The Hill Museum & Manuscript Library (HMML) is a nonprofit organization that photographs, catalogs, and provides free access to collections of manuscripts located in libraries around the world.
98-616: HMML prioritizes manuscripts located in regions endangered by war, political instability, or other threats. HMML is currently digitizing manuscripts in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Egypt, Gaza, Great Britain, India, Iraq, Italy, Lebanon, Mali, Malta, Mauritania, Montenegro, Nepal, Pakistan, and Yemen. HMML's mission is to preserve and share the world's handwritten past to inspire a deeper understanding of our present and future. With approximately 450,000 manuscripts digitized or microfilmed in partnership with more than 800 libraries worldwide, HMML maintains
196-813: A donor who wants to see the supported project managed by a person from an industrialized country . The expertise of these employees (or volunteers) may be counterbalanced by several factors, such as ; the cost of foreigners is typically higher, they have no grassroots connections in the country, and local expertise may be undervalued. By the end of 1995, Concern Worldwide (an international anti-poverty NGO) employed 174 foreigners and just over 5,000 local staff in Haiti and ten developing countries in Africa and Asia. On average, employees in NGOs earn 11-12% less compared to employees of for-profit organizations and government workers with
294-610: A hierarchical structure; their headquarters are staffed by professionals who plan projects, create budgets, keep accounts, and report to and communicate with operational fieldworkers on projects. They are most often associated with the delivery of services or environmental issues, emergency relief, and public welfare. Operational NGOs may be subdivided into relief or development organizations, service-delivery or participatory, religious or secular, and public or private. Although operational NGOs may be community-based, many are national or international. The defining activity of an operational NGO
392-531: A March 2000 report on United Nations reform priorities, former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan favored international humanitarian intervention as the responsibility to protect citizens from ethnic cleansing, genocide, and crimes against humanity. After that report, the Canadian government launched its Responsibility to Protect (R2P) project outlining the issue of humanitarian intervention. The R2P project has wide applications, and among its more controversial has been
490-621: A Microsoft Word document or a social media post. In contrast, digitization only applies exclusively to analog materials. Born-digital materials present a unique challenge to digital preservation not only due to technological obsolescence but also because of the inherently unstable nature of digital storage and maintenance. Most websites last between 2.5 and 5 years, depending on the purpose for which they were designed. The Library of Congress provides numerous resources and tips for individuals looking to practice digitization and digital preservation for their personal collections. Digital reformatting
588-693: A deep understanding of the issues facing people and to tailor their services to meet the specific needs of each community. NGOs vary by method; some are primarily advocacy groups , and others conduct programs and activities. Oxfam , concerned with poverty alleviation, may provide needy people with the equipment and skills to obtain food and drinking water ; the Forum for Fact-finding Documentation and Advocacy (FFDA) helps provide legal assistance to victims of human-rights abuses. The Afghanistan Information Management Services provide specialized technical products and services to support development activities implemented on
686-500: A lack of resources. They may be contractors or collaborate with government agencies to reduce the cost of public goods. Capacity-building NGOs affect "culture, structure, projects and daily operations". Advocacy and public-education NGOs aim to modify behavior and ideas through communication, crafting messages to promote social, political, or environmental changes (and as news organisations have cut foreign bureaux, many NGOs have begun to expand into news reporting). Movement NGOs mobilize
784-435: A point where a book is completely unusable. In theory, if these widely circulated titles are not treated with de-acidification processes, the materials upon those acid pages will be lost. As digital technology evolves, it is increasingly preferred as a method of preserving these materials, mainly because it can provide easier access points and significantly reduce the need for physical storage space. Cambridge University Library
882-484: A self-funded visiting scholar , or by applying for a HMML Fellowship . Fellowships provide funding for short-term residencies at HMML, to use HMML's digital and/or microfilm manuscript collections. There are three fellowship programs: HMML Summer Language School courses are held each summer to support the study of languages and paleography through the use of manuscripts. Dumbarton Oaks has partnered with HMML since 2016 to sponsor these courses, which have included
980-631: A video tape player to be connected to a computer while the item plays in real time. Slides can be digitized quicker with a slide scanner such as the Nikon Coolscan 5000ED. Another example of digitization is the VisualAudio process developed by the Swiss Fonoteca Nazionale in Lugano , by scanning a high resolution photograph of a record, they are able to extract and reconstruct the sound from
1078-427: Is central to making digital representations of geographical features, using raster or vector images, in a geographic information system , i.e., the creation of electronic maps , either from various geographical and satellite imaging (raster) or by digitizing traditional paper maps or graphs (vector). "Digitization" is also used to describe the process of populating databases with files or data. While this usage
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#17328591497561176-486: Is delivered in a timely and effective manner. NGOs also play a critical role in driving change by advocating for policies and practices that benefit disadvantaged communities. They often work in partnership with other organizations, including government agencies, to address complex challenges that require a collaborative approach. One of the key strengths of NGOs is their ability to work at the grassroots level and to connect with communities directly. This allows them to gain
1274-635: Is done once with the technology currently available, while digital preservation is more complicated because technology changes so quickly that a once popular storage format may become obsolete before it breaks. An example is a 5 1/4" floppy drive, computers are no longer made with them and obtaining the hardware to convert a file stored on 5 1/4" floppy disc can be expensive. To combat this risk, equipment must be upgraded as newer technology becomes affordable (about 2 to 5 years), but before older technology becomes unobtainable (about 5 to 10 years). Digital preservation can also apply to born-digital material, such as
1372-503: Is fed into an embroidery machine and applied to the fabric. The most supported format is DST file. Apparel companies also digitize clothing patterns. Analog signals are continuous electrical signals; digital signals are non-continuous. Analog signals can be converted to digital signals by using an analog-to-digital converter . The process of converting analog to digital consists of two parts: sampling and quantizing. Sampling measures wave amplitudes at regular intervals, splits them along
1470-682: Is not an option for institutions hoping to digitize without processing. Non-governmental organization A non-governmental organization (NGO) is an independent, typically nonprofit organization that operates outside government control. NGOs often focus on humanitarian or social issues but can also include clubs and associations offering services to members. Some NGOs, like the World Economic Forum, may also act as lobby groups for corporations. Unlike international organizations (IOs), which directly interact with sovereign states and governments, NGOs are independent from them. The term as it
1568-461: Is not founded by an international treaty". The role of NGOs and other "major groups" in sustainable development was recognized in Chapter 27 of Agenda 21 . The rise and fall of international NGOs matches contemporary events, waxing in periods of growth and waning in times of crisis. The United Nations gave non-governmental organizations observer status at its assemblies and some meetings. According to
1666-687: Is observed annually on 27 February, was recognised on 17 April 2010 by 12 countries of the IX Baltic Sea NGO Forum at the eighth Summit of the Baltic Sea States in Vilnius , Lithuania. It was internationally recognised on 28 February 2014 in Helsinki , Finland by United Nations Development Programme administrator and former Prime Minister of New Zealand Helen Clark . In the context of NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations), diplomacy refers to
1764-413: Is often described as converting it from analog to digital, however both copies remain. An example would be scanning a photograph and having the original piece in a photo album and a digital copy saved to a computer. This is essentially the first step in digital preservation which is to maintain the digital copy over a long period of time and making sure it remains authentic and accessible. Digitization
1862-764: Is often used to judge it; less than four percent is considered good. According to the World Association of Non-Governmental Organizations, more than 86 percent should be spent on programs (less than 20 percent on overhead). The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria has guidelines of five to seven percent overhead to receive funding; the World Bank typically allows 37 percent. A high percentage of overhead relative to total expenditures can make it more difficult to generate funds. High overhead costs may also generate public criticism. A sole focus on overhead, however, can be counterproductive. Research published by
1960-470: Is organized on a local, national or international level to address issues in support of the public good". The term NGO is used inconsistently, and is sometimes used synonymously with civil society organization (CSO), which is any association founded by citizens. In some countries, NGOs are known as nonprofit organizations while political parties and trade unions are sometimes considered NGOs as well. NGOs are classified by (1) orientation- entailing
2058-651: Is still used by institutions such as the National Archives and Records Administration ( NARA ) to provide preservation and access to these resources. While digital versions of analog texts can potentially be accessed from anywhere in the world, they are not as stable as most print materials or manuscripts and are unlikely to be accessible decades from now without further preservation efforts, while many books manuscripts and scrolls have already been around for centuries. However, for some materials that have been damaged by water, insects, or catastrophes, digitization might be
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#17328591497562156-442: Is technically inaccurate, it originates with the previously proper use of the term to describe that part of the process involving digitization of analog sources, such as printed pictures and brochures, before uploading to target databases. Digitizing may also be used in the field of apparel, where an image may be recreated with the help of embroidery digitizing software tools and saved as embroidery machine code. This machine code
2254-536: Is the implementation of projects. Advocacy NGOs or campaigning NGOs seek to "achieve large-scale change promoted indirectly through the influence of the political system". They require an active, efficient group of professional members who can keep supporters informed and motivated. Campaigning NGOs must plan and host demonstrations and events which will attract media, their defining activity. Campaigning NGOs often deal with issues related to human rights, women's rights, and children's rights, and their primary purpose
2352-406: Is the primary way of storing images in a form suitable for transmission and computer processing, whether scanned from two-dimensional analog originals or captured using an image sensor -equipped device such as a digital camera , tomographical instrument such as a CAT scanner , or acquiring precise dimensions from a real-world object, such as a car , using a 3D scanning device. Digitizing
2450-517: Is the process of converting analog materials into a digital format as a surrogate of the original. The digital surrogates perform a preservation function by reducing or eliminating the use of the original. Digital reformatting is guided by established best practices to ensure that materials are being converted at the highest quality. The Library of Congress has been actively reformatting materials for its American Memory project and developed best standards and practices pertaining to book handling during
2548-404: Is the process of converting information into a digital (i.e. computer-readable) format. The result is the representation of an object, image , sound , document , or signal (usually an analog signal ) obtained by generating a series of numbers that describe a discrete set of points or samples . The result is called digital representation or, more specifically, a digital image , for
2646-465: Is to communicate with NGOs about areas of mutual interest. Department of Defense Directive 3000.05, in 2005, required the US Defense Department to regard stability-enhancing activities as equally important as combat. In compliance with international law , the department has developed a capacity to improve essential services in areas of conflict (such as Iraq ) where customary lead agencies like
2744-695: Is to defend (or promote) a specific cause. Non-governmental organisations need healthy public relations in order to meet their goals, and use sophisticated public-relations campaigns to raise funds and deal with governments. Interest groups may be politically important, influencing social and political outcomes. A code of ethics was established in 2002 by the World Association of Non-Governmental Organizations . Some NGOs rely on paid staff while others are based on volunteers . Although many NGOs use international staff in developing countries, others rely on local employees or volunteers. Foreign staff may satisfy
2842-514: Is to ensure that the digital files themselves are preserved and remain accessible; the term " digital preservation ," in its most basic sense, refers to an array of activities undertaken to maintain access to digital materials over time. The prevalent Brittle Books issue facing libraries across the world is being addressed with a digital solution for long term book preservation. Since the mid-1800s, books were printed on wood-pulp paper , which turns acidic as it decays. Deterioration may advance to
2940-484: Is transnational coordination by non-official members of the government, including epistemic communities and former policymakers or analysts. It aims to help policymakers and policy analysts reach a common solution through unofficial discussions. Unlike official diplomacy, conducted by government officials, diplomats, and elected leaders, Track II diplomacy involves experts, scientists, professors and other figures who are not part of government affairs. World NGO Day, which
3038-477: Is unique and workflows for one will be different from every other project that goes through the process, so time must be spent thoroughly studying and planning each one to create the best plan for the materials and the intended audience. Cost of equipment, staff time, metadata creation, and digital storage media make large scale digitization of collections expensive for all types of cultural institutions . Ideally, all institutions want their digital copies to have
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3136-453: Is used to describe, for example, the scanning of analog sources (such as printed photos or taped videos ) into computers for editing, 3D scanning that creates 3D modeling of an object's surface, and audio (where sampling rate is often measured in kilohertz ) and texture map transformations. In this last case, as in normal photos, the sampling rate refers to the resolution of the image, often measured in pixels per inch. Digitizing
3234-544: Is used today was first introduced in Article 71 of the newly formed United Nations' Charter in 1945. While there is no fixed or formal definition for what NGOs are, they are generally defined as nonprofit entities that are independent of governmental influence—although they may receive government funding . According to the UN Department of Global Communications , an NGO is "a not-for profit , voluntary citizen's group that
3332-653: Is working on the Cambridge Digital Library , which will initially contain digitised versions of many of its most important works relating to science and religion. These include examples such as Isaac Newton's personally annotated first edition of his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica as well as college notebooks and other papers, and some Islamic manuscripts such as a Quran from Tipu Sahib's library. Google, Inc. has taken steps towards attempting to digitize every title with " Google Book Search ". While some academic libraries have been contracted by
3430-661: The European Convention on the Recognition of the Legal Personality of International Non-Governmental Organisations in Strasbourg in 1986, creating a common legal basis for European NGOs. Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights protects the right to associate, which is fundamental for NGOs. The question whether a public project should be owned by an NGO or by the government has been studied in economics using
3528-683: The Middle East (Gaza, Iraq, Jerusalem, Lebanon, Syria, Yemen), and North America (United States). As of 2023, approximately 450,000 manuscripts have been digitized or microfilmed in partnership with more than 800 libraries worldwide. After HMML staff catalog the manuscripts, data and digital images are made available online in HMML Reading Room . More than half of these manuscripts are accompanied by high-quality digital images. The manuscripts are grouped by five primary collections: A collection of artwork and photographs dating from 3300 BCE through
3626-521: The State Department and USAID have difficulty operating. International Health cultivates collaborative, arm's-length relationships with NGOs, recognizing their independence, expertise, and honest-broker status. International non-governmental organizations date back to at least the late 18th century, and there were an estimated 1,083 NGOs by 1914. International NGOs were important to the anti-slavery and women's suffrage movements, and peaked at
3724-498: The Urban Institute and Stanford University 's Center for Social Innovation have shown that rating agencies create incentives for NGOs to lower (and hide) overhead costs, which may reduce organizational effectiveness by starving organizations of infrastructure to deliver services. An alternative rating system would provide, in addition to financial data, a qualitative evaluation of an organization's transparency and governance: In
3822-941: The Washington Consensus . Twentieth-century globalization increased the importance of NGOs. International treaties and organizations, such as the World Trade Organization , focused on capitalist interests. To counterbalance this trend, NGOs emphasize humanitarian issues , development aid , and sustainable development . An example is the World Social Forum , a rival convention of the World Economic Forum held each January in Davos , Switzerland. The fifth World Social Forum, in Porto Alegre , Brazil in January 2005,
3920-649: The Canadian government's use of R2P to justify its intervention in the coup in Haiti. Large corporations have increased their corporate social responsibility departments to preempt NGO campaigns against corporate practices. Collaboration between corporations and NGOs risks co-option of the weaker partner, typically the NGO. In December 2007, Assistant Secretary of Defense for Health Affairs S. Ward Casscells established an International Health Division of Force Health Protection & Readiness. Part of International Health's mission
4018-636: The Middle East, starting in Lebanon and quickly expanding to Iraq and Syria. Over the course of the coming years, HMML expanded its projects in Africa and began its first projects in Asia. Mali is home to HMML's largest preservation project to date, resulting in approximately 3.6 million unique image files representing more than 249,000 manuscripts. The project focuses on the West African Islamic traditions found in
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4116-559: The Office of Refugee Resettlement uses to help integrate immigrants to America. Government funding sometimes accounts for the vast majority of overall funding for these NGOs, for example Global Refuge received 180 million dollars of its 207 million dollar budget from federal funding. In recent years, government contracts to non-profits have exploded both in number and size. The Budget for the Office of Refugee Resettlement has increased from 1.8 billion in 2018 to 6.3 billion in 2022. Critics point to
4214-498: The UN, an NGO is a private, not-for-profit organization which is independent of government control and is not merely an opposition political party . The rapid development of the non-governmental sector occurred in Western countries as a result of the restructuring of the welfare state . Globalization of that process occurred after the fall of the communist system, and was an important part of
4312-796: The United States. In Ethiopia, HMML began its first project with Eastern Christian manuscripts and its first in Africa. The work in Ethiopia began 1974 continued throughout 1980s and into the early 1990s, with cameras operating as the country underwent political upheaval and civil war. More than 9,000 manuscripts were microfilmed, forming a collection known as the Ethiopian Manuscript Microfilm Library (EMML). Microfilm copies of these manuscripts were made widely available through extensive cataloging by Professor Getatchew Haile and his colleague, Dr. William Macomber. During those decades,
4410-551: The World NGO Day, we celebrate the key civil society's contribution to public space and their unique ability to give voice to those who would have went [sic] otherwise unheard. European Commission Vice-President Federica Mogherini , commemorating the 2017 World NGO Day in Brussels Service-delivery NGOs provide public goods and services which governments of developing countries are unable to provide due to
4508-720: The ancient to modern periods: Topics in Special Collections include the history of the Benedictines, European history (canon law, Reformation, and Counter-Reformation texts), Biblical studies, liturgical studies, print history, manuscripts, and facsimiles highlighting early manuscript history. HMML's office and Reading Room in Collegeville, Minnesota, are open to the public . The on-site collections—such as microfilms of manuscripts, Art & Photographs , and Special Collections —can be accessed by contacting HMML, by applying to be
4606-492: The best image quality so a high-quality copy can be maintained over time. In the mid-long term, digital storage would be regarded as the more expensive part to maintain the digital archives due to the increasing number of scanning requests. However, smaller institutions may not be able to afford such equipment or manpower, which limits how much material can be digitized, so archivists and librarians must know what their patrons need and prioritize digitization of those items. To help
4704-449: The digital preservation field. Sometimes digitization and digital preservation are mistaken for the same thing. They are different, but digitization is often a vital first step in digital preservation. Libraries, archives, museums, and other memory institutions digitize items to preserve fragile materials and create more access points for patrons. Doing this creates challenges for information professionals and solutions can be as varied as
4802-458: The digitization process, scanning resolutions, and preferred file formats. Some of these standards are: A list of archival standards for digital preservation can be found on the ARL website. The Library of Congress has constituted a Preservation Digital Reformatting Program. The Three main components of the program include: Audio media offers a rich source of historic ethnographic information, with
4900-844: The earliest forms of recorded sound dating back to 1890. According to the International Association of Sound and Audiovisual Archives (IASA), these sources of audio data, as well as the aging technologies used to play them back, are in imminent danger of permanent loss due to degradation and obsolescence. These primary sources are called “carriers” and exist in a variety of formats, including wax cylinders, magnetic tape, and flat discs of grooved media, among others. Some formats are susceptible to more severe, or quicker, degradation than others. For instance, lacquer discs suffer from delamination . Analog tape may deteriorate due to sticky shed syndrome . Archival workflow and file standardization have been developed to minimize loss of information from
4998-491: The expectation that everything should already be online. The time spent planning, doing the work, and processing the digital files along with the expense and fragility of some materials are some of the most common. Digitization is a time-consuming process, even more so when the condition or format of the analog resources requires special handling. Deciding what part of a collection to digitize can sometimes take longer than digitizing it in its entirety. Each digitization project
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#17328591497565096-402: The field can attend conferences and join organizations and working groups to keep their knowledge current and add to the conversation. The term digitization is often used when diverse forms of information, such as an object, text, sound, image, or voice, are converted into a single binary code . The core of the process is the compromise between the capturing device and the player device so that
5194-456: The fields of humanitarian assistance and poverty alleviation. Funding sources include membership dues, the sale of goods and services, grants from international institutions or national governments, corporate social responsibility (CSR) funds and private donations. Although the term "non-governmental organization" implies independence from governments, many NGOs depend on government funding; one-fourth of Oxfam 's US$ 162 million 1998 income
5292-475: The following ways;: Similar terms include third-sector organization (TSO), nonprofit organization (NPO), voluntary organization (VO), civil society organization (CSO), grassroots organization (GO), social movement organization (SMO), private voluntary organization (PVO), self-help organization (SHO), and non-state actors (NSAs). Numerous variations exist for the NGO acronym, either due to language, region, or specificity. Some Romance languages use
5390-477: The forces that controlled them, whatever the governments concerned might think about the matter." Some NGOs, such as Greenpeace , do not accept funding from governments or intergovernmental organizations. The 1999 budget of the American Association of Retired Persons ( AARP ) was over $ 540 million. In America, government funding of NGOs relating to immigration is common, and is one of the stated methods
5488-824: The ground by other organizations. Management techniques are crucial to project success. The World Bank classifies NGO activity into two general categories: NGOs may also conduct both activities: operational NGOs will use campaigning techniques if they face issues in the field, which could be remedied by policy change, and campaigning NGOs (such as human-rights organizations ) often have programs which assist individual victims for whom they are trying to advocate. Operational NGOs seek to "achieve small-scale change directly through projects", mobilizing financial resources, materials, and volunteers to create local programs. They hold large-scale fundraising events and may apply to governments and organizations for grants or contracts to raise money for projects. Operational NGOs often have
5586-483: The information institutions to better decide the archives worth of digitization, Casablancas and other researchers used a proposed model to investigate the impact of different digitization strategies on the decrease in access requests in the archival and library reading rooms. Often the cost of time and expertise involved with describing materials and adding metadata is more than the digitization process. Some materials, such as brittle books, are so fragile that undergoing
5684-579: The institutions that implement them. Some analog materials, such as audio and video tapes, are nearing the end of their life cycle, and it is important to digitize them before equipment obsolescence and media deterioration makes the data irretrievable. There are challenges and implications surrounding digitization including time, cost, cultural history concerns, and creating an equitable platform for historically marginalized voices. Many digitizing institutions develop their own solutions to these challenges. Mass digitization projects have had mixed results over
5782-401: The items for digital collections. It can be time consuming to make sure all potential copyright holders have given permission, but if copyright cannot be determined or cleared, it may be necessary to restrict even digital materials to in library use. Institutions can make digitization more cost-effective by planning before a project begins, including outlining what they hope to accomplish and
5880-627: The late 20th century. Areas of focus include the graphic arts, liturgical art, monasticism in art, and printing—totaling more than 6,000 original woodcuts, engravings, etchings, and lithographs. Ceramics and archaeological objects are also represented in the collection. After HMML staff catalog the artwork and photographs, data and digital images are made available online in HMML Museum . A teaching and research collection providing access to more than 11,000 printed books and hundreds of manuscripts. Composed of five distinct collections, with materials spanning
5978-624: The latter including projects in Germany, Spain, and Malta. In 1973, The Malta Study Center was established at HMML to preserve and make accessible the handwritten culture of Malta and the Sovereign Military Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes, and of Malta (also known as the Order of Malta ). The Center has since photographed and cataloged materials located in various repositories in Europe and
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#17328591497566076-931: The libraries and manuscripts of Timbuktu, Djenné, and other locations. HMML partnered with several organizations to complete this work, including the NGO SAVAMA-DCI, which helped digitize hundreds of thousands of manuscripts that had been evacuated from Timbuktu to Bamako before the rebel occupation of the city in 2012. Since its founding, HMML and its partners have photographed approximately 450,000 manuscripts; of those, more than 100,000 manuscripts have been cataloged and represented online in HMML Reading Room . HMML digitally preserves, catalogs, and provides free access to manuscript collections worldwide, giving special priority to manuscripts located in regions endangered by war, political instability, and other threats. Partnerships and contracts with libraries, archives, and other manuscript repositories allow HMML to create digital images of
6174-462: The manuscripts in their collections and to share these images online. Digitization is done entirely through local teams, with HMML providing equipment, training, technical support, and payment. Everything in a collection is photographed, because none of us know what might be significant in the future. Copies of the digital photographs are given to the library that holds the manuscripts, as well as commercial and publication rights to those images. None of
6272-467: The million-dollar salaries of CEOS and the use of funds for "music therapy" and "pet therapy" as a worrying sign that the money might not be appropriated to help the migrant crisis, but rather as a political move to keep wealthy backers loyal. Overhead is the amount of money spent on running an NGO, rather than on projects. It includes office expenses, salaries, and banking and bookkeeping costs. An NGO's percentage of its overall budget spent on overhead
6370-715: The minimum amount of equipment, time, and effort that can meet those goals. If a budget needs more money to cover the cost of equipment or staff, an institution might investigate if grants are available. Collaborations between institutions have the potential to save money on equipment, staff, and training as individual members share their equipment, manpower, and skills rather than pay outside organizations to provide these services. Collaborations with donors can build long-term support of current and future digitization projects. Outsourcing can be an option if an institution does not want to invest in equipment but since most vendors require an inventory and basic metadata for materials, this
6468-432: The number of possible values of the signal at a given time , as well as in the number of points in the signal in a given period of time. However, digital signals are discrete in both of those respects – generally a finite sequence of integers – therefore a digitization can, in practical terms, only ever be an approximation of the signal it represents. Digitization occurs in two parts: In general, these can occur at
6566-500: The number of the country's primary schools and health centers. The United States, by comparison, has approximately 1.5 million NGOs. NGOs further the social goals of their members (or founders): improving the natural environment , encouraging the observance of human rights , improving the welfare of the disadvantaged, or representing a corporate agenda. Their goals cover a wide range of issues. They may fund local NGOs, institutions and projects, and implement projects. NGOs can be in
6664-522: The object, and digital form , for the signal. In modern practice, the digitized data is in the form of binary numbers , which facilitates processing by digital computers and other operations, but digitizing simply means "the conversion of analog source material into a numerical format"; the decimal or any other number system can be used instead. Digitization is of crucial importance to data processing, storage, and transmission, because it "allows information of all kinds in all formats to be carried with
6762-402: The only option for continued use. In the context of libraries, archives, and museums, digitization is a means of creating digital surrogates of analog materials, such as books, newspapers, microfilm and videotapes, offers a variety of benefits, including increasing access, especially for patrons at a distance; contributing to collection development, through collaborative initiatives; enhancing
6860-452: The original carrier to the resulting digital file as digitization is underway. For most at-risk formats (magnetic tape, grooved cylinders, etc.), a similar workflow can be observed. Examination of the source carrier will help determine what, if any, steps need to be taken to repair material prior to transfer. A similar inspection must be undertaken for the playback machines. If satisfactory conditions are met for both carrier and playback machine,
6958-589: The original manuscripts are ever removed from a library by HMML. HMML employs staff in the U.S. and other countries to catalog the manuscript images and make them freely available online in HMML Reading Room . HMML has photographed manuscripts located in Africa (Egypt, Ethiopia, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, and South Africa), Asia (India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Turkey), Europe (Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Montenegro, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and Ukraine),
7056-455: The party with the larger valuation need not be optimal when the public good is partially excludable, when both NGO and government may be indispensable, or when the NGO and the government have different bargaining powers. Moreover, the investment technology can matter for the optimal ownership structure when there are bargaining frictions, when the parties interact repeatedly or when the parties are asymmetrically informed. Today we celebrate
7154-478: The party with the more important investment task should be owner. Yet, Besley and Ghatak have argued that in the context of public projects the investment technology does not matter. Specifically, even when the government is the key investor, ownership by an NGO is optimal if and only if the NGO has a larger valuation of the project than the government. However, the general validity of this argument has been questioned by follow-up research. In particular, ownership by
7252-434: The potential for research and education; and supporting preservation activities. Digitization can provide a means of preserving the content of the materials by creating an accessible facsimile of the object in order to put less strain on already fragile originals. For sounds, digitization of legacy analog recordings is essential insurance against technological obsolescence. A fundamental aspect of planning digitization projects
7350-1192: The practice of building and maintaining partnerships with other organizations, stakeholders, and governments to achieve common objectives related to social or environmental issues. NGOs often work in complex environments, where multiple stakeholders have different interests and goals. Diplomacy allows NGOs to navigate these complex environments and engage in constructive dialogue with different actors to promote understanding, build consensus, and facilitate cooperation. Effective NGO diplomacy involves building trust, fostering dialogue, and promoting transparency and accountability. NGOs may engage in diplomacy through various means such as including advocacy, lobbying, partnerships, and negotiations. By working collaboratively with other organizations and stakeholders, NGOs can achieve greater impact and reach their goals more effectively. Tanzanian author and academic Issa G. Shivji has criticised NGOs in two essays: "Silences in NGO discourse: The role and future of NGOs in Africa" and "Reflections on NGOs in Tanzania: What we are, what we are not and what we ought to be". Shivji writes that despite
7448-509: The process of digitization could damage them irreparably. Despite potential damage, one reason for digitizing fragile materials is because they are so heavily used that creating a digital surrogate will help preserve the original copy long past its expected lifetime and increase access to the item. Copyright is not only a problem faced by projects like Google Books , but by institutions that may need to contact private citizens or institutions mentioned in archival documents for permission to scan
7546-653: The processed image. Digitization of analog tapes before they degrade, or after damage has already occurred, can rescue the only copies of local and traditional cultural music for future generations to study and enjoy. Academic and public libraries, foundations, and private companies like Google are scanning older print books and applying optical character recognition (OCR) technologies so they can be keyword searched, but as of 2006, only about 1 in 20 texts had been digitized. Librarians and archivists are working to increase this statistic and in 2019 began digitizing 480,000 books published between 1923 and 1964 that had entered
7644-497: The public and coordinate large-scale collective activities to advance an activist agenda. Since the end of the Cold War , more NGOs in developed countries have pursued international outreach. By being involved in local and national social resistance, they have influenced domestic policy change in the developing world. Specialized NGOs have forged partnerships, built networks, and found policy niches. Track II diplomacy (or dialogue)
7742-416: The public domain. Unpublished manuscripts and other rare papers and documents housed in special collections are being digitized by libraries and archives , but backlogs often slow this process and keep materials with enduring historical and research value hidden from most users (see digital libraries ). Digitization has not completely replaced other archival imaging options, such as microfilming which
7840-511: The rendered result represents the original source with the most possible fidelity, and the advantage of digitization is the speed and accuracy in which this form of information can be transmitted with no degradation compared with analog information. Digital information exists as one of two digits, either 0 or 1. These are known as bits (a contraction of binary digits ) and the sequences of 0s and 1s that constitute information are called bytes . Analog signals are continuously variable, both in
7938-404: The same efficiency and also intermingled." Though analog data is typically more stable, digital data has the potential to be more easily shared and accessed and, in theory, can be propagated indefinitely without generation loss, provided it is migrated to new, stable formats as needed . This potential has led to institutional digitization projects designed to improve access and the rapid growth of
8036-478: The same number of qualifications . However, in many cases NGOs employees receive more fringe benefits. NGOs are usually funded by donations, but some avoid formal funding and are run by volunteers. NGOs may have charitable status, or may be tax-exempt in recognition of their social purposes. Others may be fronts for political, religious, or other interests. Since the end of World War II , NGOs have had an increased role in international development , particularly in
8134-420: The same time, though they are conceptually distinct. A series of digital integers can be transformed into an analog output that approximates the original analog signal. Such a transformation is called a digital-to-analog conversion . The sampling rate and the number of bits used to represent the integers combine to determine how close such an approximation to the analog signal a digitization will be. The term
8232-877: The scope of HMML's work widened to include libraries of more religious orders, as well as universities and national libraries. By the end of the twentieth century, HMML had created an manuscript archive on more than 90,000 reels of microfilm, with some reels containing images of dozens of manuscripts. In 2003, advancements in digital photography made it possible to capture high-resolution color images of manuscript pages using cost-effective, durable equipment, and HMML stopped photographing manuscripts with microfilm, instead creating preservation copies through digital imaging. Microfilm images are digitally scanned for access and long-term preservation. All digital images and cataloging are made available online in HMML Reading Room and Museum . Columba Stewart became HMML's executive director in 2003, and HMML began its first digitization projects in
8330-462: The service, issues of copyright law violations threaten to derail the project. However, it does provide – at the very least – an online consortium for libraries to exchange information and for researchers to search for titles as well as review the materials. Digitizing something is not the same as digitally preserving it. To digitize something is to create a digital surrogate (copy or format) of an existing analog item (book, photograph, or record) and
8428-561: The study of Syriac, Classical Armenian, and Coptic. Since 2021, HMML has offered an additional summer course, “Introduction to Arabic Manuscript Studies.” The latter supports the study of Arabic manuscripts in historical, cultural, and material dimensions, and provide basic introduction to paleography, codicology , and philological practices. HMML also offers a year-round program of temporary exhibits of manuscripts and rare books drawn from its collections, as well as public events and travel opportunities. Digitization Digitization
8526-499: The synonymous abbreviation ONG ; for example: Other acronyms that are typically used to describe non-governmental organizations include: Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play a vital role in improving the lives of people who have been affected by natural disasters or are facing other challenges. NGOs can act as implementers, catalysts, and partners to provide essential goods and services to those in need. They work to mobilize resources, both financial and human, to ensure that aid
8624-638: The time of the 1932–1934 World Disarmament Conference . The term became popular with the 1945 founding of the United Nations in 1945; Article 71 in Chapter X of its charter stipulated consultative status for organizations which are neither governments nor member states. An international NGO was first defined in resolution 288 (X) of the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) on February 27, 1950, as "any international organization that
8722-449: The tools of the incomplete contracting theory. According to this theory, not every detail of a relationship between decision makers can be contractually specified. Hence, in the future, the parties will bargain with each other to adapt their relationship to changing circumstances. Ownership matters because it determines the parties' willingness to make non-contractible investments. In the context of private firms, Oliver Hart has shown that
8820-547: The transfer can take place, moderated by an analog-to-digital converter . The digital signal is then represented visually for the transfer engineer by a digital audio workstation , like Audacity, WaveLab, or Pro Tools. Reference access copies can be made at smaller sample rates. For archival purposes, it is standard to transfer at a sample rate of 96 kHz and a bit depth of 24 bits per channel. Many libraries, archives, museums, and other memory institutions, struggle with catching up and staying current regarding digitization and
8918-441: The type of activities an NGO undertakes, such as activities involving human rights , consumer protection , environmentalism , health , or development; and (2) level of operation, which indicates the scale at which an organization works: local, regional, national, or international. Russia had about 277,000 NGOs in 2008. India is estimated to have had about 2 million NGOs in 2009 (approximately one per 600 Indians), many more than
9016-621: The vertical axis, and assigns them a numerical value, while quantizing looks for measurements that are between binary values and rounds them up or down. Nearly all recorded music has been digitized, and about 12 percent of the 500,000+ movies listed on the Internet Movie Database are digitized and were released on DVD . Digitization of home movies , slides , and photographs is a popular method of preserving and sharing personal multimedia. Slides and photographs may be scanned quickly using an image scanner , but analog video requires
9114-466: The world's largest digital collection of ancient manuscripts. Additionally, HMML's reference collection holds approximately 50,000 volumes on topics related to manuscripts, printed books, art, and liturgy. HMML's Special Collections and Art & Photographs collection contain more than 11,000 rare books and 7,000 art objects. Once photographed and cataloged, the manuscripts and artwork are made available online in HMML Reading Room and Museum . HMML
9212-571: The years, but some institutions have had success even if not in the traditional Google Books model. Although e-books have undermined the sales of their printed counterparts, a study from 2017 indicated that the two cater to different audiences and use-cases. In a study of over 1400 university students it was found that physical literature is more apt for intense studies while e-books provide a superior experience for leisurely reading. Technological changes can happen often and quickly, so digitization standards are difficult to keep updated. Professionals in
9310-485: Was attended by representatives of over 1,000 NGOs. The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro , attended by about 2,400 representatives, was the first to demonstrate the power of international NGOs in environmental issues and sustainable development. Transnational NGO networking has become extensive. Although NGOs are subject to national laws and practices, four main groups may be found worldwide: The Council of Europe drafted
9408-635: Was donated by the British government and the EU, and World Vision United States collected $ 55 million worth of goods in 1998 from the American government. Several EU grants provide funds accessible to NGOs. Government funding of NGOs is controversial, since "the whole point of humanitarian intervention was precise that NGOs and civil society had both a right and an obligation to respond with acts of aid and solidarity to people in need or being subjected to repression or want by
9506-544: Was founded in 1965 on the campus of Saint John's Abbey and University in Collegeville, Minnesota . The creation of HMML was a response to the global threat of the Cold War and the loss of manuscripts and books in European libraries during World War I and World War II . Preservation copies were made by microfilming each manuscript page then cataloging (library science) the photographic copies. The idea to establish HMML
9604-662: Was launched by Saint John's University president Father Colman Barry, and the organization was first led by Father Oliver Kapsner, a trained librarian and linguist. Both were monks at Saint John's Abbey, part of a Benedictine community with a long-standing tradition of copying manuscripts. HMML's first preservation projects were at Benedictine monasteries in Austria, starting in 1965. Over the course of seven years, HMML staff and local technicians created microfilm copies of more than 30,000 manuscripts. The 1970s saw HMML's first projects in Africa and an expansion of HMML's operations in Europe,
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