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106-580: The Jiajing Emperor had succeeded his first cousin, the Zhengde Emperor after the latter died childless. His uncle, the Hongzhi Emperor , had not left any other surviving children either. In order to perform the proper rituals owed him according to tradition, it was necessary that the Jiajing Emperor be posthumously adopted by his late uncle who has been dead for nearly two decades. The Jiajing Emperor

212-467: A Ming army successfully defeated a major Mongol raid. In recognition of their bravery, the Zhengde Emperor decorated a large number of officers and soldiers, including Jiang Bin and Xu Tai who were both granted the title of count. In mid-February 1518, the emperor returned to Beijing for a twenty-day visit. In March, he traveled to Xuanfu once again. On 22 March 1518, he returned to Beijing to arrange

318-419: A decree that reduced the worth of coins from previous dynasties by half, and by reiterating the prohibition on the use of privately minted coins. However, by 1507, it became evident that the new coins were not performing well, and the government was forced to accept the old coins at their full value. Private minting continued to thrive, with profits exceeding expenses by five times. The state eventually shut down

424-411: A fight, sent an army to confront them. After a few minor skirmishes, a major battle took place on 18 October at Yingzhou , located 65 km south of Datong . The following day, the emperor arrived with reinforcements and on 20 October, he personally led a day-long battle. The Mongols were ultimately defeated and forced to retreat across the border. This was the only instance in the entire 16th century where

530-594: A government force at Langshan , near the mouth of the Yangtze River, on 7 September 1512. This event marked the formal end of the campaign. The security and supply of the capital were no longer under threat, but banditry continued to be a problem in Jiangxi, Henan , and central Sichuan. The first instance of trouble with rebels occurred in Sichuan in 1508. By 1509, these rebels had joined forces with those from Shanxi, forming

636-471: A great love for lanterns. In early 1514, his distant relative Zhu Chenhao , Prince of Ning, presented him with several hundred new lanterns and experts to install them for the New Year celebrations. However, the emperor had yurts built in front of the palace for military exercises, some of which stored gunpowder. During the celebrations on 10 February 1514, the dust from the lanterns accidentally exploded, causing

742-782: A guard officer in Embroidered Uniform Guard who was of Central Asian origin, he summoned Uyghur dancers. His unrestrained behavior regularly shocked Confucian moralists, but it also made him famous in popular folklore. Like his grandfather, the Chenghua Emperor , the Zhengde Emperor was drawn to Lamaism . He built a new temple for Tibetan monks in the Forbidden City and awarded them high titles and rewards. He also learned their script and participated in their ceremonies, even dressing in Tibetan clothing. He even involved them in

848-593: A massive fire in the palaces of the Forbidden City. As a result, the Zhengde Empror had a complex of 162 yurts built for himself in the Forbidden City. The restoration of the burned palaces lasted until 1521, with 30,000 soldiers from the Beijing garrison working on it and costing over 1 million liang of silver. In the beginning of 1516, the Zhengde Emperor, tired of constant criticism from officials, began to consider

954-428: A pig" among the emperor's court, as the word for pig (Zhu, 豬 ) had the same pronunciation as the imperial family's surname (Zhu, 朱 ). Additionally, the emperor's habit of taking women for himself caused resentment among his subjects. Some women were forced into the imperial harem, while others were able to buy their way out or bribe officials who were extorting women from their households. However, many women ended up in

1060-428: A prince from Datong, on the throne. In order to do so, he needed to be present with the emperor at the time of his death, in order to claim that he was acting on the emperor's orders. His first step was to forge a decree on 15 April, which would give him authority over the border troops stationed in Beijing. However, his plan failed because he was not by the Zhengde Emperor's side when he died. Instead, two eunuchs recorded

1166-589: A ritual at the Temple of Heaven , he collapsed and had to be carried back to the palace. He died three months later on 20 April 1521 in the Leopard Quarter. He was given the temple name Wuzong and the posthumous name Emperor Yi, and was buried in the Kang Mausoleum. He died without leaving an heir. Jiang Bin's plan was to take control of the imperial city and place the emperor's distant relative, Zhu Junzhang,

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1272-467: A single army of 100,000 men. This posed a threat not only to the security of Huguang , but also to the surrounding areas. The rebel leaders declared themselves kings ( wang ) and began to establish their own administrative systems. Another group of rebels was active in southern Sichuan and carried out raids in Guizhou and northern Sichuan. The government attempted to use non-Chinese tribes to fight against

1378-608: Is regarded as the founder of Japanese Ōyōmei-gaku . Chiang Kai-shek named a national attraction in Taiwan , Yangmingshan , after Wang; and a road in Nanchang is also named Yangming Road after Wang by Chiang-influenced local officials. Additionally, National Yang-Ming University in Taiwan is also named after the philosopher. People in Guiyang , provincial capital of Guizhou Province, dedicated

1484-578: Is regarded one of the greatest masters of Confucianism in history along with Confucius , Mencius and Zhu Xi ( 孔孟朱王 ). He founded " Yaojiang School " ( 姚江學派 ) or "Yangming School of Mind" ( 陽明心學 ), which became one of the dominant Confucian schools in the mid-late Ming period and Qing period China. The typical figures came from this school after Wang were Wang Ji ( 王龍溪 ), Qian Dehong ( 錢德洪 ), Wang Gen , Huang Zongxi , Li Zhuowu and Liu Zongzhou ( 劉宗周 ). Wang Gen formed Taizhou School ( 泰州學派 ), which went left of Wang Yangming's thought. During

1590-585: The jinshi degree in 1499. He later served as an executive assistant in various government departments until banishment for offending a eunuch in 1506. However, his professional career resumed when he became the Governor of Jiangxi . Wang became a successful general and was known for the strict discipline he imposed on his troops. In 1517 and 1518, he was dispatched in response to petitions to suppress peasant revolts in Jiangxi , Fujian and Guangdong . Concerned with

1696-635: The Ming dynasty . After Zhu Xi , he is commonly regarded as the most important Neo-Confucian thinker, for his interpretations of Confucianism that denied the rationalist dualism of the orthodox philosophy of Zhu Xi. Wang and Lu Xiangshan are regarded as the founders as the Lu–Wang school , or the School of the Mind. In China, Japan, and Western countries, he is known by his honorific name rather than his private name. Wang

1802-473: The Prince of Ning rebellion . The latter was eventually quelled by Wang Yangming , a prominent neo-Confucian philosopher. As the emperor and eunuchs became increasingly interested in sources of income, they lifted the ban on private foreign trade. This coincided with the arrival of Portuguese sailors in southern China, who began trading with Chinese partners. In 1517, the emperor spent the majority of his time on

1908-606: The School of Principle ( Li ) treated gaining knowledge as a kind of preparation or cultivation that, when completed, could guide action. Out of Cheng-Zhu's Neo-Confucianism that was mainstream at the time, Wang Yangming developed the idea of innate knowing , arguing that every person knows from birth the difference between good and evil. Wang claimed that such knowledge is intuitive and not rational. These revolutionizing ideas of Wang Yangming would later inspire prominent Japanese thinkers like Motoori Norinaga , who argued that because of

2014-510: The Shinto deities, Japanese people alone had the intuitive ability to distinguish good and evil without complex rationalization. His school of thought ( Ōyōmei-gaku in Japanese, Ō stands for the surname "Wang", yōmei stands for "Yangming", gaku stands for "school of learning") also greatly influenced the Japanese samurai ethic. Wang's rejection of the pure investigation of knowledge comes from

2120-547: The Yangtze River and capture the southern capital of Nanjing , Wang actively prepared for battle to prevent that possibility, while engaging in deception to convince the prince that armies were moving to surround him. The prince, deceived by this, hesitated and gave time for Nanjing to be reinforced. Eventually, forced to engage governmental forces, the Prince of Ning was defeated and captured. In this campaign, Wang also made one of

2226-458: The Directorate of Ceremonial. The emperor's attention was also drawn to military matters and officers due to problems with bandits near the capital. Among the officers, Qian Ning , the commander of the palace guard, became the emperor's favorite. He impressed the emperor with his archery and military skills, and later by catering to his personal preferences by procuring musicians, Muslim women for

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2332-607: The Forbidden City. As a result, Liu Jin focused on increasing the emperor's income. He used the threat of heavy fines to force the officials responsible for finances and taxes to bring in the exact amount of money to Beijing. This caused great concern among government officials, as he also demanded levies and supplies from officials on the northern border and Beijing, which left their families impoverished. Furthermore, his agents extorted additional silver payments from mines in Fujian and Sichuan , and even organized illegal sales of salt beyond

2438-572: The Ming dynasty , reigned from 1505 to 1521. He succeeded his father, the Hongzhi Emperor . Zhu Houzhao was the eldest and only surviving son of the Hongzhi Emperor. As the crown prince, he received a Confucian education and was known for his intelligence during his studies. However, upon taking power, it became evident that he had a strong aversion to the Confucian-oriented bureaucracy and rejected

2544-631: The Ministry of Renvenue only had a reserve of 350,000 liang . After much negotiation, the Minister of Renvenue reluctantly agreed to send 500,000 liang . In response, the Zhengde Emperor ordered the guards at the Beijing gates to prevent any officials from entering the city in January 1518. In October 1517, the Mongol Dayan Khan led a raid into Chinese territory with 50,000 horsemen. The emperor, eager for

2650-544: The Ministry of Revenue theoretically brought in 1.5 million liang in silver (equivalent to about 56 tons), the actual amount was much lower due to tax remissions and arrears. In the first year of his reign, the emperor spent 1.4 million liang on donations and rewards, disregarding the advice of conservative officials who urged austerity. The eunuchs, on the other hand, were resourceful in finding new sources of revenue, such as transit taxes, taxes on pastures and wastelands, and levies on imperial estates. This further strengthened

2756-479: The Sino-Mongol border northwest of Beijing , primarily in the garrison town of Datong . During this time, he successfully repelled a major Mongol raid led by Dayan Khan . In 1519, he traveled to Nanjing and remained there for most of 1520. However, on his return journey, he fell into the water while drunk, became ill, and died a few months later. As the Zhengde Emperor did not have any children, Yang Tinghe, with

2862-524: The Zhengde Emperor arrived at Xuanfu. Enthralled by his new surroundings, he decided to settle here and embarked on the construction of a grand mansion at a great expense. He even went as far as to abandon the use of the imperial seal and instead titled himself as a general. Despite protests from the Grand Secretaries, he disregarded their objections. He then demanded that they send him one million liang (37 tons) of silver, but they refused, citing that

2968-441: The actor Zang Xian ( 臧賢 ) and officers Qian Ning and Jiang Bin became the emperor's favorites, while Grand Secretary Yang Tinghe managed the general administration. The administration of Liu Jin was marked by high tax pressure and a decline in the government's authority, which ultimately led to multiple large-scale rebellions. These included the Prince of Anhua rebellion , the rebellion in northern China that began in 1510, and

3074-533: The administrative structure of the Ming Empire and increase the emperor's direct control through eunuch officials futile. The northern provinces of the Ming Empire were relatively poor, despite the presence of the capital city, and even the North Zhili metropolitan area was impoverished. Many poor people from the surrounding areas of Beijing chose to be castrated in hopes of gaining wealth and influence as eunuchs in

3180-451: The alcohol he consumed was relatively harmless, a decree was issued shortly before his arrival in Nanjing that banned the breeding and killing of pigs. This sparked outrage among the population, as it was believed by Muslims (who held influence in the emperor's court) that pigs were impure and could spread diseases. This ban may have also contributed to the negative perception of the phrase "kill

3286-407: The armies on the borders and quelling rebellions within the country. They were also responsible for overseeing the production of silk and porcelain goods, as well as managing regional authorities. The emperor generously rewarded them for their services, often granting their relatives aristocratic titles. The emperor's financial irresponsibility worsened the already dire state of state finances. While

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3392-475: The borderlands be brought to Beijing to fight the rebels, while the soldiers from the capital would be sent to the borders instead. However, Grand Secretary Li Dongyang strongly opposed this idea, arguing that the soldiers from Beijing lacked combat experience and would struggle on the border, while the border guards would struggle to maintain order in the capital. Li Dongyang resigned in protest in February 1513 after

3498-612: The borderlands. This led to a rebellion in Liaodong , which was eventually quelled by distributing 2,500 liang of silver among the malcontents. Zhu Zhifan , Prince of Anhua, took advantage of the discontent and attempted to seize power during rebellion in May 1510. Zhu Zhifan resided in Ningxia , a crucial fortress city on the Mongolian-Chinese border in northwestern Shaanxi . This city served as

3604-409: The censor in charge of the pass refused to open the gate without an edict signed by both the emperess and the empress dowager. Powerless, the emperor was forced to return. He made another attempt a month later, this time passing through the pass while the censor was absent. He left a reliable eunuch, Gu Dayong, in charge with strict orders not to let any officials through. Finally, in mid-September 1517,

3710-422: The court. During the initial months of his rule, Liu Jin eliminated his opponents from the Beijing authorities. In December 1506, Han Wen was dismissed due to accusations of abuse of power, and in February 1507, twenty-one officials who protested against the resignation of the Grand Secretaries were punished. Other officials were beaten, torture, and dismissal. By the summer of 1507, Liu Jin had complete control over

3816-414: The destruction that came with war, he petitioned the court to allow amnesty , and successfully destroyed rebel military forces. In 1519 AD, while he was governor of Jiangxi province and on his way to suppress the revolts in Fujian , Wang was suddenly faced with the Prince of Ning rebellion , led by Zhu Chenhao the fourth Prince of Ning. Given that the prince's base in Nanchang allowed him to sail down

3922-426: The dismay of the officials. In fact, he would often roam the streets of Beijing incognito in search of entertainment, causing great consternation among the officials. One year after his accession, he married a daughter from an officer's family with the surname Xia and made her empress. He also took two other girls as consorts. However, he soon stopped living with the empress. At the suggestion of Yu Yong ( 于永 ),

4028-412: The earliest references to using the fo-lang-ji in battle, a breech loading culverin cannon imported from the newly arrived Portuguese venturers to China. As governor of Jiangxi he also built schools, rehabilitated the rebels, and reconstructed what was lost by the enemy during the revolt. Though he was made an earl, he was ostracized for opposing Zhu Xi . Thirty-eight years after his death, he

4134-513: The emperor exiled the eunuchs who had allied with Liu–Xie group and promoted the members of the "Eight Tigers". Liu Jian, Xie Qian, and others were forced to resign, while Li Dongyang remained in the Grand Secretariat, joined by Jiao Fang ( 焦芳 ; 1436–1517), an ally of Liu Jin who had informed him of the accusations and other allies of the "Eight Tigers". From October 1506 to September 1510, the eunuch-official alliance, led by Liu Jin, dominated

4240-527: The emperor refused to listen to his objections. Despite this, the emperor went ahead with the plan and the first soldiers from Xuanfu began serving in Beijing in February 1513. Border guards were stationed in four camps within the Imperial City area, with the Zhengde Emperor viewing them as his personal army and considering himself their general. He had a particular fondness for four officers—Jiang Bin, Xu Tai ( 許泰 ), Shen Zhou, and Liu Hui ( 劉暉 ). He entrusted

4346-524: The emperor's court. During the Zhengde era, over 3,500 eunuchs applied for positions in the Forbidden City, but only a small percentage were successful. The majority of unsuccessful applicants were forced to live on the fringes of society or turn to a life of crime. The presence of imperial estates, the land of the imperial family, and the aristocracy further exacerbated the problems in the northern region. According to modern estimates, these estates covered 15–40% of

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4452-461: The emperor's support for the eunuchs. Concerned about the emperor's actions and the influence of the eunuchs, a group of high officials, led by Grand Secretaries Liu Jian and Xie Qian, formed an alliance with prominent eunuchs. They accused the eunuchs in the emperor's inner circle, known as the " Eight Tigers " (including Liu Jin and seven others), who had been promoted in 1505, of wrongdoing. The officials demanded that Liu Jin be executed and

4558-465: The emperor's supposed last words, which stated that his mother, Empress Dowager Zhang , and Grand Secretaries would rule the empire. Grand Secretary Yang Tinghe took the initiative and had a plan of his own: to put the emperor's closest cousin, thirteen-year-old Zhu Houcong , on the throne. This cousin was the son of the recently (in 1519) deceased Zhu Youyuan , Prince of Xing. By noon on 20 April, Yang Tinghe had received approval from Lady Zhang and

4664-424: The empress had ordered his dethronement. His vanguard departed from Nanchang and headed north, taking control of Jiujiang on the Yangtze River on 13 July and beginning the siege of Anqing (a prefectural seat on the Yangtze River, 240 km from Nanjing ) on 23 July. Meanwhile, on 14 July, Wang Yangming, the governor of southern Jiangxi, learned of the rebellion and immediately began assembling an army. He also fed

4770-545: The eunuch Zhang Yong (one of the "Eight Tigers") to Ningxia with a force of 30,000 soldiers from the Beijing garrison. This was the first time in the history of the Ming dynasty that a eunuch had been given a separate command. To support the troops in Xuanfu , Datong , and Yansui, the commanders were provided with a million liang of silver to cover the costs of troop movements. During the campaign, Yang Yiqing convinced Zhang Yong to turn against Liu Jin by warning him that his life

4876-619: The first two with the command of the Beijing garrison, including the newly arrived units. Gradually, he developed a taste for military finery and uniforms, even personally training a group of eunuchs in military skills. In addition to his military pursuits, the emperor also enjoyed hunting. However, in September 1514, he was injured by a tiger, which left him bedridden for a month. Despite this, he remained unwilling to give up his pleasures and instead transferred officials who advised him to be more cautious outside of Beijing. The Zhengde Emperor had

4982-503: The funeral of Empress Dowager Wang, the widow of the Chenghua Emperor, the grandfather of the Zhengde Emperor. In May, he inspected the imperial tombs and then visited the garrison at Miyun , which is located 65 km northeast of Beijing. He then returned to Beijing for the funeral of Empress Dowager Wang, which began on 22 July. In August 1518, he forced the Grand Secretaries to write an edict naming him "Zhu Shou" ( 朱壽 ) and granting him

5088-522: The government were Zang Xian, Qian Ning, and Lu Wan (who served as Minister of War from 1513 to 1515, and then as Minister of Personnel). Through their help, he was able to obtain permission to establish a personal guard and gain authority over local military garrisons and members of the imperial family. He built his own armed force from local "strong men". However, his actions sparked numerous complaints from Jiangxi, with reports of land grabbing, excessive taxation, and intimidation of officials. Despite

5194-466: The government, and no important documents were approved without his consent. So far, the emperor has been spending without any restrictions. In September 1507, he paid 350 thousand liang (13 tons) of silver just for the lanterns for the Lantern Festival . Additionally, the buildings in the imperial park south of Beijing were rebuilt, and he even built the "Leopard Quarter" ( Bao Fang ) northwest of

5300-436: The guise of carrying out the emperor's will, even though the emperor's will did not actually exist. Most of the Zhengde Emperor's favorites were recalled and faced punishment, demotion, or exile. Jiang Bin's wealth was also confiscated, including 70 chests of gold and 2,200 chests of silver. In 1503, after a hiatus of seventy years, the government resumed the production of coins. They attempted to bolster their value by issuing

5406-500: The harem, and Tibetan monks who were experts in tantric Buddhism. In 1512, a twenty-year-old officer named Jiang Bin from the Xuanfu garrison caught the attention of the emperor after his bravery in a battle against rebels the previous year. Despite being hit by three arrows, including one in the ear, Jiang Bin continued to fight and became the emperor's new favorite. He proposed a rotation of units, suggesting that experienced soldiers from

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5512-473: The headquarters for one of the nine border military regions. Believing himself to be a potential candidate for the throne, Zhu Zhifan gathered a group of loyalists, including officers from the Ningxia garrison and members of the local gentry. In the spring of 1510, he gained the support of other officers and on 12 May, he took control of Ningxia and its surrounding areas, declaring a campaign against Liu Jin. However,

5618-468: The histories this marked the beginning of the young emperor's authoritarian rule. This article related to the history of China is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Zhengde Emperor The Zhengde Emperor (26 October 1491 – 20 April 1521), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Wuzong of Ming , personal name Zhu Houzhao , was the 11th emperor of

5724-538: The idea of going to Xuanfu. Jiang Bin, in an attempt to separate the Zhengde Emperor from Qian Ning, convinced the emperor that Xuanfu had better musicians and women, and that he would have real battles with the Mongols on the border instead of simulated ones in Beijing. In mid-August 1517, the emperor finally made the journey to Xuanfu. After five days, he arrived at the Juyong Pass, located 50 km northwest of Beijing. However,

5830-443: The imperial laundries in Beijing. The sheer number of women was overwhelming, leading to overcrowding and lack of resources, resulting in cases of malnutrition and even starvation. Furthermore, the emperor's frequent hunting trips with a large entourage in the densely populated south were deeply unpopular among the people. The emperor dispatched soldiers from the north, led by Jiang Bin and the eunuch Zhang Yong, to Jiangxi. Their goal

5936-515: The imperial treatment of the Zhengde Emperor and his widow Empress Xia . The couple together had passed the throne to their cousin instead of an adopted child of their own, in favor of their mother-in-law. As a matter of fact, Emperor Jiajing's grandfather Emperor Chenghua had other great-grandsons and this was brought up in the discussion of royal succession with the empress dowager, prior to summoning Emperor Jiajing to Beijing in her name. Emperor Jiajing decided to allow his own father Zhu Youyuan ,

6042-451: The issue with the Prince of Ning in the summer of 1519, when Jiang Bin and Zhang Yong convinced him of the prince's and Qian Ning's misconduct. The prince had received information from his spies in Beijing about unfavorable developments, prompting him to openly rebel in Nanchang on 10 July 1419. He claimed that the Zhengde Emperor was an impostor and not a member of the imperial family, and that

6148-573: The land in the North Zhili erea. These estates were often beyond the control of local authorities, as they were responsible for collecting taxes and levies themselves, which amounted to about a third of the harvest. On the other hand, the owners of these estates preferred to manage them directly, often hiring eunuchs and administrators to oversee their operations. These administrators often recruited individuals who were not registered in official population records, including deserters and local criminals. In

6254-529: The late Ming period, Wang Yangming's thought became notably popular and influential in China. Wang's interpretation of Confucianism has been influential in China into modern times. The twentieth-century Chinese warlord Yan Xishan attempted to revive Confucianism in Shanxi largely on the model of Wang's philosophy. The teachings of Wang Yangming were credited with inspiring many Japanese reformers and revolutionaries during

6360-455: The late Prince Xian of Xing, to be posthumously elevated to the status of emperor and particularly be granted seniority over Zhengde Emperor. Grand Secretary Yang Tinghe was forced into retirement; his son Yang Shen who led the counter-argument was sent to exile and nearly murdered on the way. By the end of Emperor Jiajing's one-sided settlement, enemies and dissenters at court were beaten (sometimes to death), imprisoned, or banished. According to

6466-431: The matter was settled. However, the Minister of Personnel, Wang Qiong (1459–1532), insisted on convening a general assembly to discuss the new emperor. Jiang Bin was a powerful figure with his own army, making him a potential threat. On 22 April, he returned to the Forbidden City where he was informed by Yang Tinghe about a decree to return border troops from Beijing to the border. This meant that Jiang Bin's main support

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6572-481: The mind alone is the source of all reason. He understood this to be an inner light, an innate moral goodness and understanding of what is good. In order to eliminate selfish desires that cloud the mind's understanding of goodness, one can practice his type of meditation often called "tranquil repose" or "sitting still" (靜坐 jingzuo ). This is similar to the practice of Chan ( Zen ) meditation in Buddhism . Wang Yangming

6678-462: The mints again in 1509. Wang Yangming Wang Shouren ( Chinese : 王守仁 , 26 October 1472 – 9 January 1529), courtesy name Bo'an ( Chinese : 伯安 ), art name Yangmingzi ( traditional Chinese : 陽明子 ; simplified Chinese : 阳明子 ), usually referred to as Wang Yangming ( traditional Chinese : 王陽明 ; simplified Chinese : 王阳明 ), was a Chinese philosopher , general, politician, writer, and calligrapher during

6784-539: The nineteenth century. This led to a great increase in interest in his thought in Japan at the end of the Meiji period , when many Chinese activists such as Liang Qichao and Chiang Kai-shek were staying in Japan. Some Chinese and Korean thinkers believed that Wang Yangming's teachings strongly influenced the development of modern bushido (the "way of the warrior") in Japan, and promoted both ethics in their countries to strengthen

6890-594: The north. However, his journey was plagued by constant drunkenness, which ultimately took a toll on him on 25 October. While fishing in Qingjiangpu (in present-day Huaiyin ), his boat capsized and he was rescued by helpers. Unfortunately, his excessive alcohol consumption had already weakened his health, and he fell seriously ill. Despite his condition, he continued his journey without stopping until he reached Tongzhou , located east of Beijing, in December 1520. The emperor

6996-402: The northwestern border with the Mongols, and conflicts between the imperial eunuchs and officials regarding problem-solving methods. Unfortunately, the emperor tended to side with the eunuchs, disregarding the counsel of the Grand Secretaries. This disagreement between the ruler and his officials was partly due to a generational gap, as the Zhengde Emperor was young and the youngest Grand Secretary

7102-463: The others punished. The eunuchs, feeling threatened by the rise of the "Eight Tigers", initially only wanted Liu Jin to be transferred to the south, but on 27 October 1506, the Minister of Revenue, Han Wen ( 韓文 ), petitioned for the execution of all eight. The emperor refused, but agreed to punish them. However, at the last minute, the "Eight Tigers" convinced the emperor that their accusers were conspiring against them in an attempt to gain power. Enraged,

7208-495: The prince false information about the movements of government troops and the betrayal of his closest confidants. Believing this misinformation, the prince cautiously retreated to Anqing with his main forces (consisting of 60,000–70,000 soldiers) until 26 July. However, their attempt to capture Anqing failed and resulted in heavy losses. At the same time, Wang Yangming's army had gathered and took control of Nanchang on 14 August. The prince then returned south with his main forces, but

7314-427: The prince's records, which documented his dealings with local elites. This ensured that only the main conspirators could be prosecuted. Zang Xian and Qian Ning were arrested in December 1519, followed by the arrest of minister Lu Wan and a group of eunuchs and imperial guards in December 1520. All of them were subsequently executed. The Zhengde Emperor remained in Nanjing until 23 September 1520, before departing for

7420-413: The principle of equality or even subordination of civilian and military officials to eunuchs. These reforms sparked strong opposition from officials, who were forced to comply through brutal terror. He also faced hostility from other eunuchs, including the remaining seven "Tigers". In response, he established a new agency to investigate the resistance among the eunuchs. While Liu Jin focused on governing

7526-466: The quotas. When officials arrested them, they were arrested themselves. The influence of the eunuchs continued to grow, as evidenced by the fact that in March 1507, the eunuch intendants in the provinces were granted equal status to the leading provincial officials. This gave them the authority to handle administrative and legal matters. Liu Jin attempted to reorganize the administration of the empire based on

7632-585: The rebellion did not spread as the commanders of the garrisons in Lingzhou and Yansui opposed the rebels. By 30 May, the prince was captured a pro-government general, who had apparently joined the uprising. The rebellion quickly collapsed and all the rebels were captured within days. Meanwhile, the emperor, after consulting with his Grand Secretaries and ministers, implemented a comprehensive set of counterinsurgency measures. He appointed Shen Ying ( 神英 ), Earl of Jingyang, and Yang Yiqing , Censor-in-chief, to oversee

7738-421: The rebellion still flared up. By February 1511, the rebels had amassed several thousand horsemen and were attacking cities. However, the government's army sent to stop them was ineffective. The officials leading the troops preferred negotiations, and the soldiers avoided fighting. In August 1511, the rebels even besieged Wen'an. Reinforcements were called in from the borderlands and the command was changed, but there

7844-486: The rebels, but the Miao tribes instead joined forces with the southern Sichuan rebels. Despite this, the government was able to gradually suppress the rebellion in Sichuan and ultimately eliminate it by 1514. In 1511, there were also rebel groups in the mountains of Jiangxi, which were eventually defeated with the help of mercenaries from non-Chinese tribes from neighboring provinces in 1513. In 1517, another rebellion erupted in

7950-538: The requests and desires of the eunuchs. In the early years of his reign, he actively avoided official audiences and discussions on Confucian topics. This behavior was seen as a major concern for the Confucian-minded bureaucracy, as they believed that a monarch who adhered to all ceremonies, precedents, and duties was crucial for the functioning of the state. However, the Zhengde Emperor had a wide range of other interests, including riding, archery, hunting, and music. He

8056-476: The right path. On 19 June 1505, Zhu Houzhao ascended the throne as the tenth Ming emperor. His era name, Zhengde, comes from a quote from the Book of Documents and means "the rectification ( zheng ) of the people's virtue ( de )". Upon ascending to the throne, the Zhengde Emperor was confronted with three major issues that had been passed down to him: insufficient state revenue, a vulnerable military presence on

8162-501: The rituals and duties associated with it. He frequently clashed with ministers and great secretaries, instead relying on eunuchs, particularly the " Eight Tigers ", with whom he had grown up. From 1506 to 1510, the eunuch Liu Jin effectively controlled the government, appointing his allies and supporters to important positions. The emperor even moved out of the Forbidden City to the newly built "Leopard Quarter" where he surrounded himself with eunuchs and officers. After Liu Jin's downfall,

8268-588: The rituals at the funeral of Empress Wang (the wife of his grandfather, the Chenghua Emperor) in 1518. He held a negative view of officials, viewing them as corrupt and incompetent. As a result, he entrusted state affairs to eunuchs, appointing them to military and financial positions from the beginning of his reign. He actively avoided interacting with officials and instead relied on eunuchs to handle matters, as they never questioned his orders. He also valued their intelligence and entrusted them with supervising

8374-419: The severe punishment typically imposed on princes for even minor offenses, his behavior was overlooked. In an attempt to gain power through non-violent means, he sought to exploit the emperor's lack of an heir. In the spring of 1516, he bribed Qian Ning and others to summon his eldest son to Beijing as a candidate for crown prince. However, this plan ultimately failed. The Zhengde Emperor was only made aware of

8480-471: The situation in Ningxia. Both had previous experience in the region, making them well-equipped to handle the task successfully. In addition, he promoted several officers from the Ningxia garrison, offered amnesty to lower-ranking rebels, and promised rewards for those who returned to the government's side. He also allocated a significant sum of money for this purpose. As a precaution, he granted amnesty for minor offenses to all princes. Furthermore, he dispatched

8586-411: The south of Jiangxi, and Wang Yangming was sent to the area as a grand coordinator to restore order in 1518. After the downfall of Liu Jin, the emperor faced financial difficulties and, due to the refusal of officials to change the established order, he turned to eunuchs for extraordinary acquisitions. Those who opposed this were harshly punished. One of the leading eunuchs was Wei Bin, who took over

8692-580: The spirit of their respective peoples. The Japanese Admiral of the Russo-Japanese War , Tōgō Heihachirō , was influenced by Wang, and made a stamp which read, "One's whole life followed the example of Yangming" ( Japanese : 一生低首拜陽明 ). In Japan, many scholars and politicians (this group of people is known in Japanese as "Yōmeigakusha" (Japanese: 陽明学者 ) came from Wang Yangming's school ( Ōyōmei-gaku ) in history, including Kumazawa Banzan , Saigō Takamori , Takasugi Shinsaku and Nakae Tōju . Toju Nakae

8798-648: The state, the emperor indulged in the pleasures of the new "Leopard Quarter", surrounded by flattering eunuchs, officers, musicians, lamas, and beauties. The emperor had particular favorites, including Qian Ning, an officer of the "Embroidered Uniformed Guards" known for his strength and archery skills, and actor Zang Xian, who was appointed deputy director of the Music Bureau for his musical talent. These favorites held significant influence over many officials and office seekers. Improving state income through higher taxation of military households caused widespread discontent in

8904-454: The summer of 1509, the security situation south of Beijing deteriorated as Liu Jin's attempts to raise levies on military households resulted in desertions. This led to banded deserters plundering the countryside. In 1510, a large number of these deserters organized into a unified group based in Wen'an , located 130 km south of Beijing, and began planning a rebellion. Although their leader was captured,

9010-407: The support of the deceased emperor's mother, Empress Dowager Zhang , placed his closest male relative, Zhu Houcong , on the throne. Zhu Houcong was only thirteen years old and the son of the Hongzhi Emperor's younger brother, Zhu Youyuan . Zhu Houzhao was born on November 14, 1491, as the eldest son of the Hongzhi Emperor , who ruled as the ninth emperor of the Ming dynasty from 1487. His mother

9116-517: The then traditional view of Chinese belief that once one gained knowledge, one had a duty to put that knowledge into action. This presupposed two possibilities: That one can have knowledge without/prior to corresponding action or that one can know what is the proper action, but still fail to act. Wang rejected both of these which allowed him to develop his philosophy of action. Wang believed that only through spontaneous action could one gain knowledge and denied all other ways of gaining it. To him, there

9222-436: The throne (namely, by newly qualified scholar-bureaucrats Zhang Cong and Gui E) arguing that rituals performed contrary to the emperor's own heart would be against human nature. Encouraged by this, gradually Emperor Jiajing fostered the idea of "ascending the clan but not the lineage" and grew more presumptuous. The core counter-argument to Emperor Jiajing's claim, supported by a large majority of court officials, had to do with

9328-404: The titles of general and duke for his successes in fighting against the Mongols. He returned to his "home" in Xuanfu in September 1518, and then traveled to Datong and Yansui. In January-February 1519, he headed to Beijing via Taiyuan and arrived there in March 1519. Upon his return, the Zhengde Emperor announced his intention to travel to Shandong and the southern region. However, his decision

9434-413: The way, Yang Tinghe was able to secure the succession and rule the empire virtually indefinitely. He dismissed the eunuch inspectors from the border garrisons, sent the border troops in Beijing back to the border, and sent foreign envoys, monks from the Leopard Quarter, artisans, entertainers, and women who had been assembled by the emperor in Beijing back to their respective homes. All of this was done under

9540-487: The widespread defiance of the officials, the emperor ultimately decided to postpone his trip. Zhu Chenhao , Prince of Ning, belonged to a minor branch of the Ming dynasty, which was based in Nanchang, the capital of the southern Chinese province of Jiangxi. Driven by ambition and a desire for greatness, he sought to gain power and influence. In order to achieve this, he initially resorted to bribery, targeting Liu Jin. However, after Liu Jin's downfall, his main supporters in

9646-673: Was Empress Zhang , the only wife of the Hongzhi Emperor. In 1492, the Hongzhi Emperor named him crown prince. The father saw himself in his son and took him with him when he traveled, supporting his interests in riding and archery, and pampering him. The Crown Prince was an excellent student, fulfilling his duties with care and courtesy. The Hongzhi Emperor died on 8 June 1505. On his deathbed, he called upon his closest aides, Grand Secretaries Liu Jian ( 劉健 ), Li Dongyang, and Xie Qian ( 謝遷 ), to faithfully serve his son. He assessed Zhu Houzhao as an intelligent young man, but also fond of comfort and pleasure. Therefore, he asked them to guide him on

9752-563: Was able to persuade him. The following day, Liu Jin was transferred to Nanjing and his property were seized. When the emperor saw the vast amount of weapons and treasures that Liu had accumulated, he ordered his execution, despite Liu's insistence on his innocence. On 16 September, Liu Jin was arrested and his three-day execution began on 27 September. As a result of Liu's downfall, his allies were also removed, and his reforms were reversed. Any documents related to his proposed reforms were destroyed, effectively rendering his efforts to change

9858-579: Was born in Yuyao , Zhejiang Province , to a scholarly family with a tradition of bureaucratic service. His father, Wang Hua, was first ( Zhuangyuan , 狀元) in the Imperial Examination of 1481, and rose to become the vice-minister of the Ministry of Rites , but was later demoted and subsequently expelled from government service for having offended Liu Jin , a eunuch. Wang earned the juren degree in 1492 and

9964-409: Was defeated in a three-day river battle at Lake Poyang, resulting in his capture by Wang Yangming's army. The rebellion of the Prince of Ning gave the Zhengde Emperor a solid justification for taking the southern tour. He departed from Beijing on 15 September 1519. He arrived in Nanjing in January 1520 and stayed there for eight months. During this time, he mostly indulged in leisure activities. While

10070-457: Was fifty-six years old. In contrast to his father, who exercised imperial authority sparingly, delegated power effectively, and dutifully fulfilled his responsibilities, the Zhengde Emperor showed little concern for state affairs. His restless spirit rebelled against official orthodoxy and he disregarded the meticulously prescribed ceremonial and ritual duties of an emperor. He resisted the objections and demands of officials, but readily fulfilled

10176-648: Was given the titles Marquis and Completion of Culture. In 1584 he was offered sacrifice in the Confucian Temple , the highest honour for a scholar. Wang was the leading figure in the Neo-Confucian School of heart , founded by Lu Jiuyuan (陸九淵, or Lu Xiangshan) of the Southern Song . This school championed an interpretation of Mencius , a Classical Confucian who became the focus of later interpretation, that unified knowledge with action. Their rival school,

10282-428: Was gravely ill and his death was imminent. Jiang Bin requested a transfer to Xuanfu in order to have control over succession decisions while the emperor was away from officials. However, the emperor's condition was too weak. Eventually, the doctor convinced him to travel to Beijing for better recovery before his next trip. On 18 January 1521, he arrived in Beijing with great ceremony. Just three days later, while performing

10388-405: Was in danger due to Liu Jin's plans for another coup. Upon returning to Beijing, Zhang Yong joined forces with the other six "Tigers" and on 13 September 1510, they accused Liu Jin of plotting against the emperor. It was reported that Liu Jin intended to assassinate the emperor and place his own great-nephew on the throne. Despite the emperor's initial reluctance to believe the accusations, the group

10494-403: Was met with strong opposition from the Grand Secretaries, Minister of Rites, ministers, and censors. Despite mass arrests and beatings, which resulted in the deaths of twelve or fourteen officials, the protests continued. The main concern behind the protests was not just the journey itself, but also the fear of the Prince of Ning's potential plots to assassinate the emperor during the trip. Due to

10600-491: Was no success. In fact, in one ambush, the bandits burned a thousand ships that were importing grain to the capital via the Grand Canal . In November 1511, the command of the government troops was once again changed, but it had little impact. In January 1512, the rebels launched an attack on Bazhou , which is located 100 km south of Beijing. The army received reinforcements from the borderlands—Xuanfu, Datong, and Liaodong —but it

10706-417: Was no way to use knowledge after gaining it because he believed that knowledge and action were unified as one. Any knowledge that had been gained then put into action was considered delusion or false. He held that objects do not exist entirely apart from the mind because the mind shapes them. He believed that it is not the world that shapes the mind, but the mind that gives reason to the world. Therefore,

10812-488: Was not until the summer of 1512 that the rebels were finally defeated. Some of them retreated south across the Yangtze River to Jiangxi , while others went east to Shandong , and the remaining rebels headed southwest to the city of Wuhan on the Yangtze River. From there, with a force of 800 men, they sailed downstream and plundered before being destroyed by a typhoon off Tongzhou on 28 August and they were slaughtered by

10918-480: Was particularly fond of composing songs and singing, and he promoted music throughout the court. He also enjoyed playing games with his eunuchs, leading to the establishment of several imperial shops run by them. He supported various forms of entertainment, such as wrestling, acrobatics, magic, and fireworks. He often indulged in these activities with the eunuchs, neglecting his studies and getting drunk for days on end. He even refused to attend to state affairs, much to

11024-404: Was reluctant to do this partly because he feared the influence of the Hongzhi Emperor's surviving wife, Empress Dowager Zhang . In this he had the support of his biological mother, who was angered by the prospect that her son could be removed from her by adoption. The conflict between the emperor backed by his mother and officialdom backed by the empress dowager was finally broken by memorials to

11130-409: Was taken away from him. Despite being urged by his allies to take action, he hesitated and was eventually arrested on 24 April. Yang Tinghe obtained permission for his arrest from the eunuch-heads of the Directorate of Ceremonial, Wei Bin and Zhang Rui ( 張銳 ), in exchange for the other eunuchs being granted immunity. Only Jiang Bin's allies among the officers were arrested with him. With Jiang Bin out of

11236-405: Was to prevent Wang Yanming from achieving victory by staging a fake battle and capturing the prince on behalf of the emperor. However, Wang Yangming refused to cooperate and instead worked to minimize the impact of the troops' presence in Jiangxi, earning him widespread admiration. During the prince's trial, all of his associates were charged, but Wang Yangming had the foresight to destroy most of

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