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152-462: Guinevere ( / ˈ ɡ w ɪ n ɪ v ɪər / GWIN -iv-eer ; Welsh : Gwenhwyfar pronunciation ; Breton : Gwenivar , Cornish : Gwynnever ), also often written in Modern English as Guenevere or Guenever , was, according to Arthurian legend , an early-medieval queen of Great Britain and the wife of King Arthur . First mentioned in popular literature in

304-595: A "deliberate spoof", although this is based on misidentifying Walter, archdeacon of Oxford, as Walter Map , a satirical writer who lived a century later. It continues to have an influence on popular culture. For example, Mary Stewart's Merlin Trilogy and the TV miniseries Merlin both contain large elements taken from the Historia . Two hundred and fifteen medieval manuscripts of the Historia survive, dozens of them copied before

456-441: A Welsh Language Scheme, which indicates its commitment to the equality of treatment principle. This is sent out in draft form for public consultation for a three-month period, whereupon comments on it may be incorporated into a final version. It requires the final approval of the now defunct Welsh Language Board ( Bwrdd yr Iaith Gymraeg ). Thereafter, the public body is charged with implementing and fulfilling its obligations under

608-586: A Welsh-language edge inscription was used on pound coins dated 1985, 1990 and 1995, which circulated in all parts of the UK prior to their 2017 withdrawal. The wording is Pleidiol wyf i'm gwlad (Welsh for 'True am I to my country'), and derives from the national anthem of Wales, " Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau ". UK banknotes are in English only. Some shops employ bilingual signage. Welsh sometimes appears on product packaging or instructions. The UK government has ratified

760-647: A census glossary of terms to support the release of results from the census, including their definition of "main language" as referring to "first or preferred language" (though that wording was not in the census questionnaire itself). The wards in England with the most people giving Welsh as their main language were the Liverpool wards of Central and Greenbank ; and Oswestry South in Shropshire . The wards of Oswestry South (1.15%), Oswestry East (0.86%) and St Oswald (0.71%) had

912-406: A copy of Historia Regum Britanniae , which both Robert and Henry used uncritically as authentic history and subsequently used in their own works, by which means some of Geoffrey's fictions became embedded in popular history. The history of Geoffrey forms the basis for much British lore and literature as well as being a rich source of material for Welsh bards . It became tremendously popular during

1064-575: A detailed list of the Kings of Wales with his ancestry going back to Brutus of Troy. However, Gruffudd's descent was from Locrinus of Scotland and not his brother King Camber of Wales. Otherwise, it is said that in the 8th century, the Welsh monk Nennius wrote the now questioned ancestry list, and that it was Geoffrey who published the king list accepted to date. In an exchange of manuscript material for their own histories, Robert of Torigny gave Henry of Huntington

1216-622: A fleet to Britain, but he is overwhelmed by Cassivellaunus's army and forced to retreat to Gaul. Two years later he makes another attempt, but is again pushed back. Then Cassivellaunus quarrels with one of his dukes, Androgeus, who sends a letter to Caesar asking him to help avenge the duke's honour. Caesar invades once more and besieges Cassivellaunus on a hill. After several days Cassivellaunus offers to make peace with Caesar, and Androgeus, filled with remorse, goes to Caesar to plead with him for mercy. Cassivellaunus pays tribute and makes peace with Caesar, who then returns to Gaul. Cassivelaunus dies and

1368-414: A physician and poison Ambrosius. When the king dies, a comet taking the form of a dragon's head ( pendragon ) appears in the night sky, which Merlin interprets as a sign that Ambrosius is dead and that Uther will be victorious and succeed him. So after defeating his latest enemies, Uther adds "Pendragon" to his name and is crowned king. But another enemy strikes, forcing Uther to make war again. This time he

1520-406: A popular character featured in numerous adaptations of the legend since the 19th-century Arthurian revival. Many modern authors, usually following or inspired by Malory's telling, typically still show Guinevere in her illicit relationship with Lancelot as defining her character. The original Welsh form of the name is Gwenhwyfar (also Guenhuibhar , Gwenhwyvar ), which seems to be cognate with

1672-569: A recurring ' Hades -snatches-Persephone' theme, positing that Guinevere is similar to the Celtic Otherworld bride Étaín , whom Midir , king of the Underworld, carries off from her earthly life. According to Kenneth G. T. Webster , a scenario such as the one from Diu Crône may be an echo of a more ancient lore in which Guinevere is "a fairy queen ravished from her supernatural husband by Arthur of this world and therefore subject to raids which

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1824-479: A single discourse (known in linguistics as code-switching ). Welsh speakers are largely concentrated in the north and west of Wales, principally Gwynedd , Conwy County Borough , Denbighshire , Anglesey , Carmarthenshire , north Pembrokeshire , Ceredigion , parts of Glamorgan , and north-west and extreme south-west Powys . However, first-language and other fluent speakers can be found throughout Wales. Welsh-speaking communities persisted well into

1976-427: A struggle for power that reminds scholars of her prescient connections to the fertility and sovereignty of Britain. Arthur's company saves her, but Valerin kidnaps her again and places her in a magical sleep inside another castle surrounded by snakes, where only the powerful sorcerer Malduc can rescue her. In Heinrich's Diu Crône , Guinevere's captor is her own brother Gotegrim, intending to kill her for refusing to marry

2128-518: A tower in which Mardoc is holding Winlogee , while on the other side Carrado (most likely Caradoc) fights Galvagin (Gawain) as the knights Galvariun and Che (Kay) approach. Isdernus is most certainly an incarnation of Yder ( Edern ap Nudd ), a Celtic hero whose name appears in Culhwch and Olwen . Yeder is actually Guinevere's lover in a nearly-forgotten tradition mentioned in Béroul 's 12th-century Tristan . This

2280-499: A way that "many in the court spoke of it." Guinevere is charged with adultery on three occasions, including once when she is also accused of sorcery. Their now not-so secret affair is finally exposed by Guinevere's sworn enemy and Arthur's half-sister, the enchantress Morgan le Fay who had schemed against her on various occasions (sometimes being foiled in that by Lancelot, who had also defended Guinevere on many other occasions and performed assorted feats in her honour), and proven by two of

2432-410: Is Culhwch and Olwen , in which she is mentioned as Arthur's wife Gwenhwyfar and listed among his most prized possessions, but little more is said about her. It can not be securely dated; one recent assessment of the language by linguist Simon Rodway places it in the second half of the 12th century. The works of Chrétien de Troyes were some of the first to elaborate on the character Guinevere beyond simply

2584-459: Is Guiomar , an early lover of Arthur's half-sister Morgan in several French romances; other cousins of Guinevere include her confidante Elyzabel (Elibel) and Morgan's knight Carrant (or Garaunt, apparently Geraint ). In Perlesvaus , after the death of Guinevere, her relative King Madaglan(s) d'Oriande is a major villain who invades Arthur's lands, trying to force him to abandon Christianity and to marry his sister, Queen Jandree. In Perceforest ,

2736-775: Is Jennifer , from Cornish . The name is given as Guennuuar ( Guennuvar ) in an early Latin text Vita Gildae . Geoffrey of Monmouth rendered it in a Latinized form as Guenhuuara ( Guenhuvara – but some manuscripts and thus modern editions also spell it with an M as in Guenhumara or Ganhumara , possibly stemming from scribal error confusing "uu/uv" for "um") in his Historia Regum Britanniae , further turned into Wenhauer ( Wenhaiuer ) by Layamon ( Gwenayfer in one manuscript) and into both Genoivre and Gahunmare in Wace 's Roman de Brut . Chronicler Gerald of Wales refers to her as Wenneuereia ( Wenneveria ) and

2888-947: Is a Celtic language of the Brittonic subgroup that is native to the Welsh people . Welsh is spoken natively in Wales , by some in England , and in Y Wladfa (the Welsh colony in Chubut Province , Argentina ). It is spoken by smaller numbers of people in Canada and the United States descended from Welsh immigrants, within their households (especially in Nova Scotia ). Historically, it has also been known in English as "British", "Cambrian", "Cambric" and "Cymric". The Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011 gave

3040-595: Is a wicked queen who rules with the victorious Mordred until she is killed by Lancelot, here the last of the Knights of the Round Table ; her corpse is then entombed with the captured Mordred who eats it before starving to death. Layamon's Brut ( c.  1200 ) features a prophetic dream sequence in which Arthur himself hacks Guinevere to pieces after beheading Mordred. Historically, the bones of Guinevere were claimed to have been found buried alongside those of Arthur during

3192-476: Is also the first record we have of the great figure King Lear, and the beginning of the mythical King Arthur figure. For centuries, the Historia was accepted at face value, and much of its material was incorporated into Holinshed 's 16th-century Chronicles . Modern historians have regarded the Historia as a work of fiction with some factual information contained within. John Morris in The Age of Arthur calls it

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3344-585: Is available throughout Europe on satellite and online throughout the UK. Since the digital switchover was completed in South Wales on 31 March 2010, S4C Digidol became the main broadcasting channel and fully in Welsh. The main evening television news provided by the BBC in Welsh is available for download. There is also a Welsh-language radio station, BBC Radio Cymru , which was launched in 1977. Historia Regum Britanniae Although taken as historical well into

3496-564: Is banished, and, after a period of wandering, is directed by the goddess Diana to settle on an island in the western ocean. Brutus lands at Totnes and names the island, then called Albion , "Britain" after himself. Brutus defeats the giants who are the only inhabitants of the island, and establishes his capital, Troia Nova ("New Troy"), on the banks of the Thames; later it is known as Trinovantum , and eventually renamed London. When Brutus dies, his three sons, Locrinus, Kamber and Albanactus, divide

3648-409: Is buried beside Arthur. Medievalist Roger Sherman Loomis suggested that this recurring motif shows that Guinevere "had inherited the role of a Celtic Persephone " (a figure from Greek mythology ). All of these similar tales of abduction by another suitor – and this allegory includes Lancelot, who saves her when she is condemned by Arthur to burn at the stake for her adultery – are demonstrative of

3800-667: Is considered to have lasted from then until the 14th century, when the Modern Welsh period began, which in turn is divided into Early and Late Modern Welsh. The word Welsh is a descendant, via Old English wealh, wielisc , of the Proto-Germanic word * Walhaz , which was derived from the name of the Celtic people known to the Romans as Volcae and which came to refer to speakers of Celtic languages, and then indiscriminately to

3952-476: Is given rule of Brittany to compensate him for not succeeding. After a long period of Roman rule, the Romans decide they no longer wish to defend the island and depart. The Britons are immediately besieged by attacks from Picts , Scots and Danes, especially as their numbers have been depleted due to Conan colonizing Brittany and Maximianus using British troops for his campaigns. In desperation the Britons send letters to

4104-677: Is mentioned elsewhere (besides the Vulgate-inspired tradition). While later romances almost always named King Leodegrance as Guinevere's father, her mother was usually unmentioned, although she was sometimes said to be dead (this is the case in the Middle English romance The Adventures of Arthur , in which the ghost of Guinevere's mother appears to her and Gawain in Inglewood Forest ). Some works name cousins of note, though these too do not usually appear more than once. One of such cousins

4256-598: Is reflected in the later Romance of King Yder , where his lover is Queen Guenloie of Carvain (possibly Caerwent in Wales). Chrétien de Troyes tells another version of Guinevere's abduction, this time by Meliagant ( Maleagant , derived from Melwas) in the 12th-century Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart . The abduction sequence is largely a reworking of that recorded in Caradoc's work, but here

4408-432: Is seduced by Mordred during his ill-fated rebellion against Arthur. In a later medieval Arthurian romance tradition from France, a prominent story arc is the queen's tragic love affair with her husband's chief knight and trusted friend, Lancelot , indirectly causing the death of Arthur and the downfall of the kingdom. This motif had originally appeared in nascent form in the poem Lancelot prior to its vast expansion in

4560-742: Is silent regarding Guinevere's feelings for Arthur but goes so far as to suggest she uses charms or enchantments to win Lancelot's love. Years later, following the Grail Quest , Malory tells his readers that the pair started behaving carelessly in public, stating that "Launcelot began to resort unto the Queene Guinevere again and forget the promise and the perfection that he made in the Quest... and so they loved together more hotter than they did beforehand." They indulged in "privy draughts together" and behaved in such

4712-448: Is succeeded by his brother, Cassibelanus , as Lud's sons Androgeus and Tenvantius are not yet of age. In recompense, Androgeus is made Duke of Kent and Trinovantum (London), and Tenvantius is made Duke of Cornwall . After his conquest of Gaul, Julius Caesar looks over the sea and resolves to order Britain to swear obedience and pay tribute to Rome. His commands are answered by a letter of refusal from Cassivellaunus. Caesar sails

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4864-404: Is succeeded by his nephew Tenvantius, as Androgeus has gone to Rome. Tenvantius is succeeded in turn by his son Kymbelinus , and then Kymbelinus's son Guiderius . Guiderius refuses to pay tribute to emperor Claudius , who then invades Britain. After Guiderius is killed in battle with the Romans, his brother Arvirargus continues the defence, but eventually agrees to submit to Rome, and is given

5016-477: Is taken to the isle of Avalon by Morgan. During the civil war, Guinevere is portrayed as a scapegoat for violence without developing her perspective or motivation. However, after Arthur's death, Guinevere retires to a convent in penitence for her infidelity. (Malory was familiar with the Fontevraud daughter house at Nuneaton, and given the royal connections of its sister house at Amesbury, he chose Amesbury Priory as

5168-447: Is temporarily defeated, gaining final victory only with the help of Duke Gorlois of Cornwall . But while celebrating this victory with Gorlois, he falls in love with the duke's wife, Igerna . This leads to war between Uther Pendragon and Gorlois of Cornwall, during which Uther clandestinely lies with Igerna through the magic of Merlin. Arthur is conceived that night. Then Gorlois is killed and Uther marries Igerna. But he must war against

5320-505: Is the label attached to the Welsh of the 12th to 14th centuries, of which much more remains than for any earlier period. This is the language of nearly all surviving early manuscripts of the Mabinogion , although the tales themselves are certainly much older. It is also the language of the existing Welsh law manuscripts. Middle Welsh is reasonably intelligible to a modern-day Welsh speaker. The Bible translations into Welsh helped maintain

5472-809: Is today is part of the United Kingdom . The books then follow the timeline of the Kings of Britain for the following millennium, until the Roman invasion of Britain and the subsequent founding of medieval kingdoms in Britain. The Historia itself begins with the Trojan Aeneas , who, according to the Aeneid of Virgil , settled in Italy after the Trojan War . His great-grandson Brutus

5624-704: The Cynfeirdd or "Early Poets" – is generally considered to date to the Primitive Welsh period. However, much of this poetry was supposedly composed in the Hen Ogledd , raising further questions about the dating of the material and language in which it was originally composed. This discretion stems from the fact that Cumbric was widely believed to have been the language used in Hen Ogledd. An 8th-century inscription in Tywyn shows

5776-459: The History of Kings which was complied by Geoffrey of Monmouth in the 12th century has since been cited by medieval English and Welsh kings to assert the claim to a kingdom as its ruler. The legend began 3,000 years ago after the Trojan War ( c.  1184 BC ). It was Brutus of Troy 's family who fled modern day Republic of Türkiye to the now country of Italy , then afterwards he sailed to

5928-475: The aithed in which a mysterious stranger kidnaps a married woman and takes her to his home; the husband of the woman then rescues her against insurmountable odds. A seemingly related account was carved into the archivolt of Modena Cathedral in Italy, which most likely predates that telling (as well as any other known written account of Guinevere in Arthurian legend). Here, Artus de Bretania and Isdernus approach

6080-494: The 2016 Australian census , 1,688 people noted that they spoke Welsh. In the 2011 Canadian census , 3,885 people reported Welsh as their first language . According to the 2021 Canadian census , 1,130 people noted that Welsh was their mother tongue. The 2018 New Zealand census noted that 1,083 people in New Zealand spoke Welsh. The American Community Survey 2009–2013 noted that 2,235 people aged five years and over in

6232-461: The 2021 census , 7,349 people in England recorded Welsh to be their "main language". In the 2011 census, 1,189 people aged three and over in Scotland noted that Welsh was a language (other than English) that they used at home. It is believed that there are as many as 5,000 speakers of Patagonian Welsh . In response to the question 'Does the person speak a language other than English at home?' in

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6384-539: The British Isles , specifically Totnes in England, where the Brutus Stone is found today. Then, Brutus divided the island of Great Britain between his three sons as leaders of respective countries. Locrinus was his eldest and was given England to rule, Albanactus was given Scotland , and Camber , the third son became the ruler of Wales , all three makes up the countries of Britain ( Latin : Brittonum ), which

6536-525: The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in respect of Welsh. The language has greatly increased its prominence since the creation of the television channel S4C in November 1982, which until digital switchover in 2010 broadcast 70 per cent of Channel 4's programming along with a majority of Welsh language shows during peak viewing hours. The all-Welsh-language digital station S4C Digidol

6688-622: The Galfridian works Geoffrey to Robert III of Scotland . Glyndwr referenced himself as the Prince of Wales and a direct descendant and heir of the son of Brutus of Troy, King Camber, and also of later the medieval King Cadwaladr . The work of Geoffrey of Monmouth was considered to take inspiration from the Latin publication of the life of 11th and 12th century King Gruffudd ap Cynan (written from 1137), finished by Gerald of Wales . Gruffudd's biography has

6840-475: The Harleian Genealogies ) and king-lists, the poems of Taliesin , the Welsh tale Culhwch and Olwen , and some of the medieval Welsh saints' lives, expanded and turned into a continuous narrative by Geoffrey's own imagination. The medieval works are deemed to be drawn from traditional Celtic materials and are supposed to have deep roots to the point that the publications are considered reliable and not

6992-551: The High Middle Ages , revolutionising views of British history before and during the Anglo-Saxon period despite the criticism of such writers as Gerald of Wales and William of Newburgh , who stated "no one but a person ignorant of ancient history [can doubt] how impertinently and impudently he falsifies in every respect." . The prophecies of Merlin in particular were often drawn on in later periods, for instance by both sides in

7144-714: The Middle German romances by Hartmann von Aue and Ulrich von Zatzikhoven but was written Jenover by Der Pleier , and the audience of Italian romances got to know her as Ginevra ( Zenevra , Zenibra ). In the 15th-century Britain, she was called Gwynnever in the Middle Cornish play Bewnans Ke , while the Middle English author Thomas Malory originally wrote her name as Gwenever or Gwenivere ( Guenever , Guenivere ) in his seminal compilation Le Morte d'Arthur . Some assorted other forms of her name in

7296-461: The Norman world in the 11th–12th centuries. The remainder are obscure. After Aurelius Ambrosius defeats and kills Vortigern , becoming king, Britain remains in a state of war under him and his brother Uther. They are both assisted by the wizard Merlin. At one point during the continuous string of battles, Ambrosius takes ill and Uther must lead the army for him. This allows an enemy assassin to pose as

7448-727: The Polish name for Italians) have a similar etymology. The Welsh term for the language, Cymraeg , descends from the Brythonic word combrogi , meaning 'compatriots' or 'fellow countrymen'. Welsh evolved from Common Brittonic , the Celtic language spoken by the ancient Celtic Britons . Classified as Insular Celtic , the British language probably arrived in Britain during the Bronze Age or Iron Age and

7600-477: The Saxons under Hengist and Horsa to fight for him as mercenaries, but they rise against him. He loses control of much of his land and encounters Merlin . At this point Geoffrey abruptly pauses his narrative by inserting a series of prophecies attributed to Merlin . Some of the prophecies act as an epitome of upcoming chapters of the Historia , while others are veiled allusions to historical people and events of

7752-629: The Strata Florida Abbey in Wales, and then translated by Hywel Fychan ap Hywel Goch of Buellt into Latin- Welsh during 1250 in the manuscript Chronicle of Kings ( Welsh : Brut y Brenhinedd ). Both of which are part of the medieval manuscripts of Wales ( Wales Library collection ), a lot of which are kept at the National Library of Wales in Aberystwyth today. Geoffrey's work was to do with

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7904-618: The United States spoke Welsh at home. The highest number of those (255) lived in Florida . Sources: Calls for the Welsh language to be granted official status grew with the establishment of the nationalist political party Plaid Cymru in 1925, the establishment of the Welsh Language Society in 1962 and the rise of Welsh nationalism in the later 20th century. Of the six living Celtic languages (including two revived), Welsh has

8056-414: The "Summer Country" ( Aestiva Regio , perhaps meaning Somerset ), and held prisoner at his stronghold at Glastonbury . The story states that Arthur (depicted there as a tyrannical ruler) spent a year searching for her and assembling an army to storm Melwas' fort when Gildas negotiates a peaceful resolution and reunites husband and wife. The episode seems to be related to an Old Irish abduction motif called

8208-525: The "hugely important role", adding, "I look forward to working with the Welsh Government and organisations in Wales in developing the new system of standards. I will look to build on the good work that has been done by the Welsh Language Board and others to strengthen the Welsh language and ensure that it continues to thrive." First Minister Carwyn Jones said that Huws would act as a champion for

8360-425: The 16th century, it is now considered to have no value as history. When events described, such as Julius Caesar 's invasions of Britain , can be corroborated from contemporary histories, Geoffrey's account can be seen to be wildly inaccurate. It remains, however, a valuable piece of medieval literature, which contains the earliest known version of the story of King Lear and his three daughters, and helped popularise

8512-589: The 1880s identified a small part of Shropshire as still then speaking Welsh, with the "Celtic Border" passing from Llanymynech through Oswestry to Chirk . The number of Welsh-speaking people in the rest of Britain has not yet been counted for statistical purposes. In 1993, the Welsh-language television channel S4C published the results of a survey into the numbers of people who spoke or understood Welsh, which estimated that there were around 133,000 Welsh-speaking people living in England, about 50,000 of them in

8664-522: The 1993 Act nor secondary legislation made under it covers the private sector, although some organisations, notably banks and some railway companies, provide some of their information in Welsh. On 7 December 2010, the Welsh Assembly unanimously approved a set of measures to develop the use of the Welsh language within Wales. On 9 February 2011 this measure, the Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011 ,

8816-479: The Alliterative Morte Arthure , Guinevere willingly becomes Mordred 's consort and bears him two sons, although the dying Arthur commands her and Mordred's infant children to be secretly killed and their bodies tossed into the sea (yet Guinevere, who unlike Mordred seems to show little care for the safety of their children, herself to be spared, as he forgives her). There are mentions of Arthur's sons in

8968-430: The Assembly which confirms the official status of the Welsh language; which creates a strong advocate for Welsh speakers and will improve the quality and quantity of services available through the medium of Welsh. I believe that everyone who wants to access services in the Welsh language should be able to do so, and that is what this government has worked towards. This legislation is an important and historic step forward for

9120-438: The British tongue", given to him by Walter, Archdeacon of Oxford . However, no modern scholars take this claim seriously. Much of the work appears to be derived from Gildas 's 6th-century De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae , Bede 's 8th-century Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , the 9th-century Historia Brittonum ascribed to Nennius , the 10th-century Annales Cambriae , medieval Welsh genealogies (such as

9272-419: The English poems Alliterative Morte Arthure and The Awntyrs off Arthure , Genure ( Gaynor ) in the Stanzaic Morte Arthur , Guenloie in the Romanz du reis Yder , Guenore in Sir Gawayn and þe Grene Knyȝt , Gwenvere ( Guennevere , Guenera , Gwenner ) in the Polychronicon , and Gwendoloena ( Gwendolen ) in De Ortu Waluuanii . Her name is invariably Ginover ( Ginovere ) in

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9424-434: The Great", as a contrast to Gwenhwy-fach , or "Gwenhwy the less". Gwenhwyfach (also spelled Gwenhwyach ) appears in Welsh literature as a sister of Gwenhwyfar, but Welsh scholars Melville Richards and Rachel Bromwich both dismiss this etymology (with Richards suggesting that Gwenhwyfach was a back-formation derived from an incorrect interpretation of Gwenwhy-far as Gwenhwy-fawr ). A cognate name in Modern English

9576-434: The Greater London area. The Welsh Language Board , on the basis of an analysis of the Office for National Statistics Longitudinal Study, estimated there were 110,000 Welsh-speaking people in England, and another thousand in Scotland and Northern Ireland. In the 2011 census , 8,248 people in England gave Welsh in answer to the question "What is your main language?" The Office for National Statistics subsequently published

9728-423: The Irish name Findabar (the name of the daughter of Queen Medb and Ailill mac Máta in the Ulster Cycle ); Gwenhwyfar can be translated as "The White Fay/Ghost", from Proto-Celtic *Windo- "white" + *sēbro "phantom" (cognate with Old Irish síabar "a spectre, phantom, supernatural being [usually in pejorative sense]"). Some have suggested that the name may derive from Gwenhwy-fawr , or "Gwenhwy

9880-410: The Middle Ages and Renaissance literature of various countries and languages have included Ganor , Ganora , Gainor , Gainovere , Geneura , Guanora , Gueneour , Guenevera , Gwenore , Gwinore , Ntzenebra , Vanour , Vanore ( Wanore ). In one of the Welsh Triads ( Trioedd Ynys Prydein , no. 56), the 13th-century series of texts based on the earlier oral tales of

10032-460: The Roman leader Lucius Tiberius . While her husband is absent, Guinevere is seduced by Modredus and marries him, and Modredus declares himself king and takes Arthur's throne. Consequently, Arthur returns to Britain and fights Modredus at the fatal Battle of Camlann. The Roman de Brut ( Geste des Bretons ) makes Mordred's love for Guinevere the very motive of his rebellion. Early texts tend to portray her inauspiciously or hardly at all. One of them

10184-628: The Saxons again. Although Uther ultimately triumphs, he dies after drinking water from a spring the Saxons had poisoned. Uther's son Arthur assumes the throne and inflicts a severe enough defeat against the Saxons that they cease to be a threat until after his death. In the meantime, Arthur conquers most of northern Europe and ushers in a period of peace and prosperity that lasts until the Romans, led by Lucius Hiberius , demands that Britain once again pay tribute to Rome. Arthur defeats Lucius in Gaul, intending to become Emperor, but in his absence, his nephew Mordred seduces and marries Guinevere and seizes

10336-432: The Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011, all new signs have Welsh displayed first. There have been incidents of one of the languages being vandalised, which may be considered a hate crime . Since 2000, the teaching of Welsh has been compulsory in all schools in Wales up to age 16; this has had an effect in stabilising and reversing the decline in the language. Text on UK coins tends to be in English and Latin. However,

10488-436: The Welsh Language Scheme. The list of other public bodies which have to prepare Schemes could be added to by initially the Secretary of State for Wales, from 1993 to 1997, by way of statutory instrument . Subsequent to the forming of the National Assembly for Wales in 1997, the Government Minister responsible for the Welsh language can and has passed statutory instruments naming public bodies who have to prepare Schemes. Neither

10640-428: The Welsh Triads, though their exact parentage is not clear. Besides the issue of her biological children, or lack thereof, Guinevere also raises the illegitimate daughter of Sagramore and Senehaut in the Livre d'Artus . Other relations are equally obscure. A half-sister and a brother named Gotegin play the antagonistic roles in the Vulgate Cycle ( Lancelot–Grail ) and Diu Crône respectively, but neither character

10792-421: The Welsh language official status in Wales. Welsh and English are de jure official languages of the Welsh Parliament, the Senedd , with Welsh being the only de jure official language in any part of the United Kingdom, with English being merely de facto official. According to the 2021 census , the Welsh-speaking population of Wales aged three or older was 538,300 (17.8%) and nearly three quarters of

10944-515: The Welsh language, though some had concerns over her appointment: Plaid Cymru spokeswoman Bethan Jenkins said, "I have concerns about the transition from Meri Huws's role from the Welsh Language Board to the language commissioner, and I will be asking the Welsh government how this will be successfully managed. We must be sure that there is no conflict of interest, and that the Welsh Language Commissioner can demonstrate how she will offer

11096-481: The Welsh of the 16th century, but they are similar enough for a fluent Welsh speaker to have little trouble understanding it. During the Modern Welsh period, there has been a decline in the popularity of the Welsh language: the number of Welsh speakers declined to the point at which there was concern that the language would become extinct. During industrialisation in the late 19th century, immigrants from England led to

11248-654: The Welsh-speaking heartlands, with the number dropping to under 50 per cent in Ceredigion and Carmarthenshire for the first time. However, according to the Welsh Language Use Survey in 2019–20, 22 per cent of people aged three and over were able to speak Welsh. The Annual Population Survey (APS) by the Office for National Statistics (ONS) estimated that as of March 2024, approximately 862,700, or 28.0 per cent of

11400-527: The aid of King Alan of the Armoricans. However an angel's voice tells him the Britons will no longer rule and he should go to Rome. Cadwallader does so, dying there, though leaves his son and nephew to rule the remaining Britons. The remaining Britons are driven into Wales and the Saxon Athelstan becomes King of Loegria. Geoffrey claimed to have translated the Historia into Latin from "a very ancient book in

11552-600: The bards of Wales, there are three Gwenhwyfars married to King Arthur . The first is the daughter of Cywryd of Gwent, the second of Gwythyr ap Greidawl , and the third of (G)ogrfan Gawr ("the Giant"). In a variant of another Welsh Triad ( Trioedd Ynys Prydein , no. 54), only the daughter of Gogfran Gawr is mentioned. There was once a popular folk rhyme known in Wales concerning Gwenhwyfar: " Gwenhwyfar ferch Ogrfan Gawr / Drwg yn fechan, gwaeth yn fawr (Gwenhwyfar, daughter of Ogrfan Gawr / Bad when little, worse when great)." An echo of

11704-456: The census. In terms of usage, ONS also reported that 14.4 per cent (443,800) of people aged three or older in Wales reported that they spoke Welsh daily in March 2024, with 5.4 per cent (165,500) speaking it weekly and 6.5 per cent (201,200) less often. Approximately 1.7 per cent (51,700) reported that they never spoke Welsh despite being able to speak the language, with the remaining 72.0 per cent of

11856-563: The country between themselves; the three kingdoms are named Loegria , Kambria (North and West of the Severn to Humber) and Albany (Scotland). The story then progresses rapidly through the reigns of the descendants of Locrinus, including Bladud , who uses magic and even tries to fly, but dies in the process. Bladud's son Leir reigns for sixty years. He has no sons, so upon reaching old age he decides to divide his kingdom among his three daughters, Goneril, Regan and Cordelia. To decide who should get

12008-414: The course of the 20th century this monolingual population all but disappeared, but a small percentage remained at the time of the 1981 census. Most Welsh-speaking people in Wales also speak English. However, many Welsh-speaking people are more comfortable expressing themselves in Welsh than in English. A speaker's choice of language can vary according to the subject domain and the social context, even within

12160-489: The creation of Old Welsh, Davies suggests it may be more appropriate to refer to this derivative language as Lingua Britannica rather than characterising it as a new language altogether. The argued dates for the period of "Primitive Welsh" are widely debated, with some historians' suggestions differing by hundreds of years. The next main period is Old Welsh ( Hen Gymraeg , 9th to 11th centuries); poetry from both Wales and Scotland has been preserved in this form of

12312-470: The decline in Welsh speakers particularly in the South Wales Valleys. Welsh government processes and legislation have worked to increase the proliferation of the Welsh language, for example through education. Welsh has been spoken continuously in Wales throughout history; however, by 1911, it had become a minority language, spoken by 43.5 per cent of the population. While this decline continued over

12464-597: The different daughters of Lyonnel of Glat (the greatest knight of the ancient Britain) and Queen Blanche of the Forest of Marvels (also known as Blanchete, daughter of the Maimed King and the Fairy Queen) are distant ancestors of both Guinevere and Lancelot , as well of as Tristan . In Geoffrey's Historia , Arthur leaves her as a regent in the care of his nephew Modredus (Mordred) when he crosses over to Europe to go to war with

12616-551: The early 12th century, nearly 700 years after the purported times of Arthur, Guinevere has since been portrayed as everything from a fatally flawed, villainous, and opportunistic traitor to a noble and virtuous lady. Many records of the legend also feature the variably recounted story of her abduction and rescue as a major part of the tale. The earliest datable appearance of Guinevere is in Geoffrey of Monmouth 's pseudo-historical British chronicle Historia Regum Britanniae , in which she

12768-685: The early 13th-century France. However, their affair was soon afterwards directly condemned as sinful, especially in the Post-Vulgate Cycle retelling. Guinevere's role in their relationship in the Vulgate Lancelot is that of Lancelot's "female lord", just as the Lady of the Lake is his "female master". Regarding her characterisation by Malory, she has been described by modern critics as "jealous, unreasonable, possessive, and headstrong," at least through most of

12920-432: The end of the 12th century. Even among the earliest manuscripts a large number of textual variants, such as the so-called "First Variant", can be discerned. These are reflected in the three possible prefaces to the work and in the presence or absence of certain episodes and phrases. Certain variants may be due to "authorial" additions to different early copies, but most probably reflect early attempts to alter, add to or edit

13072-427: The exhumation of their purported graves by the monks of Glastonbury Abbey in 1091. A major and long-running Arthurian story trope features Guinevere being kidnapped and then tells of her rescue by either her husband or her lover. Welsh cleric and author Caradoc of Llancarfan , who wrote his Life of Gildas sometime between 1130 and 1150, recounts her being taken and raped ( violatam et raptam ) by Melwas , king of

13224-574: The fairy knight Gasozein , who falsely claims to be her lover and rightful husband (and who also appears as the young Guinevere's human lover named Gosangos in the Livre d'Artus ), and her saviour is Gawain. In Durmart le Gallois , Guinevere is delivered from her peril by the eponymous hero. In the Livre d'Artus , she is briefly taken prisoner by King Urien during his rebellion against Arthur. The 14th-century Welsh poet Dafydd ap Gwilym alludes to Guinevere's abduction in two of his poems. Another version of

13376-517: The fathering of Galahad ) causes Lancelot to fall into his longest period of madness (which only Elaine is able to eventually cure with the power of the Holy Grail itself). The episode of Lancelot's exile and madness is also included in the Post-Vulgate Suite du Merlin , where it instead serves to accent the pathetic and humiliating nature of Lancelot's illicit relationship with the queen. Malory

13528-635: The figure of Morgan). Guinevere herself wields magical powers in The Rise of Gawain, Nephew of Arthur . The Alliterative Morte Arthure has Guinevere commit the greatest treason by giving Arthur's sword kept in her possession to her lover Mordred in order to be used against her husband. Throughout most of Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur , a late-medieval compilation highly influential for a common perception of Guinevere and many other characters today, she figures as "a conventional lady of [chivalric] romance, imperious, jealous, and demanding, with an occasional trait such as

13680-485: The following decades, the language did not die out. The smallest number of speakers was recorded in 1981 with 503,000 although the lowest percentage was recorded in the most recent census in 2021 at 17.8 per cent. By the start of the 21st century, numbers began to increase once more, at least partly as a result of the increase in Welsh-medium education . The 2004 Welsh Language Use Survey showed that 21.7 per cent of

13832-430: The forceful advances of the sorceress Annowre for her sake, except as a victim of a spell in a variant of the "False Guinevere" case. On her side, Guinevere is often greatly jealous for Lancelot, especially in the case of Elaine of Corbenic , when her reaction to learning about their relationship (which, unknown to her, by this time has been limited only to him being raped-by-deceit by Elaine, including an earlier act of

13984-859: The general of the Roman forces, asking for help, but receive no reply (this passage borrows heavily from the corresponding section in Gildas' De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae ). After the Romans leave, the Britons ask the King of Brittany (Armorica), Aldroenus , descended from Conan, to rule them. However, Aldroenus instead sends his brother Constantine to rule the Britons. After Constantine's death, Vortigern assists his eldest son Constans in succeeding, before enabling their murder and coming to power. Constantine's remaining sons Aurelius Ambrosius and Uther are too young to rule and are taken to safety in Armorica. Vortigern invites

14136-653: The giantess-Guinevere tradition appears in a local legend regarding the Queen's Crag boulder at Simonburn in England. The earliest datable mention of Guinevere (as Guenhuvara, with numerous spelling variations in the surviving manuscripts) is in Geoffrey's Historia , written c. 1136. It relates that Guinevere, described as one of the great beauties of Britain, was educated under Cador , Duke of Cornwall . The other chronicles typically have Cador as her guardian and sometimes relative. According to Wace, who calls Cador an earl , Guinevere

14288-467: The hand of Claudius's daughter Genvissa in marriage. Claudius returns to Rome, leaving the province under Arvirargus's governorship. The line of British kings continues under Roman rule, and includes Lucius , Britain's first Christian king, and several Roman figures, including the emperor Constantine I , the usurper Allectus and the military commander Asclepiodotus . When Octavius passes the crown to his son-in-law Maximianus , his nephew Conan Meriadoc

14440-463: The highest number of native speakers who use the language on a daily basis, and it is the Celtic language which is considered the least endangered by UNESCO . The Welsh Language Act 1993 and the Government of Wales Act 1998 provide that the Welsh and English languages be treated equally in the public sector, as far as is reasonable and practicable. Each public body is required to prepare for approval

14592-469: The highest percentage of residents giving Welsh as their main language. The census also revealed that 3,528 wards in England, or 46% of the total number, contained at least one resident whose main language is Welsh. In terms of the regions of England , North West England (1,945), London (1,310) and the West Midlands (1,265) had the highest number of people noting Welsh as their main language. According to

14744-451: The history of Welsh, with rather indistinct boundaries: Primitive Welsh, Old Welsh, Middle Welsh, and Modern Welsh. The period immediately following the language's emergence is sometimes referred to as Primitive Welsh, followed by the Old Welsh period – which is generally considered to stretch from the beginning of the 9th century to sometime during the 12th century. The Middle Welsh period

14896-578: The history of the British kings who hailed from the Greek Empire and specifically from after the Trojan War (fall of Troy). Then, the books detail the Welsh medieval era during of the Kingdom of Gwynedd , from around 682, culminating in the life of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd until 1282, it was Prince Llywelyn II who referenced Geoffrey's work. Also, another king to cite the books was Prince Owain Glyndwr , he spoke of

15048-606: The imagination of one man, aka Geoffrey. However, since Geoffrey's publication of the Historia Regum Britanniae (De gestis Britonum), his work has been downgraded due to factual errors that were once recorded for the publication of his work i.e. observations to do with Stonehenge . Then, it was merely a century later that Geoffrey's 'The History of Kings' was rewritten and translated in Cistercian monasteries at locations such as Whitland , St Davids Cathedral and later

15200-565: The issue of English influence over Scotland under Edward I and his successors. The Historia was quickly translated into Norman verse by Wace (the Roman de Brut ) in 1155. Wace's version was in turn translated into Middle English verse by Layamon (the Brut ) in the early 13th century. In the second quarter of the 13th century, a version in Latin verse, the Gesta Regum Britanniae ,

15352-485: The kingdom between themselves, but soon quarrel and go to war with each other. Cunedagius eventually kills Marganus in Wales and retains the whole kingdom, ruling for thirty-three years. He is succeeded by his son Rivallo. A later descendant of Cunedagius, King Gorboduc , has two sons called Ferreux and Porrex. They quarrel and both are eventually killed, sparking a civil war. This leads to Britain being ruled by five kings, who keep attacking each other. Dunvallo Molmutius ,

15504-587: The language already dropping inflections in the declension of nouns. Janet Davies proposed that the origins of the Welsh language were much less definite; in The Welsh Language: A History , she proposes that Welsh may have been around even earlier than 600 AD. This is evidenced by the dropping of final syllables from Brittonic: * bardos 'poet' became bardd , and * abona 'river' became afon . Though both Davies and Jackson cite minor changes in syllable structure and sounds as evidence for

15656-547: The language, its speakers and for the nation." The measure was not welcomed warmly by all supporters: Bethan Williams, chairman of the Welsh Language Society, gave a mixed response to the move, saying, "Through this measure we have won official status for the language and that has been warmly welcomed. But there was a core principle missing in the law passed by the Assembly before Christmas. It doesn't give language rights to

15808-546: The language. As Germanic and Gaelic colonisation of Britain proceeded, the Brittonic speakers in Wales were split off from those in northern England, speaking Cumbric, and those in the southwest, speaking what would become Cornish , so the languages diverged. Both the works of Aneirin ( Canu Aneirin , c.  600 ) and the Book of Taliesin ( Canu Taliesin ) were written during this era. Middle Welsh ( Cymraeg Canol )

15960-513: The largest share, he asks his daughters how much they love him. Goneril and Regan give extravagant answers, but Cordelia answers simply and sincerely; angered, he gives Cordelia no land. Goneril and Regan are to share half the island with their husbands, the Dukes of Albany and Cornwall. Cordelia marries Aganippus, King of the Franks, and departs for Gaul. Soon Goneril and Regan and their husbands rebel and take

16112-462: The late King Lot 's sons, Agravain and Mordred. Revealed as a betrayer of his king and friend, Lancelot kills several of Arthur's knights and escapes. Incited to defend honour, Arthur reluctantly sentences his wife to be burnt at the stake. Knowing Lancelot and his family would try to stop the execution, the king sends many of his knights to defend the pyre, though Gawain refuses to participate. Lancelot arrives with his kinsmen and followers and rescues

16264-530: The latter appearing as Guinevere's evil twin in some later prose romances. German romance Diu Crône gives Guinevere two other sisters by their father, King Garlin of Gore: Gawain 's love interest Flori and Queen Lenomie of Alexandria . Guinevere is childless in most stories. The few exceptions to that include Arthur's son named Loholt or Ilinot in Perlesvaus and Parzival (first mentioned in Erec and Enide ). In

16416-460: The legend of King Arthur . Geoffrey starts the book with a statement of his purpose in writing the history: "I have not been able to discover anything at all on the kings who lived here before the Incarnation of Christ, or indeed about Arthur and all the others who followed on after the Incarnation. Yet the deeds of these men were such that they deserve to be praised for all time." He claims that he

16568-441: The lovers spend their first night together just as Arthur sleeps with the beautiful Saxon princess named Camille or Gamille (an evil enchantress whom he later continues to love even after she betrays and imprisons him, though it was suggested that he was enchanted). Arthur is also further unfaithful during the episode of the " False Guinevere " (who had Arthur drink a love potion to betray Guinevere), her own twin half-sister (born on

16720-657: The modern author. In spite of her iconic doomed romance with Lancelot, a number of modern reinterpretations portray her as being manipulated into her affair with Lancelot, with Arthur being her rightful true love. Others present her love for Lancelot as stemming from a relationship that existed prior to her arranged marriage to Arthur, and some do not include the affair at all. In much of modern Arthuriana, Guinevere also assumes more active roles than in her medieval depictions, increasingly even being cast as protagonist. Welsh language Welsh ( Cymraeg [kəmˈraːiɡ] or y Gymraeg [ə ɡəmˈraːiɡ] )

16872-610: The modern period across the border in England. Archenfield was still Welsh enough in the time of Elizabeth I for the Bishop of Hereford to be made responsible, together with the four Welsh bishops, for the translation of the Bible and the Book of Common Prayer into Welsh. Welsh was still commonly spoken there in the first half of the 19th century, and churchwardens' notices were put up in both Welsh and English until about 1860. Alexander John Ellis in

17024-644: The monastery to which Guinevere retires as "abbas and rular", to find her salvation in a life of penance.) Her contrition is sincere and permanent; Lancelot is unable to sway her to come away with him. Guinevere meets Lancelot one last time, refusing to kiss him, then returns to the convent. She spends the remainder of her life as an abbess in joyless sorrow, contrasting with her earlier merry nature. Following her death, Lancelot buries her next to Arthur's (real or symbolic) grave. Modern adaptations of Arthurian legend vary greatly in their depiction of Guinevere, largely because certain aspects of her story must be fleshed out by

17176-579: The mysterious White Knight (Lancelot) arrives from the continent, Guinevere is instantly smitten. The teenage Lancelot first joins the Queen's Knights to serve Guinevere after having been knighted by her. Following Lancelot's early rescue of Guinevere from Maleagant (in Le Morte d'Arthur this episode only happens much later on) and his admission into the Round Table, and with the Lady of the Lake's and Galehaut 's assistance,

17328-588: The narrative is associated in local folklore with Meigle in Scotland, known for its carved Pictish stones . One of the stones, now in the Meigle Sculptured Stone Museum , is said to depict Vanora , the local name for Guinevere. She is said to have been abducted by King Modred (Mordred). When she is eventually returned to Arthur, he has her condemned to death for infidelity and orders that she be torn to pieces by wild beasts, an event said to be shown on Meigle Stone 2 (Queen Venora's Stone). This stone

17480-448: The number of Welsh-language speakers to one million by 2050. Since 1980, the number of children attending Welsh-medium schools has increased, while the number going to Welsh bilingual and dual-medium schools has decreased. Welsh is considered the least endangered Celtic language by UNESCO . The language of the Welsh developed from the language of Britons . The emergence of Welsh was not instantaneous and clearly identifiable. Instead,

17632-497: The other hand, in Marie de France 's probably late-12th-century Anglo-Norman poem Lanval (and Thomas Chestre 's later Middle English version, Sir Launfal ), Guinevere is a viciously vindictive adulteress and temptress who plots the titular protagonist's death after failing to seduce him. She ends up punished when she is magically blinded by his secret true love from Avalon , the fairy princess Lady Tryamour (identified by some as

17784-492: The other world would regard as rescues, but which to the Arthurian world appear as abductions." The following narrative is largely based on the Lancelot-Grail (Vulgate) prose cycle and, consequently, Le Morte d'Arthur as abridged by Thomas Malory with some of his changes. It tells the story of the forbidden romance of Sir Lancelot and Queen Guinevere, initially in accordance to the courtly love conventions still popular in

17936-464: The people of Wales in every aspect of their lives. Despite that, an amendment to that effect was supported by 18 Assembly Members from three different parties, and that was a significant step forward." On 5 October 2011, Meri Huws , Chair of the Welsh Language Board , was appointed the new Welsh Language Commissioner. She released a statement that she was "delighted" to have been appointed to

18088-534: The people of the Western Roman Empire . In Old English the term went through semantic narrowing , coming to refer to either Britons in particular or, in some contexts, slaves. The plural form Wēalas evolved into the name for their territory, Wales. The modern names for various Romance-speaking people in Continental Europe (e.g. Walloons , Valaisans , Vlachs / Wallachians , and Włosi ,

18240-409: The popular romancer Chrétien de Troyes calls her Guenievre ( Guenièvre ). The latter form was retained by the authors of Chrétien-influenced French prose cycles, who would use also its variants such as Genievre ( Genièvre ) or Gueneure . Her many other various names appearing through the different periods and regions of medieval Europe include both Gaynour and Waynour ( Waynor[e] ) in

18392-436: The population in Wales said they had no Welsh language skills. Other estimates suggest that 862,700 people (28.0%) aged three or older in Wales could speak Welsh in March 2024. Almost half of all Welsh speakers consider themselves fluent, while 20 per cent are able to speak a fair amount. 56 per cent of Welsh speakers speak the language daily, and 19 per cent speak the language weekly. The Welsh Government plans to increase

18544-471: The population not being able to speak it. The National Survey for Wales, conducted by Welsh Government, has also tended to report a higher percentage of Welsh speakers than the census, with the most recent results for 2022–2023 suggesting that 18 per cent of the population aged 3 and over were able to speak Welsh, with an additional 16 per cent noting that they had some Welsh-speaking ability. Historically, large numbers of Welsh people spoke only Welsh. Over

18696-502: The population of Wales aged 3 and over, were able to speak the language. Children and young people aged three to 15 years old were more likely to report that they could speak Welsh than any other age group (48.4 per cent, 241,300). Around 1,001,500 people, or 32.5 per cent, reported that they could understand spoken Welsh. 24.7 per cent (759,200) could read and 22.2 per cent (684,500) could write in Welsh. The APS estimates of Welsh language ability are historically higher than those produced by

18848-407: The population of Wales spoke Welsh, compared with 20.8 per cent in the 2001 census , and 18.5 per cent in the 1991 census . Since 2001, however, the number of Welsh speakers has declined in both the 2011 and 2021 censuses to about 538,300 or 17.8 per cent in 2021, lower than 1991, although it is still higher in absolute terms. The 2011 census also showed a "big drop" in the number of speakers in

19000-459: The prose cycle Lancelot-Grail , consequently forming much of the narrative core of Thomas Malory 's seminal English compilation Le Morte d'Arthur . Other themes found in Malory and other texts include Guinevere's usual barrenness, the scheme of Guinevere's evil twin to replace her, and the particular hostility displayed towards Guinevere by her sister-in-law Morgan . Guinevere has continued to be

19152-510: The queen himself and take Arthur's throne. While in some versions of the legend (like the Alliterative Morte Arthure , which removed French romantic additions) Guinevere assents to Mordred's proposal, in the tales of Lancelot she hides in the Tower of London , where she withstands Mordred's siege, and later takes refuge in a nun convent . Hearing of the treachery, Arthur returns to Britain and slays Mordred at Camlann, but his wounds are so severe that he

19304-446: The queen's rescuer is not Arthur (or Yder) but Lancelot, whose adultery with the queen is dealt with for the first time in this poem. In Chrétien's love triangle of Arthur-Guinevere-Lancelot, Lancelot rescues her from the land of Gorre. It has been suggested that Chrétien invented their affair to supply Guinevere with a courtly extramarital lover (as requested by his patroness, Princess Marie ); Mordred could not be used as his reputation

19456-425: The queen's sister Gwenhwyfach and records the enmity between them. Two Triads ( Trioedd Ynys Prydein , no. 53, 84) mention Gwenhwyfar's contention with her sister, which was believed to be the cause of the disastrous Battle of Camlann . In the Welsh prose Culhwch and Olwen (possibly the first known text featuring Guinevere if indeed correctly dated c. 1100), Gwenhwyfach is also mentioned alongside Gwenhwyfar,

19608-491: The queen. Gawain's unarmed brothers Gaheris and Gareth are killed in the battle (among others, including fellow Knights of the Round Aglovale , Segwarides and Tor , and originally also Gawain's third brother Agravain), sending Gawain into a rage so great that he pressures Arthur into a direct confrontation with Lancelot. When Arthur goes after Lancelot to France, he leaves her in the care of Mordred, who plans to marry

19760-457: The required fresh approach to this new role." Huws started her role as the Welsh Language Commissioner on 1 April 2012. Local councils and the Senedd use Welsh, issuing Welsh versions of their literature, to varying degrees. Road signs in Wales are in Welsh and English. Prior to 2016, the choice of which language to display first was the responsibility of the local council. Since then, as part of

19912-687: The same day but from a different mother) whom Arthur takes as his second wife in a very unpopular bigamous move, even refusing to obey the Pope's order for him not to do it, as Guinevere escapes to live with Lancelot in Galehaut's kingdom of Sorelais. The French prose cyclical authors thus intended to justify Guinevere and Lancelot's adultery by blackening Arthur's reputation and thus making it acceptable and sympathetic for their medieval courtly French audience. Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur , however, portrays Arthur as absolutely faithful to Guinevere, even successfully resisting

20064-582: The sense of humor," until she acquires more depth and undergoes major changes to her character at the end of the book, arguably (in the words of Derek Brewer ), becoming "the most fascinating, exasperating, and human of all medieval heroines." Such varied tellings may be radically different in not just their depictions of Guinevere but also the manners of her demise. In the Italian 15th-century romance La Tavola Ritonda , Guinevere drops dead from grief upon learning of her husband's fate after Lancelot rescues her from

20216-577: The shift occurred over a long period, with some historians claiming that it had happened by as late as the 9th century , with a watershed moment being that proposed by linguist Kenneth H. Jackson , the Battle of Dyrham , a military battle between the West Saxons and the Britons in 577 AD, which split the South Western British from direct overland contact with the Welsh. Four periods are identified in

20368-479: The siege by Arthur's slayer Mordred. In Perlesvaus , it is Kay 's murder of her son Loholt that causes Guinevere to die of anguish; she is then buried in Avalon, together with her son's severed head. Alternatively, in what Arthurian scholars Geoffrey Ashe and Norris J. Lacy call one of "strange episodes" of Ly Myreur des Histors , a romanticized historical/legendary work by Belgian author Jean d'Outremeuse , Guinevere

20520-474: The so-called Brut Tysilio , was proposed in 1917 by the archaeologist William Flinders Petrie to be the ancient British book that Geoffrey translated, although the Brut itself claims to have been translated from Latin by Walter of Oxford, based on his own earlier translation from Welsh to Latin. Geoffrey's work is greatly important because it brought the Welsh culture into British society and made it acceptable. It

20672-643: The son of Cloten, the King of Cornwall, becomes pre-eminent. He eventually defeats the other kings and establishes his rule over the whole island. He is said to have "established the so-called Molmutine Laws which are still famous today among the English". Dunvallo's sons, Belinus and Brennius , fight a civil war before being reconciled by their mother, and proceed to sack Rome . Victorious, Brennius remains in Italy, while Belinus returns to rule Britain. Numerous brief accounts of successive kings follow. These include Lud , who renames Trinovantum " Kaerlud " after himself; this later becomes corrupted to Lon don . Lud

20824-482: The text. The task of disentangling these variants and establishing Geoffrey's original text is long and complex, and the extent of the difficulties surrounding the text has been established only recently. The variant title Historia regum Britanniae was introduced in the Middle Ages, and this became the most common form in the modern period. A critical edition of the work published in 2007, however, demonstrated that

20976-454: The throne. Arthur returns and kills Mordred at the Battle of Camlann , but, mortally wounded, he is carried off to the isle of Avalon , and hands the kingdom to his cousin Constantine , son of Cador and Duke of Cornwall. The Saxons returned after Arthur's death, but would not end the line of British kings until the death of Cadwallader . Cadwallader is forced to flee Britain and requests

21128-546: The two then begin an escalating romantic affair that in the end will inadvertently lead to Arthur's fall. Lancelot refuses the love of many other ladies, dedicates all his heroic deeds to Guinevere's honor, and sends her the redeemable knights he has defeated in battle and who must appeal to her for forgiveness. In the Vulgate Cycle, Lancelot's stepmother Ninianne, the Lady of the Lake, gifts them an identical pair of magic rings of protection against enchantements. In this version,

21280-518: The use of Welsh in daily life, and standardised spelling. The New Testament was translated by William Salesbury in 1567, and the complete Bible by William Morgan in 1588. Modern Welsh is subdivided into Early Modern Welsh and Late Modern Welsh. Early Modern Welsh ran from the 15th century through to the end of the 16th century, and the Late Modern Welsh period roughly dates from the 16th century onwards. Contemporary Welsh differs greatly from

21432-593: The whole kingdom. After Leir has had all his attendants taken from him, he begins to regret his actions towards Cordelia and travels to Gaul. Cordelia receives him compassionately and restores his royal robes and retinue. Aganippus raises a Gaulish army for Leir, who returns to Britain, defeats his sons-in-law and regains the kingdom. Leir rules for three years and then dies; Cordelia inherits the throne and rules for five years before Marganus and Cunedagius, her sisters' sons, rebel against her. They imprison Cordelia; grief-stricken, she kills herself. Marganus and Cunedagius divide

21584-487: The wife of Arthur. This was likely due to Chrétien's audience at the time, the court of Marie, Countess of Champagne , which was composed of courtly ladies who played highly social roles. Later authors use her good and bad qualities to construct a deeper character who plays a larger role in the stories. In Chrétien's Yvain, the Knight of the Lion , for instance, she is praised for her intelligence, friendliness, and gentility. On

21736-581: The work before the final book, and some of these traits may be related to her political qualities and actions. In the 13th-century French cyclical chivalric romances and the later works based on them, including Malory's, Guinevere is the daughter of King Leodegrance of Carmelide (Cameliard), who had served Arthur's father, Uther Pendragon , and was entrusted with the Round Table after Uther's death. The newly-crowned King Arthur defends Leodegrance by defeating King Rience , which leads to his first meeting with

21888-427: The young Guinevere. An arranged marriage of state soon commences, and Arthur receives the Round Table as Guinevere's dowry, having ignored Merlin 's prophetic advice warning him not to marry her. This version of her legend has her betrothed to Arthur early in his career, while he was garnering support and being pressured to produce an heir (which Guinevere, barren as in most other versions, will fail to deliver). When

22040-501: Was beyond saving, and Yder had been forgotten entirely. This version has become lastingly popular. Today it is most familiar from its expansion in the prose cycles , where Lancelot comes to her rescue on more than one occasion. There are furthermore several other variants of this motif in medieval literature. In Ulrich's Lanzelet , Valerin, the King of the Tangled Wood, claims the right to marry her and carries her off to his castle in

22192-608: Was complete by around AD 550, and labelled the period between then and about AD 800 "Primitive Welsh". This Primitive Welsh may have been spoken in both Wales and the Hen Ogledd ('Old North') – the Brittonic-speaking areas of what are now northern England and southern Scotland – and therefore may have been the ancestor of Cumbric as well as Welsh. Jackson, however, believed that the two varieties were already distinct by that time. The earliest Welsh poetry – that attributed to

22344-510: Was descended from a noble Roman family on her mother's side; Layamon too describes her as of Roman descent, as well as being related to Cador. Much later English chroniclers, Thomas Gray in Scalacronica and John Stow in The Chronicles of England , both identify Cador as her cousin and an unnamed King of Biscay (the historical Basque country) as her father. Welsh tradition remembers

22496-417: Was given a source for this period by Archdeacon Walter of Oxford, who presented him with a "certain very ancient book written in the British language" from which he has translated his history. He also cites Gildas and Bede as sources. Then follows a dedication to Robert, Earl of Gloucester and Waleran, Count of Meulan , whom he enjoins to use their knowledge and wisdom to improve his tale. The work of

22648-663: Was one of two that originally stood near a mound that is identified as Vanora's grave. Modern scholars interpret the Meigle Stone 2 as a depiction of the Biblical tale of Daniel in the lions' den . One Scotland-related story takes place in Hector Boece 's Historia Gentis Scotorum , where Guinevere is taken north by the Picts following Mordred's and Arthur's deaths at Camlann and spends the rest of her life in their captivity; after her death, she

22800-518: Was passed and received Royal Assent, thus making the Welsh language an officially recognised language within Wales. The measure: The measure required public bodies and some private companies to provide services in Welsh. The Welsh government's Minister for Heritage at the time, Alun Ffred Jones , said, "The Welsh language is a source of great pride for the people of Wales, whether they speak it or not, and I am delighted that this measure has now become law. I am very proud to have steered legislation through

22952-505: Was probably spoken throughout the island south of the Firth of Forth . During the Early Middle Ages the British language began to fragment due to increased dialect differentiation, thus evolving into Welsh and the other Brittonic languages. It is not clear when Welsh became distinct. Linguist Kenneth H. Jackson has suggested that the evolution in syllabic structure and sound pattern

23104-400: Was produced by William of Rennes . Material from Geoffrey was incorporated into a large variety of Anglo-Norman and Middle English prose compilations of historical material from the 13th century onward. Geoffrey was translated into a number of different Welsh prose versions by the end of the 13th century, collectively known as Brut y Brenhinedd . One variant of the Brut y Brenhinedd ,

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