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91-450: The Helderberg MPA is in the warm temperate Agulhas bioregion. The shoreline is sandy beach with mobile dunes, and the seabed is low sandstone reef with kelp beds and sand sediments. The areas nearest to the river mouths are in relatively poor condition due to pollution of the river water. The beach inside the MPA is the most pristine part of the north shore of False Bay. The area was established as

182-654: A bigger say in operations. In 1991, IUCN (together with UNEP and WWF) published Caring for the Earth , a successor to the World Conservation Strategy. Social aspects of conservation were now integrated in IUCN's work; at the General Assembly in 1994 the IUCN mission was redrafted to its current wording to include the equitable and ecologically use of natural resources. Closer to business: 2000 to present day Since

273-413: A decrease in productivity as the waters are no longer receiving nutrient-rich water. Without these nutrients, the rest of the trophic pyramid cannot be sustained, and the rich upwelling ecosystem will collapse. Coastal upwelling has a major influence over the affected region's local climate. This effect is magnified if the ocean current is already cool. As the cold, nutrient-rich water moves upwards and

364-414: A decreasing population, especially in species that do not breed often under normal circumstances or become reproductively mature late in life. Another problem is that the decrease in the population of a species due to fisheries can lead to a decrease in genetic diversity, resulting in a decrease in biodiversity of a species. If the species diversity is decreased significantly, this could cause problems for

455-400: A delay in the reconstruction of this upwelling community. The possibility of such an ecosystem collapse is the very danger of fisheries in upwelling regions. Fisheries may target a variety of different species, and therefore they are a direct threat to many species in the ecosystem, however they pose the highest threat to the intermediate pelagic fish . Since these fish form the crux of

546-411: A firm fixed substrate for the attachment of plants and animals. Some of these may have Kelp forests , which reduce the effect of waves and provide food and shelter for an extended range of organisms. Sandy beaches and bottoms are a relatively unstable substrate and cannot anchor kelp or many of the other benthic organisms. Finally there is open water, above the substrate and clear of the kelp forest, where

637-430: A high number of commercial fishers and fisheries. On one hand, this is another benefit of the upwelling process as it serves as a viable source of food and income for so many people and nations besides marine animals. However, just as in any ecosystem, the consequences of over-fishing from a population could be detrimental to that population and the ecosystem as a whole. In upwelling ecosystems, every species present plays

728-419: A large proportion of species endemic to South Africa along this coastline. Four major habitats exist in the sea in this region, distinguished by the nature of the substrate. The substrate, or base material, is important in that it provides a base to which an organism can anchor itself, which is vitally important for those organisms which need to stay in one particular kind of place. Rocky shores and reefs provide

819-604: A multi-year MOU ( Memorandum of understanding ) with WBCSD in December 2015. In 1996, after decades of seeking to address specific business issues, IUCN's Members asked for a comprehensive approach to engaging the business sector. Resolution 1.81 of the IUCN World Conservation Congress held that year "urged IUCN Members and the Director General, based on the need to influence private sector policies in support of

910-634: A new status for NGOs . Resolution 1296, adopted in 1968, granted 'consultative' status to NGOs. IUCN itself was eventually accredited with six UN organizations. IUCN was one of the few environmental organisations formally involved in the preparations of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972). The Stockholm Conference eventually led to three new international conventions, with IUCN involved in their drafting and implementation: IUCN entered into an agreement with

1001-803: A north and south split. The split in this system occurs at Point Conception , California due to weak upwelling in the South and strong upwelling in the north. The Canary Current is an eastern boundary current of the North Atlantic Gyre and is also separated due to the presence of the Canary Islands . Finally, the Humboldt Current or the Peru Current flows west along the coast of South America from Peru to Chile and extends up to 1,000 kilometers offshore. These four eastern boundary currents comprise

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1092-416: A phase of closer cooperation with WWF, but the close ties between IUCN and WWF were severed in 1985 when WWF decided to take control of its own field projects, which so far had been run by IUCN. Sustainable development and regionalisation: 1985 to present day In 1982, IUCN set up a Conservation for Development Centre within its secretariat. The Centre undertook projects to ensure that nature conservation

1183-525: A range of disciplines. They 'assess the state of the world's natural resources and provide the Union with sound know-how and policy advice on conservation issues'. Upwelling Upwelling is an oceanographic phenomenon that involves wind -driven motion of dense, cooler, and usually nutrient-rich water from deep water towards the ocean surface. It replaces the warmer and usually nutrient-depleted surface water . The nutrient-rich upwelled water stimulates

1274-505: A rate of about 5–10 meters per day, but the rate and proximity of upwelling to the coast can be changed due to the strength and distance of the wind. Deep waters are rich in nutrients, including nitrate , phosphate and silicic acid , themselves the result of decomposition of sinking organic matter (dead/detrital plankton) from surface waters. When brought to the surface, these nutrients are utilized by phytoplankton , along with dissolved CO 2 ( carbon dioxide ) and light energy from

1365-649: A reserve in 1991. The MPA was proclaimed by the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Mohammed Valli Moosa, in Government Gazette No. 21948 of 29 December 2000 in terms section 43 of the Marine Natural Resources Act, 18 of 1998. A marine protected area is defined by the IUCN as "A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve

1456-660: A salary during his period in office. To establish a stable financial basis for its work, IUCN participated in setting up the World Wildlife Fund (1961) (now the World Wide Fund for Nature WWF) to work on fundraising to cover part of the operational costs of IUCN. Also in 1961, the IUCN headquarters moved from Belgium to Morges in Switzerland. During the 1960s, IUCN lobbied the UN General Assembly to create

1547-445: A sandy or gravel bottom will depend on all these factors. Sandy bottoms have one important compensation for their instability, animals can burrow into the sand and move up and down within its layers, which can provide feeding opportunities and protection from predation. Other species can dig themselves holes in which to shelter, or may feed by filtering water drawn through the tunnel, or by extending body parts adapted to this function into

1638-529: A significant flow of water northwards. This is actually a type of coastal upwelling. Since there are no continents in a band of open latitudes between South America and the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, some of this water is drawn up from great depths. In many numerical models and observational syntheses, the Southern Ocean upwelling represents the primary means by which deep dense water is brought to

1729-436: A vital role in the functioning of that ecosystem. If one species is significantly depleted, that will have an effect throughout the rest of the trophic levels. For example, if a popular prey species is targeted by fisheries, fishermen may collect hundreds of thousands of individuals of this species just by casting their nets into the upwelling waters. As these fish are depleted, the food source for those who preyed on these fish

1820-557: A wasp-waist richness pattern. In this type of pattern, the high and low trophic levels are well-represented by high species diversity. However, the intermediate trophic level is only represented by one or two species. This trophic layer, which consists of small, pelagic fish usually makes up about only three to four percent of the species diversity of all fish species present. The lower trophic layers are very well-represented with about 500 species of copepods , 2500 species of gastropods , and 2500 species of crustaceans on average. At

1911-571: Is a high pressure zone, known as the South Atlantic High , located over the South Atlantic ocean to the west of the Cape coast. Winds circulating in an anticlockwise direction from such a system reach the Cape from the south-east, producing periods of up to several days of high winds and mostly clear skies. These winds keep the region relatively cool. Because of its south facing aspect Helderberg MPA

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2002-486: Is a no-take zone, so no fishing, harvesting of invertebrates or seaweeds, or bait collection of any kind is allowed. The main habitats in the Helderberg MPA are: Sandy beaches are dynamic habitats, with change mostly driven by wave action. These habitats provide a home to hardy and well adapted organisms. The local dunes are part of a mobile dune system in which sand is transported in the littoral and longshore zones and

2093-434: Is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources . Founded in 1948, IUCN has become the global authority on the status of the natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it. It is involved in data gathering and analysis , research, field projects, advocacy, and education. IUCN's mission is to "influence, encourage and assist societies throughout

2184-627: Is best known to the wider public for compiling and publishing the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species , which assesses the conservation status of species worldwide. IUCN has a membership of over 1,400 governmental and non-governmental organizations from over 170 countries. Some 16,000 scientists and experts participate in the work of IUCN commissions on a voluntary basis. It employs over 900 full-time staff in more than 50 countries. Its headquarters are in Gland , Switzerland. Every four years, IUCN convenes for

2275-430: Is depleted. Therefore, the predators of the targeted fish will begin to die off, and there will not be as many of them to feed the predators above them. This system continues throughout the entire food chain , resulting in a possible collapse of the ecosystem. It is possible that the ecosystem may be restored over time, but not all species can recover from events such as these. Even if the species can adapt, there may be

2366-845: Is exposed to these winds. Winter in the South-western Cape is characterised by disturbances in the circumpolar westerly winds, resulting in a series of eastward moving depressions. These bring cool cloudy weather and rain from the north west. The south westerly winds over the South Atlantic produce the prevailing south-westerly swell typical of the winter months, which beat on the exposed coastline. Temperatures are moderate and range from -5 °C minimum in winter and 35 °C maximum in summer. The annual average minimum and maximum temperatures are 11 °C and 24 °C respectively. There are often summer upwelling events, during which water temperatures may drop to 11 °C. Although this area

2457-458: Is included in the warm temperate Agulhas bioregion, it is part of the transition between warm and cool temperate regions. This is a productive biologically-diverse area, and has the only population of the giant isopod Tylos granulatus south of Ysterfontein . The MPA is in the warm temperate Agulhas ecoregion to the east of Cape Point which extends eastwards to the Mbashe River . There are

2548-473: Is the eastern boundary of the South Atlantic subtropical gyre and can be divided into a northern and southern sub-system with upwelling occurring in both areas. The subsystems are divided by an area of permanent upwelling off of Luderitz , which is the strongest upwelling zone in the world. The California Current System (CCS) is an eastern boundary current of the North Pacific that is also characterized by

2639-543: Is to expand the global network of national parks and other protected areas and promote good management of such areas. In particular, it focuses on greater protection of the oceans and marine habitats . IUCN has a growing program of partnerships with the corporate sector on a regional, national and international level to promote sustainable use of natural resources. On the national level, IUCN helps governments prepare national biodiversity policies. Internationally, IUCN provides advice to environmental conventions such as

2730-427: Is trapped by vegetation, causing fore-dune development. The coastline is sandy beaches with mobile dune systems, offshore habitats include rocky reefs and soft sandy sediments. Low sandstone reefs with sand deposits. Very fine, low density silt may settle during calm periods, but readily becomes suspended again when disturbed. The nautical charts of this area indicate a depth not exceeding 10 m. The climate of

2821-505: The African oystercatchers , Kelp gulls , Sanderlings and White-fronted plovers that feed on them. Offshore, zooplankton and a variety of fish can be found. Linefish: Elasmobranchs: Birds: Invertebrates: The MPA is in the warm temperate Agulhas ecoregion to the east of Cape Point which extends eastwards to the Mbashe River . There are a large proportion of species endemic to South Africa along this coastline. Urban development in

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2912-783: The Canary Current (off Northwest Africa ), the Benguela Current (off southern Africa ), the California Current (off California and Oregon ), the Humboldt Current (off Peru and Chile ), and the Somali Current (off Somalia and Oman ). All of these currents support major fisheries. The four major eastern boundary currents in which coastal upwelling primarily occurs are the Canary Current, Benguela Current, California Current, and Humboldt Current. The Benguela Current

3003-590: The Convention on Biological Diversity , CITES , and the Framework Convention on Climate Change . It advises UNESCO on natural world heritage . It has a formally accredited permanent observer mission to the United Nations . IUCN has official relations with the multiple other international bodies. As an organization, IUCN has three components: the member organizations, the six scientific commissions and

3094-530: The El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) event. The Peruvian upwelling system is particularly vulnerable to ENSO events, and can cause extreme interannual variability in productivity. Changes in bathymetry can affect the strength of an upwelling. For example, a submarine ridge that extends out from the coast will produce more favorable upwelling conditions than neighboring regions. Upwelling typically begins at such ridges and remains strongest at

3185-756: The World Conservation Strategy (1980). The drafting process, and the discussions with the UN agencies involved, led to an evolution in thinking within IUCN and growing acceptance of the fact that conservation of nature by banning human presence no longer worked. The Strategy was followed in 1982 by the World Charter for Nature , which was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly , after preparation by IUCN. In 1980, IUCN and WWF moved into shared new offices in Gland, Switzerland . This marked

3276-650: The World Conservation Union (1990–2008). IUCN was established on 5 October 1948, in Fontainebleau , France, when representatives of governments and conservation organizations spurred by UNESCO signed a formal act constituting the International Union for the Protection of Nature (IUPN). The initiative to set up the new organisation came from UNESCO and especially from its first director general,

3367-576: The World Wide Fund for Nature and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre . In the past, IUCN has been criticized for placing the interests of nature over those of indigenous peoples. In recent years, its closer relations with the business sector have caused controversy. IUCN was established in 1948. It was initially called the International Union for the Protection of Nature (1948–1956) and has also been formerly known as

3458-410: The sun , to produce organic compounds , through the process of photosynthesis . Upwelling regions therefore result in very high levels of primary production (the amount of carbon fixed by phytoplankton ) in comparison to other areas of the ocean. They account for about 50% of global marine productivity. High primary production propagates up the food chain because phytoplankton are at the base of

3549-452: The 1949 Conference on Protection of Nature Lake Success , US and drafted the first list of gravely endangered species. In the early years of its existence IUCN depended almost entirely on UNESCO funding and was forced to temporarily scale down activities when this ended unexpectedly in 1954. IUCN was successful in engaging prominent scientists and identifying important issues such as the harmful effects of pesticides on wildlife but not many of

3640-553: The British biologist Julian Huxley . At the time of its founding IUCN was the only international organisation focusing on the entire spectrum of nature conservation (an international organisation for the protection of birds, now BirdLife International , had been established in 1922). IUCN (International Union for conservation of Nature) started out with 65 members in Brussels and was closely associated to UNESCO. They jointly organized

3731-461: The Business and Biodiversity Program is the five-year collaboration IUCN started with the energy company Shell International in 2007. IUCN has been involved in minimum energy consumption and zero-carbon construction since 2005 by integrating energy-saving materials, developed by Jean-Luc Sandoz in the footsteps of Julius Natterer . Today, the Business and Biodiversity Programme continues to set

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3822-602: The IUCN World Conservation Congress 2016, IUCN Members agreed on a definition of nature-based solutions. Members also called for governments to include nature-based solutions in strategies to combat climate change . Some key dates in the growth and development of IUCN: According to its website, IUCN works on the following themes: business, climate change , economics, ecosystems , environmental law , forest conservation , gender , global policy, marine and polar , protected areas , science and knowledge, social policy , species , water, and world heritage . IUCN works on

3913-480: The IUCN World Conservation Congress where IUCN Members set the global conservation agenda by voting on recommendations and guide the secretariat's work by passing resolutions and the IUCN Programme. IUCN has observer and consultative status at the United Nations , and plays a role in the implementation of several international conventions on nature conservation and biodiversity . It was involved in establishing

4004-625: The MPA is managed by the City of Cape Town with funding from the SA Government through the Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA). The Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries is responsible for issuing permits, quotas and law enforcement. Management of the Helderberg MPA has objectives compliant with the general objectives of the Marine Living Resources Act, which are to protect

4095-450: The MPA. Marine species for aquarium usage may only be collected under the authority of a valid permit issued under section 13 of the MLRA. Living organisms may be collected for scientific purposes, but only in terms of a permit. There is no boat launching site within the Helderberg MPA. Boats may pass through and anchor in the waters, but all fishing gear must be stowed during passage. The MPA

4186-519: The Mission of IUCN, to expand dialogue and productive relationships with the private sector and find new ways to interact with members of the business community". The IUCN Global Business and Biodiversity Program (BBP) was established in 2003 to influence and support private partners in addressing environmental and social issues. In 2004, the first IUCN Private Sector Engagement Strategy was developed (in response to Council Decision C/58/41). Most prominent in

4277-521: The NbS concept in environmental sciences and nature conservation contexts came as international organisations, such as IUCN and the World Bank, searched for solutions to work with ecosystems rather than relying on conventional engineering interventions (such as a seawall ), to adapt to and mitigate climate change effects, while improving sustainable livelihoods and protecting natural ecosystems and biodiversity. At

4368-825: The Red Data Book on the conservation status of species, was first published in 1964. IUCN began to play a part in the development of international treaties and conventions, starting with the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources . Africa was the focus of many of the early IUCN conservation field projects. IUCN supported the 'Yellowstone model' of protected area management, which severely restricted human presence and activity in order to protect nature. The IUCN also suffered from restricted financing in its early years. For this reason, Tracy Philipps , secretary-general from 1955 to 1958, did not draw

4459-403: The South-western Cape is markedly different from the rest of South Africa, which is a summer rainfall region, receiving most of its rainfall during the summer months of December to February. The South-western Cape has a Mediterranean type climate , with most of its rainfall during the winter months from June to September. During the summer the dominant factor determining the weather in the region

4550-528: The United Nations Environment Programme UNEP to provide regular reviews of world conservation. The income this generated, combined with growing revenue via WWF, put the organisation on relatively sound financial footing for the first time since 1948. This period saw the beginning of a gradual change in IUCN's approach to conservation in which it tried to become more appealing to the developing world. In 1975 IUCN started work on

4641-551: The apex and near-apex trophic levels, there are usually about 100 species of marine mammals and about 50 species of marine birds. The vital intermediate trophic species however are small pelagic fish that usually feed on phytoplankton . In most upwelling systems, these species are either anchovies or sardines, and usually only one is present, although two or three species may be present occasionally. These fish are an important food source for predators, such as large pelagic fish, marine mammals, and marine birds. Although they are not at

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4732-405: The base of the trophic pyramid, they are the vital species that connect the entire marine ecosystem and keep the productivity of upwelling zones so high A major threat to both this crucial intermediate trophic level and the entire upwelling trophic ecosystem is the problem of commercial fishing . Since upwelling regions are the most productive and species rich areas in the world, they attract

4823-486: The basis of four-year programs, determined by the membership. In the IUCN Programme for 2017–2020 conserving nature and biodiversity is linked to sustainable development and poverty reduction. IUCN states that it aims to have a solid factual base for its work and takes into account the knowledge held by indigenous groups and other traditional users of natural resources. The IUCN Programme 2017–2020 identifies three priority areas: IUCN does not itself aim to directly mobilize

4914-503: The catch. Besides directly causing the collapse of the ecosystem due to their absence, this can create problems in the ecosystem through a variety of other methods as well. The animals higher in the trophic levels may not completely starve to death and die off, but the decreased food supply could still hurt the populations. If animals do not get enough food, it will decrease their reproductive viability meaning that they will not breed as often or as successfully as usual. This can lead to

5005-468: The creation of IUCN in 1948, IUCN Members have passed more than 300 resolutions that include or focus on business related activities. The increased attention on sustainable development as a means to protect nature brought IUCN closer to the corporate sector. The members decided against this, but IUCN did forge a partnership with the World Business Council for Sustainable Development . IUCN renewed

5096-502: The direction of dip and strike, and steepness of the dip, may produce reefs which are relatively flat to very high profile and full of small crevices. These features may be at varying angles to the shoreline and wave fronts. There are fewer large holes, tunnels and crevices in sandstone reefs, but often many deep but low near-horizontal crevices. Sandy beaches and bottoms (including shelly, pebble and gravel bottoms) Sandy bottoms at first glance appear to be fairly barren areas, as they lack

5187-578: The direction of the wind, and the friction between that layer and the layer beneath it causes the successive layers to move in the same direction. This results in a spiral of water moving down the water column. Then, it is the Coriolis forces that dictate which way the water will move; in the Northern hemisphere, the water is transported to the right of the direction of the wind. In the Southern Hemisphere,

5278-403: The ecosystems, to protect depleted and endemic species and their required habitats, and enhance sustainability of marine fisheries. Socioeconomic goals are to develop non-consumptive ecotourism, provide for research and monitoring effects of human activities, and promotion of conservation among tourists and scholars. The governance goals are to develop legal structures to protect the biodiversity of

5369-400: The entire trophic process of upwelling ecosystems, they are highly represented throughout the ecosystem (even if there is only one species present). Unfortunately, these fish tend to be the most popular targets of fisheries as about 64 percent of their entire catch consists of pelagic fish. Among those, the six main species that usually form the intermediate trophic layer represent over half of

5460-565: The equator, upwelling still occurs just north and south of the equator. This results in a divergence, with denser, nutrient-rich water being upwelled from below, and results in the remarkable fact that the equatorial region in the Pacific can be detected from space as a broad line of high phytoplankton concentration. Large-scale upwelling is also found in the Southern Ocean . Here, strong westerly (eastward) winds blow around Antarctica , driving

5551-427: The fore-dune zone tends to be inundated by windblown sand. Artificial dune stabilisation and removal of fore-dunes for development can deplete the sand available for beach functioning. Pollution in by plastic and oil spills is a permanent threat if left unchecked. No specific research has been done on the threats to invertebrates in the MPA. IUCN The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN )

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5642-410: The general effects are the same. In the overall process of upwelling, winds blow across the sea surface at a particular direction, which causes a wind-water interaction. As a result of the wind, the water has transported a net of 90 degrees from the direction of the wind due to Coriolis forces and Ekman transport. Ekman transport causes the surface layer of water to move at about a 45-degree angle from

5733-481: The general public. Education has been part of IUCN's work program since the early days but the focus is on stakeholder involvement and strategic communication rather than mass-campaigns. IUCN runs field projects for habitat and species conservation around the world. It produces the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems . The IUCN Red List of Ecosystems is applicable at local, national, regional, and global levels. IUCN's stated goal

5824-443: The growth and reproduction of primary producers such as phytoplankton . The biomass of phytoplankton and the presence of cool water in those regions allow upwelling zones to be identified by cool sea surface temperatures (SST) and high concentrations of chlorophyll a . The increased availability of nutrients in upwelling regions results in high levels of primary production and thus fishery production. Approximately 25% of

5915-485: The ideas it developed were turned into action. This was caused by unwillingness to act on the part of governments, uncertainty about the IUCN mandate and lack of resources. In 1956, IUCN changed its name to International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. During this period, the IUCN expanded its relations with UN-agencies and established links with the Council of Europe . IUCN's best known publication,

6006-408: The indigenous fauna and flora and the environment on which they depend, protect breeding stock, facilitate stock recovery, improve stock in surrounding areas and maintain pristine communities for research, and to minimise conflict between competing uses of the area. Specific biophysical goals of the MPA management plan are protection of the environment and maintenance of biodiversity and functioning of

6097-425: The long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values". The length of the protected shoreline is 4 km, and the area of protected ocean is 24.6 km. The whole MPA is a no-take reserve. The marine protected areas of South Africa are the responsibility of the national government, which has management agreements with a variety of MPA management authorities, in this case,

6188-597: The majority of coastal upwelling zones in the oceans. Upwelling at the equator is associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) which actually moves, and consequently, is often located just north or south of the equator. Easterly (westward) trade winds blow from the Northeast and Southeast and converge along the equator blowing West to form the ITCZ. Although there are no Coriolis forces present along

6279-433: The ocean circulation suggest that broad-scale upwelling occurs in the tropics, as pressure driven flows converge water toward the low latitudes where it is diffusively warmed from above. The required diffusion coefficients, however, appear to be larger than are observed in the real ocean. Nonetheless, some diffusive upwelling does probably occur. Upwelling intensity depends on wind strength and seasonal variability, as well as

6370-476: The ocean interior, upwelling associated with eddies, topographically-associated upwelling, and broad-diffusive upwelling in the ocean interior. Coastal upwelling is the best known type of upwelling, and the most closely related to human activities as it supports some of the most productive fisheries in the world. Coastal upwelling will occur if the wind direction is parallel to the coastline and generates wind-driven currents. The wind-driven currents are diverted to

6461-495: The oceanic food chain. The food chain follows the course of: Coastal upwelling exists year-round in some regions, known as major coastal upwelling systems , and only in certain months of the year in other regions, known as seasonal coastal upwelling systems . Many of these upwelling systems are associated with relatively high carbon productivity and hence are classified as Large Marine Ecosystems . Worldwide, there are five major coastal currents associated with upwelling areas:

6552-614: The organisms must drift or swim. Mixed habitats are also frequently found, which are a combination of those mentioned above. There are two small degraded estuarine habitats at the borders of the MPA. Rocky shores and reefs There are rocky reefs and mixed rocky and sandy bottoms. For many marine organisms the substrate is another type of marine organism, and it is common for several layers to co-exist. Examples of this are red bait pods, which are usually encrusted with sponges, ascidians, bryozoans, anemones, and gastropods, and abalone, which are usually covered by similar seaweeds to those found on

6643-444: The process of upwelling. However, during El Niño events, trade winds are weaker, causing decreased upwelling in the equatorial regions as the divergence of water north and south of the equator is not as strong or as prevalent. The coastal upwelling zones diminish as well since they are wind driven systems, and the wind is no longer a very strong driving force in these areas. As a result, global upwelling drastically decreases, causing

6734-434: The ridge even after developing in other locations. The most productive and fertile ocean areas, upwelling regions are important sources of marine productivity. They attract hundreds of species throughout the trophic levels; these systems' diversity has been a focal point for marine research . While studying the trophic levels and patterns typical of upwelling regions, researchers have discovered that upwelling systems exhibit

6825-608: The right of the winds in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere due to the Coriolis effect . The result is a net movement of surface water at right angles to the direction of the wind, known as the Ekman transport (See also Ekman Spiral ). When Ekman transport is occurring away from the coast, surface waters moving away are replaced by deeper, colder, and denser water. Normally, this upwelling process occurs at

6916-565: The sea surface temperature gets cooler, the air immediately above it also cools down and is likely to condensate, forming sea fog and stratus clouds . This also inhibits the formation of higher altitude clouds, showers and thunderstorms and results in rainfall over the ocean leaving the land dry. In year-round upwelling systems (like that of the western coasts of Southern Africa and South America), temperatures are generally cooler and precipitation scarce. Seasonal upwelling systems are often paired with seasonal downwelling systems (like that of

7007-447: The secretariat. IUCN Members are States, government agencies, international nongovernmental organizations, national nongovernmental organizations and indigenous peoples' organisations. In 2017, IUCN had 1400 members. The members can organize themselves in national or regional committees to promote cooperation. In 2016, there were 62 national committees and 7 regional committees. The seven IUCN Commissions involve volunteer experts from

7098-441: The species in an environment that is so variable and quick-changing; they may not be able to adapt, which could result in a collapse of the population or ecosystem. Another threat to the productivity and ecosystems of upwelling regions is El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) system, or more specifically El Niño events. During the normal period and La Niña events, the easterly trade winds are still strong, which continues to drive

7189-426: The stability to support many of the spectacular reef based species, and the variety of large organisms is relatively low. The sand is continually being moved around by wave action, to a greater or lesser degree depending on weather conditions and exposure of the area. This means that sessile organisms must be specifically adapted to areas of relatively loose substrate to thrive in them, and the variety of species found on

7280-581: The strategic direction, coordinate IUCN's overall approach and provide institutional quality assurance in all business engagements. The Programme ensures that the Business Engagement Strategy is implemented through IUCN's global thematic and regional programmes as well as helps guide the work of IUCN's six Commissions. Nature-based solutions (NbS) use ecosystems and the services they provide to address societal challenges such as climate change, food security or natural disasters. The emergence of

7371-509: The surface. In some regions of Antarctica, wind-driven upwelling near the coast pulls relatively warm Circumpolar deep water onto the continental shelf, where it can enhance ice shelf melt and influence ice sheet stability. Shallower, wind-driven upwelling is also found in off the west coasts of North and South America, northwest and southwest Africa, and southwest and south Australia , all associated with oceanic subtropical high pressure circulations (see coastal upwelling above). Some models of

7462-404: The surrounding rocks, usually with a variety of other organisms living on the seaweeds. The type of rock of the reef is of some importance, as it influences the range of possibilities for the local topography, which in turn influences the range of habitats provided, and therefore the diversity of inhabitants. Sandstone and other sedimentary rocks erode and weather very differently, and depending on

7553-452: The temperature contrast is greatly seasonably variable, creating periods of strong upwelling in the spring and summer, to weak or no upwelling in the winter. For example, off the coast of Oregon, there are four or five strong upwelling events separated by periods of little to no upwelling during the six-month season of upwelling. In contrast, tropical latitudes have a more constant temperature contrast, creating constant upwelling throughout

7644-447: The total global marine fish catches come from five upwellings, which occupy only 5% of the total ocean area. Upwellings that are driven by coastal currents or diverging open ocean have the greatest impact on nutrient-enriched waters and global fishery yields. The three main drivers that work together to cause upwelling are wind , Coriolis effect , and Ekman transport . They operate differently for different types of upwelling, but

7735-428: The vertical structure of the water , variations in the bottom bathymetry , and instabilities in the currents . In some areas, upwelling is a seasonal event leading to periodic bursts of productivity similar to spring blooms in coastal waters. Wind-induced upwelling is generated by temperature differences between the warm, light air above the land and the cooler denser air over the sea. In temperate latitudes ,

7826-521: The water above the sand. Kelp forests The open sea The most abundant fauna found on sandy beaches are meiofauna . Their small size lets them live between the sand grains. They include nematodes , copepods and ostracods , which help break down organic matter, which then decomposes. Meiofauna are sensitive to pollution and other disturbances, and can be used to monitor pollution on sandy beaches. The intertidal zone supports sandhoppers , mole and ghost crabs , plough snails , sand mussels and

7917-417: The water is transported to the left of the wind. If this net movement of water is divergent, then upwelling of deep water occurs to replace the water that was lost. The major upwellings in the ocean are associated with the divergence of currents that bring deeper, colder, nutrient rich waters to the surface. There are at least five types of upwelling: coastal upwelling, large-scale wind-driven upwelling in

8008-535: The world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable". Over the past decades, IUCN has widened its focus beyond conservation ecology and now incorporates issues related to sustainable development in its projects. IUCN does not itself aim to mobilize the public in support of nature conservation. It tries to influence the actions of governments, business and other stakeholders by providing information and advice and through building partnerships. The organization

8099-532: The world. This marked a shift within the organisation. Previously, the volunteer Commissions had been very influential, now the secretariat and its staff began to play a more dominant role. In 1989, IUCN moved into a separate building in Gland, close to the offices it had shared with WWF. Initially, the focus of power was still with the Headquarters in Gland but the regional offices and regional members' groups gradually got

8190-406: The year. The Peruvian upwelling, for instance, occurs throughout most of the year, resulting in one of the world's largest marine fisheries for sardines and anchovies . In anomalous years when the trade winds weaken or reverse, the water that is upwelled is much warmer and low in nutrients, resulting in a sharp reduction in the biomass and phytoplankton productivity. This event is known as

8281-426: Was integrated in development aid and in the economic policies of developing countries. Over the years, it supported the development of national conservation strategies in 30 countries. Several European countries began to channel considerable amounts of bilateral aid via IUCN's projects. Management of these projects was primarily done by IUCN staff, often working from the new regional and country offices IUCN set up around

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