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88-458: While non-indigenous fruit trees and other traces of a large population that once occupied the river banks are evident, the ethnic groups who live in this river valley are the Karens in the west and north, Thais in the south, and Burmans who speak a distinct dialect of Burmese. The Great Tenasserim River is one of the major rivers of southeastern Burma, and the most substantial river running through

176-437: A subject–object–verb order. This anomaly is likely due to the influence of neighbouring Mon and Tai languages . The majority of Karen are Theravada Buddhists who also practice animism , while approximately 15–30 percent are Christian . Lowland Pwo-speaking Karens tend to be more orthodox Buddhists, whereas highland Sgaw-speaking Karens tend to be heterodox Buddhists who profess strong animist beliefs. Karen animism

264-664: A federal system in Myanmar instead. Even so, the KNU has declined invitations to speak with the Burmese junta. Karen legends refer to a "river of running sand" which ancestors reputedly crossed. Many Karen believe this refers to the Gobi Desert , although they have lived in Myanmar for centuries. Most scholars dismiss the notion of a Gobi desert crossing, but rather translate the legend as describing "rivers of water flowing with sand". This could refer to

352-414: A hard, fissile, metamorphic rock known as slate . With continued increase in metamorphic grade the sequence is phyllite , then schist and finally gneiss . Shale is the most common source rock for hydrocarbons ( natural gas and petroleum ). The lack of coarse sediments in most shale beds reflects the absence of strong currents in the waters of the depositional basin. These might have oxygenated

440-720: A new KNU headquarters in Mu Aye Pu , on the Burmese – Thai border. In 2004, the BBC , citing aid agencies , estimates that up to 200,000 Karen have been driven from their homes during decades of war, with 160,000 more refugees from Myanmar, mostly Karen, living in refugee camps on the Thai side of the border. The largest camp is the one in Mae La, Tak province, Thailand, where about 50,000 Karen refugees are hosted. Reports as recently as February 2010, state that

528-523: A prophecy about a book which had been lost and would be returned by a "white brother". This is held to have been fulfilled when the first American Baptist missionaries brought the Bible to the Karen people, but this legend is probably of nineteenth-century origin. Alongside orthodox Christianity, some of those who identify themselves as Christian also have syncretised elements of animism with Christianity. The Karen of

616-554: A report by Guy Horton into depredations by the Myanmar Army against the Karen and other groups in eastern Myanmar stated: Using victims' statements, photographs, maps and film, and advised by legal counsel to the UN tribunal on the former Yugoslavia, he purports to have documented slave labour, systematic rape, the conscription of child soldiers, massacres and the deliberate destruction of villages, food sources and medical services. Throughout

704-609: A second language to communicate with non-Karen neighbours. The Karen languages , members of the Tibeto-Burman group of the Sino-Tibetan language family, consist of three mutually unintelligible branches: Sgaw , Eastern Pwo , and Western Pwo . The Karen languages are almost unique among the Tibeto-Burman languages in having a subject–verb–object word order; other than Karen and Bai , Tibeto-Burman languages typically feature

792-475: Is a Karen refugee who lived in a camp where she went to school and helped her family because her parents sought to go out to work, but they earned little money. Wah suffered from malnutrition because her parents did not have money to buy food for her nine siblings. There is an established governance system in the camps, which are funded by the United Nations, and other donors. The Karen Refugee Committee governs

880-429: Is a fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock formed from mud that is a mix of flakes of clay minerals (hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, e.g., kaolin , Al 2 Si 2 O 5 ( OH ) 4 ) and tiny fragments ( silt -sized particles) of other minerals, especially quartz and calcite . Shale is characterized by its tendency to split into thin layers ( laminae ) less than one centimeter in thickness. This property

968-503: Is a young Karen woman who has resettled in San Diego, CA . Aye said, "After growing up in a place like I did, I wanted to become a nurse. I wanted to help sick people [...] travel to refugee camps in Thailand and care for people who cannot afford medication." Additionally, Eh De Gray, who graduated from San Diego's Crawford High School , wants to go back to the camps and share his knowledge with

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1056-1201: Is accompanied by telogenesis , the third and final stage of diagenesis. As erosion reduces the depth of burial, renewed exposure to meteoric water produces additional changes to the shale, such as dissolution of some of the cement to produce secondary porosity . Pyrite may be oxidized to produce gypsum . Black shales are dark, as a result of being especially rich in unoxidized carbon . Common in some Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata , black shales were deposited in anoxic , reducing environments, such as in stagnant water columns. Some black shales contain abundant heavy metals such as molybdenum , uranium , vanadium , and zinc . The enriched values are of controversial origin, having been alternatively attributed to input from hydrothermal fluids during or after sedimentation or to slow accumulation from sea water over long periods of sedimentation. Fossils , animal tracks or burrows and even raindrop impressions are sometimes preserved on shale bedding surfaces. Shales may also contain concretions consisting of pyrite, apatite , or various carbonate minerals. Shales that are subject to heat and pressure of metamorphism alter into

1144-455: Is also done. Wood and bamboo products are manufactured in Tavoy. Fishing in the sea is a major industry at Myeik, with exports of sea fish being of major value to the town's economy. As a result, in the 1990s the town started flourishing with modern buildings. Large boats can navigate the river as far inland as Tanintharyi (Tenasserim Town). The river is said to be rich in sources of manganese . Tin

1232-521: Is an Anglicisation of the Burmese word Kayin ( ကရင် ), whose etymology is unclear. The word may have originally been a derogatory term referring to non-Buddhist ethnic groups, or it may derive from Kanyan , a possibly Mon name of a vanished civilisation. In pre-colonial times, the low-lying Burmese and Mon-speaking kingdoms recognised two general categories of Karen, the Talaing Kayin ( တလိုင်းကရင် ), generally lowlanders who were recognised as

1320-422: Is called fissility . Shale is the most common sedimentary rock. The term shale is sometimes applied more broadly, as essentially a synonym for mudrock , rather than in the narrower sense of clay-rich fissile mudrock. Shale typically exhibits varying degrees of fissility. Because of the parallel orientation of clay mineral flakes in shale, it breaks into thin layers, often splintery and usually parallel to

1408-638: Is composed of about 58% clay minerals, 28% quartz, 6% feldspar , 5% carbonate minerals, and 2% iron oxides . Most of the quartz is detrital (part of the original sediments that formed the shale) rather than authigenic (crystallized within the shale after deposition). Shales and other mudrocks contain roughly 95 percent of the organic matter in all sedimentary rocks. However, this amounts to less than one percent by mass in an average shale. Black shales, which form in anoxic conditions, contain reduced free carbon along with ferrous iron (Fe ) and sulfur (S ). Amorphous iron sulfide , along with carbon, produce

1496-590: Is defined by a belief in ကလၤ k'lar (soul), thirty-seven spirits that embody every individual. Misfortune and sickness are believed to be caused by k'lar that wander away, and death occurs when all thirty-seven klar leave the body. Karen Buddhists are the most numerous of the Karens and account for around 65 percent of the total Karen population. The Buddhist influence came from the Mon who were dominant in Lower Burma until

1584-532: Is difficult to estimate. The last reliable census of Myanmar was conducted in 1931. A 2006 Voice of America article cites an estimate of seven million Karen in Myanmar. There are another 400,000 Karen in Thailand, where they are by far the largest of the hill tribes . Others live in refugee camps in Thailand. Some Karen have left the refugee camps in Thailand to resettle elsewhere, including in North America, Australia, New Zealand, and Scandinavia . In 2011,

1672-430: Is evidence that shale acts as a semipermeable medium, allowing water to pass through while retaining dissolved salts. The fine particles that compose shale can remain suspended in water long after the larger particles of sand have been deposited. As a result, shales are typically deposited in very slow moving water and are often found in lakes and lagoonal deposits, in river deltas , on floodplains and offshore below

1760-583: Is found in the southern portion of the Tenasserim division; once extracted it is purified in a plant in Heinda. Tungsten and iron ore mines are found near Tavoy and Mergui. Manganese has also been found in the river valley. Tin as a mineral (a dioxide), in the Mergui and Tavoy districts of the valley, is extracted from the pebbles found in the river. Pebbles are collected and then washed; the washing process yields 70% tin in

1848-763: Is in Yangon with 20 member associations throughout Myanmar. The KBC operates the KBC Charity Hospital in Insein , Yangon. The KBC also operates the Karen Baptist Theological Seminary in Insein. The seminary runs a theology program as well as a secular degree program (Liberal Arts Programme) to fulfill young Karens' intellectual and vocational needs. The Pwo Karen Baptist Convention is in Ahlone , Yangon and also operates

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1936-455: Is more likely to form nonfissile mudstone than shale. On the other hand, black shales often have very pronounced fissility ( paper shales ) due to binding of hydrocarbon molecules to the faces of the clay particles, which weakens the binding between particles. Lithification follows closely on compaction, as increased temperatures at depth hasten deposition of cement that binds the grains together. Pressure solution contributes to cementing, as

2024-517: Is observed annually in August. Karen Martyrs' Day ( Ma Tu Ra ) commemorates the Karen soldiers who have died fighting for Karen self-determination. It is observed annually on 12 August, the anniversary of the death of Saw Ba U Gyi, the first President of the Karen National Union. A species of gecko , Hemidactylus karenorum , is named in honour of the Karen people. Shale Shale

2112-452: Is reduced. In addition to this physical compaction, chemical compaction may take place via pressure solution . Points of contact between grains are under the greatest strain, and the strained mineral is more soluble than the rest of the grain. As a result, the contact points are dissolved away, allowing the grains to come into closer contact. It is during compaction that shale develops its fissility, likely through mechanical compaction of

2200-554: The 8888 Uprising , the KNLA had accepted those demonstrators in their bases along the border. The dictatorship expanded the army and launched a series of major offensives against the KNLA. By 2006, the KNLA's strength had shrunk to less than 4,000, opposing what is now a 400,000-man Burmese army. However, the political arm of the KNLA – the KNU – continued efforts to resolve the conflict through political means. The conflict continues as of 2006 , with

2288-588: The Karen Youth Organisation (KYO), at Vinton Memorial Hall in Yangon . The meeting called for a Karen state with a seaboard, an increased number of seats (25%) in the Constituent Assembly, a new ethnic census, and a continuance of Karen units in the armed forces. The deadline of 3 March passed without a reply from the British government, and Saw Ba U Gyi , the first president of the KNU, resigned from

2376-500: The Kayin , Kariang or Kawthoolese , are an ethnolinguistic group of Tibeto-Burman language -speaking people. The group as a whole is heterogeneous and disparate as many Karen ethnic groups do not associate or identify with each other culturally or linguistically. These Karen groups reside primarily in Kayin State , southern and southeastern Myanmar . The Karen account for around 6.69% of

2464-690: The Tanintharyi Region . The river is formed at the confluence of the rivers Kamaungthwe and Ban , near Myitta. River Kamaungthwe rises in the Tenasserim Range at a height of 2,074 m (6,804 ft) and the Ban flows from the south. The Myitta River , one of the Tenasserim River's main northern tributaries, joins the Tenasserim from the right northwest of the town of Myitta . After passing by several towns, including Tagu, Banlaw, Wunna, Thamihla, and

2552-399: The U.S. Gulf Coast . As sediments continue to accumulate, the older, more deeply buried sediments begin to undergo diagenesis . This mostly consists of compaction and lithification of the clay and silt particles. Early stages of diagenesis, described as eogenesis , take place at shallow depths (a few tens of meters) and are characterized by bioturbation and mineralogical changes in

2640-554: The neck rings worn by their women, but they are just one sub-group of Red Karens (Karenni), one of the tribes of Kayah in Kayah State , Myanmar. Karen insurgent groups, led primarily by the Karen National Union (KNU), have waged war against the Burmese government since early 1949. The original aim of the KNU was to create an independent Karen homeland called Kawthoolei , but since 1976 they have shifted towards calling for

2728-651: The wave base . Thick deposits of shale are found near ancient continental margins and foreland basins . Some of the most widespread shale formations were deposited by epicontinental seas . Black shales are common in Cretaceous strata on the margins of the Atlantic Ocean , where they were deposited in fault -bounded silled basins associated with the opening of the Atlantic during the breakup of Pangaea . These basins were anoxic, in part because of restricted circulation in

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2816-746: The "original settlers" and essential to Mon court life, and the Karen ( ဗမာကရင် ), highlanders who were subordinated or assimilated by the Bamar . The Karen constitute the third largest ethnic population in Myanmar, after the Bamars and Shans . The Karen people live mostly in the hills bordering the eastern mountainous region and Irrawaddy delta of Myanmar, primarily in Kayin State (formerly Karen State), with some in Kayah State , southern Shan State , Ayeyarwady Region , Tanintharyi Region , Bago Division and in northern and western Thailand. The total number of Karen

2904-678: The British. Despite its Christian leadership, the KNA sought to unite all Karens of different regional and religious backgrounds into one organisation. They argued at the 1917 Montagu–Chelmsford hearings in India that Myanmar was not "yet in a fit state for self-government ". Three years later, after submitting a criticism of the 1920 Craddock Reforms , they won 5 (and later 12) seats in the Legislative Council of 130 (expanded to 132) members. The majority Buddhist Karens were not organised until 1939 with

2992-420: The Burmese army continues to burn Karen villages, displacing thousands of people. Many Karen, including people such as former KNU secretary Padoh Mahn Sha Lah Phan and his daughter, Zoya Phan , have accused the military government of Myanmar of ethnic cleansing . The U.S. State Department has also cited the Burmese government for suppression of religious freedom . A 2005 New York Times article on

3080-493: The Burmese ethnic majority, including military recruitment and seats in the legislature. Some Christian Karens began asserting an identity apart from their non-Christian counterparts, and many became leaders of Karen ethno-nationalist organisations, including the Karen National Union . In 1881 the Karen National Associations (KNA) was founded by western-educated Christian Karens to represent Karen interests with

3168-668: The Burmese population. Many Karen have migrated to Thailand , having settled mostly on the Myanmar–Thailand border . A few Karen have settled in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands , India, and other Southeast Asian and East Asian countries. The Karen consist of two subgroups, the White Karen and the Red Karen . The Karen groups as a whole are often confused with the Padaung tribe, best known for

3256-604: The Governor's Executive Council the next day. After the war ended, Myanmar was granted independence in January 1948, and the Karen, led by the KNU, attempted to co-exist peacefully with the Burman ethnic majority. Karen people held leading positions in both the government and the army. In the fall of 1948, the Burmese government, led by U Nu , began raising and arming irregular political militias known as Sitwundan . These militias were under

3344-599: The Hti-phan-ko stream on the Great Tenasserim's right bank. Soil erosion is reported in the upland ridges of the region. tributary In the late 18th century, during the wars on territorial dispute between Myanmar and Thailand, the Great Tenasserim River region came under the control of the Burmese. In the first Anglo-Burmese War (1824–26), British took control of the region. They first occupied Myeik town –

3432-633: The Irrawaddy delta are mostly Christians, whereas Buddhists tend to be found mainly in Kayin state and surrounding regions. An estimated 15 to 20 percent of Karen identify themselves as Christian today and about 90 percent of Karen people in the US are Christians. Though other estimates put the Karen Christian population as high as 30 percent. The Karen Baptist Convention (KBC) was established in 1913. Its headquarters

3520-570: The Japanese invade the country. Among the victims were a pre-war Cabinet minister, Saw Pe Tha, and his family. A government report later claimed the "excesses of the BIA" and "the loyalty of the Karens towards the British" as the reasons for these attacks. The intervention by Colonel Suzuki Keiji , the Japanese commander of the BIA, after meeting a Karen delegation led by Saw Tha Din, appears to have prevented further atrocities. The Karen people aspired to have

3608-570: The Karen National Liberation Army (KNLA), the KNU's army. In late January 1949, the Army Chief of Staff, Gen. Smith Dun, a Karen, was removed from office and imprisoned. He was replaced by the Burmese nationalist Ne Win . Simultaneously a commission was looking into the Karen problem and this commission was about to report their findings to the Burmese government. The findings of the report were overshadowed by this political shift at

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3696-437: The Karen diaspora population was estimated to be approximately 67,000. Following British victories in the three Anglo-Burmese wars , Myanmar was annexed as a province of British India in 1886. Baptist missionaries introduced Christianity to Myanmar beginning in 1830, and they were successful in converting many Karen. Christian Karens were favoured by the British colonial authorities and were given opportunities not available to

3784-421: The Karen migrated into present-day Myanmar between 300 and 800 CE. Karen refers to a heterogeneous lot of ethnic groups that do not share a common language, culture, religion, or material characteristics. A pan-Karen ethnic identity is a relatively modern creation, established in the 19th century with the conversion of some Karen to Christianity and shaped by British colonial policies and practices. "Karen"

3872-767: The Pwo Karen Theological Seminary. There are other schools for Karen people in Myanmar, such as Paku Divinity School in Taungoo, Kothabyu Bible School in Pathein, and Yangon Home Mission School. The Thailand Karen Baptist Convention is in Chiang Mai , Thailand . The Seventh-day Adventists have built several schools in the Karen refugee camps in Thailand. Eden Valley Academy in Tak and Karen Adventist Academy in Mae Hong Son are

3960-492: The Pwo Karen, who developed it as a way to reinforce community values. The sae klee dance or bamboo dance is a traditional Karen performance held during celebrations such as Christmas and New Year's. Performers are typically divided into two groups. One group creates a platform by holding bamboo sticks in a checkered pattern , while the other group dances on top of the platform. Dancers must be careful to avoid stepping into one of

4048-489: The Thailand-Burma border. According to BMC, "79% of refugees living in these camps are Karen ethnicity." Their lives are restricted in the camps because they usually cannot go out, and the Thai police might arrest them if they do. Employment for the Karen refugees is scarce and risky. Former refugee Hla Wah said, "No jobs [...] So if adults wanted to work, they had to leave quietly without getting caught by Thai police." Wah

4136-421: The black coloration. Because amorphous iron sulfide gradually converts to pyrite , which is not an important pigment, young shales may be quite dark from their iron sulfide content, in spite of a modest carbon content (less than 1%), while a black color in an ancient shale indicates a high carbon content. Most shales are marine in origin, and the groundwater in shale formations is often highly saline . There

4224-435: The case of the Karen after the war . While the situation of the Karen was discussed, nothing practical was done before the British left Myanmar. The 1947 Constitution, drawn without Karen participation due to their boycott of the elections to the Constituent Assembly , also failed to address the Karen question specifically and clearly, leaving it to be discussed only after independence. The Shan and Karenni states were given

4312-506: The clumps of clay particles produced by flocculation vary in size from a few tens of microns to over 700 microns in diameter. The floccules start out water-rich, but much of the water is expelled from the floccules as the clay minerals bind more tightly together over time (a process called syneresis ). Clay pelletization by organisms that filter feed is important where flocculation is inhibited. Filter feeders produce an estimated 12 metric tons of clay pellets per square kilometer per year along

4400-408: The color of the rock. Red, brown and green colors are indicative of ferric oxide ( hematite – reds), iron hydroxide ( goethite – browns and limonite – yellow), or micaceous minerals ( chlorite , biotite and illite – greens). The color shifts from reddish to greenish as iron in the oxidized ( ferric ) state is converted to iron in the reduced ( ferrous ) state. Black shale results from

4488-608: The command of Major Gen. Ne Win and outside the control of the regular army. In January 1949, some of these militias went on a rampage through Karen communities. The Karen National Union has maintained its structure and purpose from the 1950s onward. The KNU acts as a governmental presence for the Karen people, offering basic social services for those affected by the insurgency, such as Karen refugees or internally displaced Karen. These services include building school systems in Thailand and inside Burma, providing medical services, regulating trade and commerce, and providing security through

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4576-572: The day-to-day administration of the camp under the authority of the Thai government which guards entrances and exits to the camp. Within the camp there is a robust school system for children up to high school. In some camps there are college courses organized by the Karen Refugee Committee – Education Entity. Beginning in 2000, the Karen started resettling in the United States and Canada . Many Karen have problems fitting in and adjusting to

4664-636: The essential dish of Karen cuisine. The Karen New Year (ကညီနံၣ်ထီၣ်သီ) is one of the major holidays that the Karen people celebrate. The date of the Karen New Year on the Gregorian calendar varies as the Karen people use the lunar calendar . The Karen New Year usually falls on a date in December or January on the Gregorian calendar. Karen Wrist Tying (ကညီလါခူးကံၢ်စု) is an important Karen holiday. This holiday

4752-561: The first convert to Christianity in 1828, was baptised by Rev. George Boardman , an associate of Adoniram Judson , founder of the American Baptist Foreign Mission Society . Today there are Christians belonging to the Catholic Church and various Protestant denominations. Some of the largest Protestant denominations are Baptists and Seventh-day Adventists . A popular legend among the Karen people concerns

4840-422: The first town of Burma to become a part of British India in 1826. Thereafter, in 1941 during World War II , Japanese occupied the Tenasserim region, and they held Burma from 1941 to 1945. After the war, in 1948, the region became independent from Britain . The main agricultural operations in the Tenasserim River valley include paddy rice, mostly near Tavoy ; vegetables, coconuts, rubber, and teak. Salt extraction

4928-510: The first washing and 75% in the second washing, and the ore thus extracted is said to be very rich and metal produced from this ore is also stated to be of excellent quality. Lead has also been found in the valley at Toungoo, and at the mouth of the river on Maingay Island in the Mergui Archipelago, which is yet to be extracted. Coal deposits were discovered on the Great Tenasserim around 1838, and five years later, an experimental coal seam

5016-584: The formation of a Buddhist KNA. In 1938 the British colonial administration recognised Karen New Year as a public holiday . During World War II , when the Japanese occupied the region, long-term tensions between the Karen and Burma turned into open fighting. As a consequence, many villages were destroyed and massacres committed by both the Japanese and the Burma Independence Army (BIA) troops who helped

5104-452: The insurgency, hundreds of thousands of Karen fled to refugee camps while many others (numbers unknown) were internally displaced persons within the Karen state. The refugees were concentrated in camps along the Myanmar–Thailand border . According to refugee accounts, the camps suffered from overcrowding, disease, and periodic attacks by the Myanmar Army . Around 400,000 Karen people are without housing, and 128,000 are living in camps on

5192-452: The leading center of Karen language Buddhist literature. Many millennial sects were founded throughout the 1800s, led by Karen Buddhist minlaung rebels. Two sects, Telakhon (or Telaku) and Leke, were founded in the 1860s. The Telaku sect, founded in Kyaing and considered a Buddhist sect , is a mixture of spirit worship, Karen customs and worship of the future Buddha Metteyya . The Leke sect

5280-446: The middle of the 18th century. Buddhist Karen are found mainly in Kayin State, Mon State , Yangon , Bago and Tanintharyi Region . There are Buddhist monasteries in most Karen villages, and the monastery is the centre of community life. Merit-making activities, such as alms giving, are central to Karen Buddhist life. Buddhism was brought to Pwo-speaking Karens in the late-1700s, and the Yedagon Monastery atop Mount Zwegabin became

5368-592: The mineral dissolved from strained contact points is redeposited in the unstrained pore spaces. The clay minerals may be altered as well. For example, smectite is altered to illite at temperatures of about 55 to 200 °C (130 to 390 °F), releasing water in the process. Other alteration reactions include the alteration of smectite to chlorite and of kaolinite to illite at temperatures between 120 and 150 °C (250 and 300 °F). Because of these reactions, illite composes 80% of Precambrian shales, versus about 25% of young shales. Unroofing of buried shale

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5456-433: The narrow Atlantic, and in part because the very warm Cretaceous seas lacked the circulation of cold bottom water that oxygenates the deep oceans today. Most clay must be deposited as aggregates and floccules, since the settling rate of individual clay particles is extremely slow. Flocculation is very rapid once the clay encounters highly saline sea water. Whereas individual clay particles are less than 4 microns in size,

5544-472: The navigable channel is 3 mi (4.8 km) south of the town of Mergui at the mouth. The river banks are characterized as almost perpendicular in some areas. Islands dot the river in the low land areas. Rapids occur in narrow areas of the channel. The tide is felt 10 mi (16 km) above Tanintharyi. The Tenasserim plains to the north are drained by a series of short rivers and tributaries. The tributaries include Tonbyaw Creek, Thuggoo River, as well as

5632-454: The new country. "90% of the Karen refugees reported no knowledge of English or French on arrival." An estimated 8,500 Karen live in Minnesota, primarily Saint Paul . In 2014, Ler Htoo was sworn in after graduating from the St. Paul Police Academy in Minnesota as the first Karen police officer in the United States. More than 5,000 Karen live in Nebraska , and the Karen have also resettled in Southern California and central New York . Mu Aye

5720-415: The original open framework of clay particles. The particles become strongly oriented into parallel layers that give the shale its distinctive fabric. Fissility likely develops early in the compaction process, at relatively shallow depth, since fissility does not seem to vary with depth in thick formations. Kaolinite flakes have less tendency to align in parallel layers than other clays, so kaolinite-rich clay

5808-505: The otherwise indistinguishable bedding planes . Non-fissile rocks of similar composition and particle size (less than 0.0625 mm) are described as mudstones (1/3 to 2/3 silt particles) or claystones (less than 1/3 silt). Rocks with similar particle sizes but with less clay (greater than 2/3 silt) and therefore grittier are siltstones . Shales are typically gray in color and are composed of clay minerals and quartz grains. The addition of variable amounts of minor constituents alters

5896-413: The past century. Duwae , a type of pagoda worship, with animistic origins, is also practised. There are several prominent Karen Buddhist monks, including Thuzana (S'gaw) and Zagara, who was conferred the Agga Maha Saddammajotika title by the Burmese government in 2004. The Karen of Thailand have their own religion, but some have converted to Buddhism through the efforts of missionaries. Tha Byu ,

5984-435: The platform's many holes. Talabaw or bamboo soup is a traditional Karen dish typically prepared with bamboo shoots , snakehead fish and basil leaves . A small amount of rice and some shreds of meat or seafood may also be added. The soup was traditionally used as a supplement to rice, which was not readily or cheaply available to them. Talabaw is one of the most well known soups in Myanmar, and widely considered to be

6072-817: The presence of greater than one percent carbonaceous material and indicates a reducing environment. Pale blue to blue-green shales typically are rich in carbonate minerals . Clays are the major constituent of shales and other mudrocks. The clay minerals represented are largely kaolinite , montmorillonite and illite. Clay minerals of Late Tertiary mudstones are expandable smectites , whereas in older rocks (especially in mid-to early Paleozoic shales) illites predominate. The transformation of smectite to illite produces silica , sodium , calcium , magnesium , iron and water. These released elements form authigenic quartz , chert , calcite , dolomite , ankerite , hematite and albite , all trace to minor (except quartz) minerals found in shales and other mudrocks. A typical shale

6160-450: The regions where they formed the majority turned into a subdivision or "state" within Myanmar similar to what the Shan , Kachin and Chin peoples had been given. A goodwill mission led by Saw Tha Din and Saw Ba U Gyi to London in August 1946 failed to receive any encouragement from the British government for any separatist demands. In January 1947 a delegation of representatives of the Governor's Executive Council headed by Aung San

6248-444: The richest source rocks may contain as much as 40% organic matter. The organic matter in shale is converted over time from the original proteins, polysaccharides , lipids , and other organic molecules to kerogen , which at the higher temperatures found at greater depths of burial is further converted to graphite and petroleum. Before the mid-19th century, the terms slate , shale and schist were not sharply distinguished. In

6336-527: The right bank towns of Tharapon and Kahan, it reaches Tanintharyi (Tenasserim). Tanintharyi, the capital of the province, is located on the southern bank of the Great Tenasserim, where it is joined by the Little Tenasserim . From here, it flows 33 mi (53 km) before reaching the Andaman Sea at the major seaside town of Myeik ( Mergui ), situated on a small island that is formed by two branches of

6424-602: The right to secession after 10 years, the Kachin their own state, and the Chin a special division. The Mon and Arakanese of Ministerial Myanmar were not given any consideration. In early February 1947, the Karen National Union (KNU) was formed at a Karen Congress attended by 700 delegates from the Karen National Associations, both Baptist and Buddhist (KNA, founded 1881), the Karen Central Organisation (KCO) and its youth wing,

6512-556: The river banks. They are concentrated in the river valley about 67 mi (108 km) upstream from the Mergu River mouth. It is in the form of thin beds of shales , sandstones and conglomerates . Its extraction, however, has been limited. In 2009, an announcement was made that the Burmese authorities had begun surveying the river for a potential hydroelectric power project along the river, which would generate electricity to be exported to Thailand and Singapore . The first survey of

6600-729: The river for a hydroelectric project was conducted in 2007 by the KNU . The state-run New Light of Myanmar newspaper claimed that a signing ceremony for the Tenasserim Hydropower Project was held on October 9, 2008, between the Burmese Ministry of Electric Power No. 1, the Italian-Thai Development Public Co. Ltd., of Thailand and Singapore's Wind Fall Energy Services Ltd. The Burmese military and Thai officials took water levels in December 2008. A Thai expert has been hired to take water level measurements of

6688-423: The river in different areas in different seasons to assess the best location for a dam. Two possible sites have since been identified for a dam which is expected to generate 600 Mega Watts. The first is located in the upper river in the village of Ler Pa Doh , and the second is located in the lower river course near Muro, about three hours apart down the river by boat. A new fish species of the true loaches family

6776-504: The river. These branches constitute the two largest of several mouths of the Great Tenasserim. Myeik is located on the island's peninsula that projects into the Andaman Sea. The river's arrival at the Andaman Sea is 150 mi (240 km) to the south of Tavoy, and about 45 mi (72 km) north of where the Lenya River enters the sea. The river delta stretches over a coast line of 20 mi (32 km), with outlet channels of which

6864-526: The school children. Gray said, "I want to share my knowledge and experiences with them." There is a population of 2,500 Karen in India, mostly restricted to Mayabunder Tehsil of the Northern Andaman Islands within the union territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands . Nearly all of them are Baptist Protestant Christians. They retain their language to intercommunicate within community, but use Hindi as

6952-503: The sediment-laden Yellow River of China, the upper reaches of which is considered to be the Urheimat of Sino-Tibetan languages . According to the legends, the Karen took a long time to cook shellfish at the river of flowing sand, until the Chinese taught the Karens to open the shells so as to acquire the meat. It is estimated by linguists Luce and Lehman that the Tibeto-Burman peoples such as

7040-433: The sediments, with only slight compaction. Pyrite may be formed in anoxic mud at this stage of diagenesis. Deeper burial is accompanied by mesogenesis , during which most of the compaction and lithification takes place. As the sediments come under increasing pressure from overlying sediments, sediment grains move into more compact arrangements, ductile grains (such as clay mineral grains) are deformed, and pore space

7128-579: The top of the Burmese government. The Karen National Defence Organisation (KNDO) , formed in July 1947, then rose up in an insurgency against the government. They were helped by the defections of the Karen Rifles and the Union Military Police (UMP) units which had been successfully deployed in suppressing the earlier Burmese Communist rebellions, and came close to capturing Yangon itself. The most notable

7216-450: The two largest Seventh-day Adventist Karen schools. Crop rotation agriculture has been a part of Karen culture for at least several hundred years. The don dance is a traditional Karen performance. "Don" roughly translates to "in agreement". The dance is a series of uniform movements accompanied by music played from traditional Karen instruments. During the performance, a "Don Koh" leads the troupe of dancers. The don dance originated from

7304-414: The waters and destroyed organic matter before it could accumulate. The absence of carbonate rock in shale beds reflects the absence of organisms that might have secreted carbonate skeletons, also likely due to an anoxic environment. As a result, about 95% of organic matter in sedimentary rocks is found in shales and other mudrocks. Individual shale beds typically have an organic matter content of about 1%, but

7392-573: Was captured for the first time in the Great Tenasserim River in 1993, and was named "Kamphol Udomritthiruj" after the person who found it. It was given the scientific name Botia udomritthiruji , along with the common name Emperor loach. Although it is considered a suitable aquarium fish, the Emperor loach has not been exported from the area due to a serious insurgency problem prevailing in the region. Karen people The Karen ( / k ə ˈ r ɛ n / kə- REN ), also known as

7480-571: Was founded on the western banks of the Thanlwin River , and is no longer associated with Buddhism (as followers do not venerate Buddhist monks). Followers believe that the future Buddha will return to Earth if they maintain their moral practices (following the Dharma and precepts ), and they practice vegetarianism , hold Saturday services and construct distinct pagodas. Several Buddhist socioreligious movements, both orthodox and heterodox, have arisen in

7568-608: Was invited to London to negotiate for the Aung San – Attlee Treaty, but none of the ethnic minority groups was included by the British government. The following month at the Panglong Conference , when an agreement was signed between Aung San as head of the interim Burmese government and the Shan, Kachin and Chin leaders, the Karen were present only as observers; the Mon and Arakanese were also absent. The British promised to consider

7656-597: Was the Battle of Insein , nine miles from Yangon, where they held out in a 111-day siege till late May 1949. Years later, the Karen had become the largest of 20 minority groups participating in an insurgency against the military dictatorship in Yangon. During the 1980s, the Karen National Liberation Army (KNLA) fighting force numbered approximately 20,000. After an uprising of the people of Myanmar in 1988, known as

7744-629: Was worked. By 1863, indications of coal fields, though not of consequence, were noted on the Great Tenasserim above Tanintharyi, while a 6 ft (1.8 m) bed of crop coal above the Falls of the Great Tenasserim was determined to be of inferior quality and abandoned. Balfour, in 1871, described a principal mine worked about 90 mi (140 km) from the river's mouth and said of the river valley coal that its best parts were considered an improvement over ordinary lignite while equal to bituminous coal's inferior portions. Extensive coal deposits have been found on

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