3003-433: The kingdoms , then those from duchies and principalities . Representatives from republics were ranked the lowest (which often angered the leaders of the numerous German, Scandinavian, and Italian republics). Determining precedence between two kingdoms depended on a number of factors that often fluctuated, leading to near-constant squabbling. Ambassadors were often nobles with little foreign experience and no expectation of
3094-616: The nineteenth dynasty , the pharaoh of Egypt and the ruler of the Hittite Empire created one of the first known international peace treaties, which survives in stone tablet fragments , now generally called the Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty . The ancient Greek city-states on some occasions dispatched envoys to negotiate specific issues, such as war and peace or commercial relations, but did not have diplomatic representatives regularly posted in each other's territory. However, some of
3185-495: The "diplomatic pouch"). While radio and digital communication have become more standard for embassies, diplomatic pouches are still quite common and some countries, including the United States, declare entire shipping containers as diplomatic pouches to bring sensitive material (often building supplies) into a country. In times of hostility, diplomats are often withdrawn for reasons of personal safety, as well as in some cases when
3276-466: The 6,000 aphorisms of prose (sutras) are pioneering political and philosophic concepts. It covers the internal and external spheres of statecraft, politics and administration. The normative element is the political unification of the geopolitical and cultural subcontinent of India. This work comprehensively studies state governance; it urges non-injury to living creatures, or malice, as well as compassion, forbearance, truthfulness, and uprightness. It presents
3367-587: The Bourbon king Ferdinand IV fled his Kingdom of Naples , and Lord William Bentinck , the British Resident, authored (1812) a new and relatively liberal constitution. Residents could also be posted to nations that had significant foreign influence. For instance, the British sent residents to the Mameluk Beys who ruled Baghdad province as an autonomous state (1704–1831) in the north of present-day Iraq , until
3458-459: The Byzantines diplomacy was a form of war by other means. With a regular army of 120,000–140,000 men after the losses of the 7th century, the empire's security depended on activist diplomacy. Byzantium's " Bureau of Barbarians " was the first foreign intelligence agency, gathering information on the empire's rivals from every imaginable source. While on the surface a protocol office—its main duty
3549-645: The Chinese had sent envoys into Central Asia, India, and Persia , starting with Zhang Qian in the 2nd century BC. Another notable event in Chinese diplomacy was the Chinese embassy mission of Zhou Daguan to the Khmer Empire of Cambodia in the 13th century. Chinese diplomacy was a necessity in the distinctive period of Chinese exploration . Since the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD), the Chinese also became heavily invested in sending diplomatic envoys abroad on maritime missions into
3640-535: The City of Bloemfontein . Family Roots Tradition dictates that Major Warden was the grandson of an illegitimate son of Prince Charles Edward Stuart , the so-called Young Pretender. His father, Captain Charles Frederick (Stuart) Warden (1746 - circa 1815) changed the family name to Warden for reasons generally accepted to suggest the decision was made to escape religious persecution. Wardens's mother, Mary Cooper
3731-589: The French out of strategic trade and waters, residencies could be established, e.g. at Laye on Sumatra , an island returned to the Dutch East Indies Since on 5 November 1815, the United States of the Ionian Islands became a federal republic of seven islands (Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Santa Maura, Ithaca, Cerigo, and Paxos), as a protectorate (nominally of the allied Powers; de facto UK protectorate;
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3822-763: The German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck were renowned for international diplomacy. Diplomats and historians often refer to a foreign ministry by its address: the Ballhausplatz (Vienna), the Quai d'Orsay (Paris), the Wilhelmstrasse (Berlin), Itamaraty (Brasília), and Foggy Bottom (Washington, D.C.). For the Russian foreign ministry, it was the Choristers' Bridge (Saint Petersburg) until 1917, while "Consulta" referred to
3913-806: The Great Kei Way, 7 km south-east of the confluence of the Kei and the Komgha Rivers. In 1826 he was instructed to cross the Orange River and 20 years later he was appointed British Resident in the territory of the Griqua captain Adam Kok to maintain law and order. Major Warden (D/N 1856 6/9/76 4196) founded the town of Bloemfontein in 1846 on the farm Bloemfontein which he had bought from Dolf Britz at £37,10s. In 1848 Andries Pretorius forced Warden to leave Bloemfontein. But in
4004-724: The Indian Ocean, to India, Persia, Arabia , East Africa, and Egypt. Chinese maritime activity was increased dramatically during the commercialized period of the Song dynasty, with new nautical technologies, many more private ship owners, and an increasing amount of economic investors in overseas ventures. During the Mongol Empire (1206–1294) the Mongols created something similar to today's diplomatic passport called paiza . The paiza were in three different types (golden, silver, and copper) depending on
4095-554: The Italian foreign ministry, based in the Palazzo della Consulta (Rome) from 1874 to 1922. The sanctity of diplomats has long been observed, underpinning the modern concept of diplomatic immunity . While there have been a number of cases where diplomats have been killed, this is normally viewed as a great breach of honor. Genghis Khan and the Mongols were well known for strongly insisting on
4186-789: The Maharaja Sindhia of Gwalior ; to the Nizam al-Mulk of Hyderabad ; to the Maharaja of Jhalawar ; to the restored Maharaja of Mysore , after the fall of Tipu Sultan ; to the Maharaja Sena Sahib Subah of the Mahratta state of Nagpur ; to the (Maha)Raja of Manipur ; to the (Maha)Raja of Travancore ; to the Maharana of Mewar in Udaipur. Even when Lord Lake had broken the Maratha power in 1803, and
4277-455: The Orange Free State in 1854. After his retirement he lived at George where he died of pneumonia in 1856. British Resident A resident minister , or resident for short, is a government official required to take up permanent residence in another country. A representative of his government, he officially has diplomatic functions which are often seen as a form of indirect rule . A resident usually heads an administrative area called
4368-445: The Tang finally made a truce and signed a peace treaty with them in 841. In the 11th century during the Song dynasty (960–1279), there were shrewd ambassadors such as Shen Kuo and Su Song who achieved diplomatic success with the Liao dynasty , the often hostile Khitan neighbor to the north. Both diplomats secured the rightful borders of the Song dynasty through knowledge of cartography and dredging up old court archives. There
4459-415: The United States, and France. Ancient India , with its kingdoms and dynasties, had a long tradition of diplomacy. The oldest treatise on statecraft and diplomacy, Arthashastra , is attributed to Kautilya (also known as Chanakya ), who was the principal adviser to Chandragupta Maurya , the founder of the Maurya dynasty who ruled in the 3rd century BC. It incorporates a theory of diplomacy, of how in
4550-465: The broader goals and strategies that guide a state's interactions with the rest of the world. International treaties , agreements , alliances , and other manifestations of international relations are usually the result of diplomatic negotiations and processes. Diplomats may also help shape a state by advising government officials . Modern diplomatic methods, practices, and principles originated largely from 17th-century European customs. Beginning in
4641-449: The conquest of foreign cultures would be better achieved by having his Macedonian and Greek subjects intermingle and intermarry with native populations. For instance, Alexander took as his wife a Sogdian woman of Bactria , Roxana , after the siege of the Sogdian Rock , in order to placate the rebelling populace. Diplomacy remained a necessary tool of statecraft for the great Hellenistic states that succeeded Alexander's empire, such as
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#17328518423944732-463: The convening of international conferences. In such cases, there are fewer ground rules, and fewer formal applications of international law. However, participants are expected to guide themselves through principles of international fairness, logic, and protocol. Some examples of these formal conferences are: Sometimes nations convene official negotiation processes to settle a specific dispute or specific issue between several nations which are parties to
4823-523: The creation of an elective federal paramount ruler styled Yang Dipertuan Agong (since 16 September 1961 with the addition bagi Malaysia ). There were specific residents accredited in most constituent Malay states : A similar position, under another title, was held in the other Malay states: In the Straits Settlements , under direct British rule: On Northern Borneo, contrary to the Malay peninsula, no such officials were appointed, in Sarawak and Sabah as there were white rulers or governors; but to
4914-484: The day-to-day activities of police, explorers, surveyors, customs officers and other public servants . Government residents were appointed (at various times), at Augusta, Busselton, Carnarvon (Gascoyne District), Champion Bay (Geraldton), Derby (Kimberley District, later West Kimberley), Fremantle, Guildford, King George's Sound (Albany), Newcastle (Toodyay), the North District ( Camden Harbour / Roebourne ), Port Leschenault (Bunbury), Wyndham (East Kimberley) and York. In
5005-472: The early 20th century, diplomacy became professionalized; the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations , ratified by most of the world's sovereign states, provides a framework for diplomatic procedures, methods, and conduct. Most diplomacy is now conducted by accredited officials , such as envoys and ambassadors, through a dedicated foreign affairs office . Diplomats operate through diplomatic missions , most commonly consulates and embassies, and rely on
5096-423: The envoy's level of importance. With the paiza, there came authority that the envoy can ask for food, transport, place to stay from any city, village, or clan within the empire with no difficulties. In the 17th century, the Qing dynasty concluded a series of treaties with Czarist Russia, beginning with the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689. This was followed up by the Aigun Treaty and the Convention of Peking in
5187-414: The fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna of 1815 established an international system of diplomatic rank . Disputes on precedence among nations (and therefore the appropriate diplomatic ranks used) were first addressed at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, but persisted for over a century until after World War II , when the rank of ambassador became the norm. In between that time, figures such as
5278-471: The form of formal arbitrations and mediations. In such cases a commission of diplomats might be convened to hear all sides of an issue, and to come some sort of ruling based on international law. In the modern era, much of this work is often carried out by the International Court of Justice at The Hague , or other formal commissions, agencies and tribunals, working under the United Nations. Below are some examples. Other times, resolutions were sought through
5369-438: The functions given to modern diplomatic representatives were fulfilled by a proxenos , a citizen of the host city who had friendly relations with another city, often through familial ties. In times of peace, diplomacy was even conducted with non-Hellenistic rivals such as the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, through it was ultimately conquered by Alexander the Great of Macedon. Alexander was also adept at diplomacy, realizing that
5460-449: The governance efforts, functions and reach of a host government. Debt-trap diplomacy is carried out in bilateral relations, with a powerful lending country seeking to saddle a borrowing nation with enormous debt so as to increase its leverage over it. Economic diplomacy is the use of aid or other types of economic policy as a means to achieve a diplomatic agenda. Gunboat diplomacy is the use of conspicuous displays of military power as
5551-460: The governors of the Straits Settlements (see Singapore), Britain appointed the following residents-general: Then there were various British chief secretaries 1911–1936 and two federal secretaries until 31 January 1942; after three Japanese military governors, the British Governor (1 April 1946 – 1 February 1948) stayed on as first of four High Commissioners as de facto governor-general of the Federation of Malaya until independence on 31 August 1957 saw
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#17328518423945642-465: The highest office was the always-British Lord High Commissioner ), until its 1 June 1864 incorporation into independent Greece, there were British residents, each posted with a local Prefect, on seven individual islands, notably: Cephalonia (Kephalonia), Cerigo (Kythira), Ithaca , Paxos , Santa Maura (Leucada/Lefkada) and Zante (Zakynthos) In the Dutch East Indies , Dutch residents and lower ranks such as assistant residents were posted alongside
5733-523: The host country is friendly but there is a perceived threat from internal dissidents. Ambassadors and other diplomats are sometimes recalled temporarily by their home countries as a way to express displeasure with the host country. In both cases, lower-level employees still remain to actually do the business of diplomacy. Diplomacy is closely linked to espionage or gathering of intelligence. Embassies are bases for both diplomats and spies, and some diplomats are essentially openly acknowledged spies. For instance,
5824-410: The interests of all the German princes (who were in theory all subordinate to the Emperor, but in practice each independent). Between 1500 and 1700, rules of modern diplomacy were further developed. French replaced Latin from about 1715. The top rank of representatives was an ambassador. At that time an ambassador was a nobleman, the rank of the noble assigned varying with the prestige of the country he
5915-401: The invention of the envelope, folding a document served to protect the privacy of its content. The term was later applied to all official documents, such as those containing agreements between governments, and thus became identified with international relations. This established history has in recent years been criticized by scholars pointing out how the term originates in the political context of
6006-409: The job of military attachés includes learning as much as possible about the military of the nation to which they are assigned. They do not try to hide this role and, as such, are only invited to events allowed by their hosts, such as military parades or air shows . There are also deep-cover spies operating in many embassies. These individuals are given fake positions at the embassy, but their main task
6097-621: The largest foreign affairs department, had only some 70 full-time employees in the 1780s. The elements of modern diplomacy slowly spread to Eastern Europe and Russia, arriving by the early 18th century. The entire edifice would be greatly disrupted by the French Revolution and the subsequent years of warfare. The revolution would see commoners take over the diplomacy of the French state, and of those conquered by revolutionary armies. Ranks of precedence were abolished. Napoleon also refused to acknowledge diplomatic immunity, imprisoning several British diplomats accused of scheming against France. After
6188-585: The last stayed on as the first Governor-General after full annexation to Japan. See: List of Japanese Residents-General of Korea On occasion, residents were maintained, notably by former colonial powers, in territories in a transitional process to a new constitutional status, such as full independence. Such function could also be performed under another title, such as Commissioner or High Commissioner. Thus after World War I, there were residents in some mandate territories: Also after World War II, and not only in former mandate territories; e.g. in parts of Libya ,
6279-458: The mid-19th century. As European power spread around the world in the 18th and 19th centuries so too did its diplomatic model, and Asian countries adopted syncretic or European diplomatic systems. For example, as part of diplomatic negotiations with the West over control of land and trade in China in the 19th century after the First Opium War , the Chinese diplomat Qiying gifted intimate portraits of himself to representatives from Italy, England,
6370-402: The model of governance. The Japanese sent frequent embassies to China in this period, although they halted these trips in 894 when the Tang seemed on the brink of collapse. After the devastating An Shi Rebellion from 755 to 763, the Tang dynasty was in no position to reconquer Central Asia and the Tarim Basin . After several conflicts with the Tibetan Empire spanning several different decades,
6461-509: The native princely houses became residents, either in other states or even within their state, provided that they were unlikely ever to succeed as rulers of the state. A resident's real role varied enormously, depending upon the underlying relationship between the two parties and even upon the personalities of the Resident and the ruler. Some residents were little more than observers and diplomats, others were seen as unwanted interlopers and were treated with hostility, while some won enough trust from
6552-461: The need to accept emissaries was recognized. Soon the major European powers were exchanging representatives. Spain was the first to send a permanent representative; it appointed an ambassador to the Court of St. James's (i.e. England) in 1487. By the late 16th century, permanent missions became customary. The Holy Roman Emperor , however, did not regularly send permanent legates, as they could not represent
6643-530: The need to accommodate themselves diplomatically, due to the emergence of the powerful political environment of the Ottoman Empire. One could come to the conclusion that the atmosphere of diplomacy within the early modern period revolved around a foundation of conformity to Ottoman culture. One of the earliest realists in international relations theory was the 6th-century BC military strategist Sun Tzu (d. 496 BC), author of The Art of War . He lived during
6734-513: The perpetuation of good relations with the Ottomans. Interactions between various merchants, diplomats and clergymen hailing from the Italian and Ottoman empires helped inaugurate and create new forms of diplomacy and statecraft . Eventually the primary purpose of a diplomat, which was originally a negotiator, evolved into a persona that represented an autonomous state in all aspects of political affairs. It became evident that all other sovereigns felt
6825-678: The power of reconnaissance satellites and agents to monitor compliance. Information gleaned from espionage is useful in almost all forms of diplomacy, everything from trade agreements to border disputes. Various processes and procedures have evolved over time for handling diplomatic issues and disputes. Nations sometimes resort to international arbitration when faced with a specific question or point of contention in need of resolution. For most of history, there were no official or formal procedures for such proceedings. They were generally accepted to abide by general principles and protocols related to international law and justice. Sometimes these took
6916-457: The rights of diplomats, and they would often wreak horrific vengeance against any state that violated these rights. Diplomatic rights were established in the mid-17th century in Europe and have spread throughout the world. These rights were formalized by the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations , which protects diplomats from being persecuted or prosecuted while on a diplomatic mission. If
7007-486: The ruler that they were able to exercise great influence. In French protectorates, such as those of Morocco and Tunisia, the resident or resident general was the effective ruler of the territory. In 1887, when both Boers and gold prospectors of all nationalities were overrunning his country, the Swazi paramount chief Umbandine asked for a British resident, seeing this as a desirable and effective form of protection. His request
7098-401: The ruler. A trusted resident could even become the de facto prime minister to a native ruler. In other respects, they acted as an ambassador of the government of the country they were posted to, but at a lower level, since they were protectorates or tributaries of Western nations. Instead of being a representative to a single ruler, a resident could be posted to more than one native state, or to
7189-626: The same year after the battle of Boomplaats he returned as British Resident of the Orange River Sovereignty. From 1848 to 1852 he laid the foundations of an administration which was later to become a model republic. After the death of his first wife (Antoinette Hugo, by whom he had one son, Henry Douglas jnr), Major Warden married Susanna Elizabeth Minnaar (30/10/1815 Grahamstown - 4/10/1890 Smithfield, D/N OFS M578) ) on 5/7/1834 in Grahamstown. They had 10 children: 1. Charles Frederick +1900 in
7280-472: The states of Northern Italy in the early Renaissance , with the first embassies being established in the 13th century. Milan played a leading role, especially under Francesco Sforza who established permanent embassies to the other city states of Northern Italy. Tuscany and Venice were also flourishing centers of diplomacy from the 14th century onward. It was in the Italian Peninsula that many of
7371-471: The still sovereign Sultans of Brunei , lying between those larger states, British Residents were appointed 1906–1959 (interrupted by Japanese commander Masao Baba 6 January 1942 – 14 June 1945), afterwards only High Commissioners for the matters not transferred under autonomy (and 1971 self-government) until full independence went in force 1 January 1984. The administrative head of Sarawak's geographical Divisions was, however, titled as Resident. The French word
7462-475: The traditions of modern diplomacy began, such as the presentation of an ambassador's credentials to the head of state . From Italy, the practice was spread across Europe. Milan was the first to send a representative to the court of France in 1455. However, Milan refused to host French representatives, fearing they would conduct espionage and intervene in its internal affairs. As foreign powers such as France and Spain became increasingly involved in Italian politics
7553-666: The unity of the Xiongnu and allowed Han to conquer the Western Regions ; under Wu, in 104 BC the Han armies ventured as far Fergana in Central Asia to battle the Yuezhi who had conquered Hellenistic Greek areas . The Koreans and Japanese during the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) looked to the Chinese capital of Chang'an as the hub of civilization and emulated its central bureaucracy as
7644-749: Was a Jack-of-all-trades in Griekwaland-west, rebel in the gold war � jailed for 4 years, died insolvent, x Hester Elizabeth Jacobs 5. Stephen Gustavus + 1857, shortly after his father. 6. Mary Susanna +young 7. Eliza Frances + 1836, x Stead 8. Louisa Phillipa Jan 1852 Bloemfontein � Dec 1923 Harrismith, x Carl Wilhelm Kies. 9. Mary Emily *17/2/1856 +1944, x A J Wolhuter in 1857, son of Voortrekker Frans Mathys Wolhuter. 10. Stuart Cooper *1857 in Clocolan, after his father's death. Farmer Mount Margaret, Ladybrand and his wife's names were Margaret Susanna. Major Warden's children were educated in an Afrikaans community and played
7735-515: Was also a triad of warfare and diplomacy between these two states and the Tangut Western Xia dynasty to the northwest of Song China (centered in modern-day Shaanxi ). After warring with the Lý dynasty of Vietnam from 1075 to 1077, Song and Lý made a peace agreement in 1082 to exchange the respective lands they had captured from each other during the war. Long before the Tang and Song dynasties,
7826-440: Was delegated to. Strict standards developed for ambassadors, requiring they have large residences, host lavish parties, and play an important role in the court life of their host nation. In Rome, the most prized posting for a Catholic ambassador, the French and Spanish representatives would have a retinue of up to a hundred. Even in smaller posts, ambassadors were very expensive. Smaller states would send and receive envoys , who were
7917-501: Was granted. 1 March 1927 – 12 June 1931, while the Northern Territory was split, there were two consecutive incumbents for Central Australia . Diplomacy Diplomacy comprises spoken or written communication by representatives of state , intergovernmental , or non-governmental institutions intended to influence events in the international system. Diplomacy is the main instrument of foreign policy which represents
8008-504: Was preferred. Many were part of a white colonial hierarchy, rather than truly posted with a native ruler or chieftain. This French title, meaning "Superior" (i.e. Senior) Resident, indicates that he had junior Residents under him. In the German colonies, the title was also Resident; the post was called Residentur . At the "national" level of British Malaya , after the post of High Commissioner had been filled (1 July 1896 – 1 April 1946) by
8099-622: Was refused. The residents of the governments of the United Kingdom and the dominions to a variety of protectorates include: British residents were posted in various princely states – in major states or groups of states—in the days of British India . Often they were appointed to a single state, as with the Resident in Lucknow , the capital of Oudh ; to the Maharaja Gaekwad of Baroda ; to
8190-686: Was the daughter of a rich weaver. Charles Frederick was a Captain in the Buffs Regiment, stationed at the Tower of London, in which he was buried in 1815. They had 3 sons, and after Charles Frederick's death in 1815, the Duke of York a relative of Mary Cooper supposedly organised employment for them. Charles Frederick (jnr) first went to India in Civil service and later became a rich merchant in Woolwich, George Horatio became
8281-596: Was to ensure foreign envoys were properly cared for and received sufficient state funds for their maintenance, and it kept all the official translators—it clearly had a security function as well. On Strategy , from the 6th century, offers advice about foreign embassies: "[Envoys] who are sent to us should be received honorably and generously, for everyone holds envoys in high esteem. Their attendants, however, should be kept under surveillance to keep them from obtaining any information by asking questions of our people." In Europe, early modern diplomacy's origins are often traced to
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