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50-543: F.B. Meek and F.V. Hayden originated the scientific names for the series of Cretaceous rocks in the central Great Plains of the North American Continent . They gave the name "Benton" to the great shale deposits between the sandstone bluffs at Dakota City, Nebraska , and the chalk bluffs at the junction of the Niobrara and Missouri rivers. At that time, the early 1860s, Meek and Hayden's "lower Cretaceous" series of

100-435: A Fe face-centered cubic sublattice into which the S 2 ions are embedded. (Note though that the iron atoms in the faces are not equivalent by translation alone to the iron atoms at the corners.) The pyrite structure is also seen in other MX 2 compounds of transition metals M and chalcogens X = O , S , Se and Te . Certain dipnictides with X standing for P , As and Sb etc. are also known to adopt

150-485: A flatter plain that stretches miles to another bluff of chalky shale with many thin limestones. Particularly, in places where rivers have cut deeply through this lower chalky shale, and furthermore have cut into the bases of the bluffs, 100 feet (30 m) banks of non-chalky shale can be found. In 1896, G.K. Gilbert named this lower argillaceous shale Graneros (from R.C. Hills) for the exposures in Graneros Creek,

200-454: A form of tinder made of stringybark by the Kaurna people of South Australia , as a traditional method of starting fires. Pyrite has been used since classical times to manufacture copperas ( ferrous sulfate ). Iron pyrite was heaped up and allowed to weather (an example of an early form of heap leaching ). The acidic runoff from the heap was then boiled with iron to produce iron sulfate. In

250-586: A foul odor and corrosion of copper wiring. In the United States, in Canada, and more recently in Ireland, where it was used as underfloor infill, pyrite contamination has caused major structural damage. Concrete exposed to sulfate ions, or sulfuric acid, degrades by sulfate attack : the formation of expansive mineral phases, such as ettringite (small needle crystals exerting a huge crystallization pressure inside

300-409: A replacement mineral in fossils , but has also been identified in the sclerites of scaly-foot gastropods . Despite being nicknamed "fool's gold", pyrite is sometimes found in association with small quantities of gold. A substantial proportion of the gold is "invisible gold" incorporated into the pyrite (see Carlin-type gold deposit ). It has been suggested that the presence of both gold and arsenic

350-584: A simple liquid-phase exfoliation route. This is the first study to demonstrate the production of non-layered 2D-platelets from 3D bulk FeS 2 . Furthermore, they have used these 2D-platelets with 20% single walled carbon-nanotube as an anode material in lithium-ion batteries, reaching a capacity of 1000 mAh/g close to the theoretical capacity of FeS 2 . In 2021, a natural pyrite stone has been crushed and pre-treated followed by liquid-phase exfoliation into two-dimensional nanosheets, which has shown capacities of 1200 mAh/g as an anode in lithium-ion batteries. From

400-779: A tributary of the Arkansas River near Pueblo. Thus, the Graneros records the opening transgression of the Greenhorn Marine Cycle of the Western Interior Seaway , and is therefore the complement of the similar Blue Hills Shale of the Carlile Formation that records the regression of the same Greenhorn Sea. By 1938, the Graneros had been mapped into eastern Wyoming, southeastern Montana, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and northeastern New Mexico. The same Benton topography

450-458: Is cubic and was among the first crystal structures solved by X-ray diffraction . It belongs to the crystallographic space group Pa 3 and is denoted by the Strukturbericht notation C2. Under thermodynamic standard conditions the lattice constant a {\displaystyle a} of stoichiometric iron pyrite FeS 2 amounts to 541.87 pm . The unit cell is composed of

500-399: Is a case of coupled substitution but as of 1997 the chemical state of the gold remained controversial. Pyrite gained a brief popularity in the 16th and 17th centuries as a source of ignition in early firearms , most notably the wheellock , where a sample of pyrite was placed against a circular file to strike the sparks needed to fire the gun. Pyrite is used with flintstone and

550-404: Is a common accessory mineral in igneous rocks, where it also occasionally occurs as larger masses arising from an immiscible sulfide phase in the original magma. It is found in metamorphic rocks as a product of contact metamorphism . It also forms as a high-temperature hydrothermal mineral , though it occasionally forms at lower temperatures. Pyrite occurs both as a primary mineral, present in

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600-460: Is about 1 atm . A newer commercial use for pyrite is as the cathode material in Energizer brand non-rechargeable lithium metal batteries . Pyrite is a semiconductor material with a band gap of 0.95 eV . Pure pyrite is naturally n-type, in both crystal and thin-film forms, potentially due to sulfur vacancies in the pyrite crystal structure acting as n-dopants. During the early years of

650-458: Is accelerated by the action of Acidithiobacillus bacteria which oxidize pyrite to first produce ferrous ions ( Fe ), sulfate ions ( SO 4 ), and release protons (   H , or H 3 O ). In a second step, the ferrous ions ( Fe ) are oxidized by O 2 into ferric ions ( Fe ) which hydrolyze also releasing   H ions and producing FeO(OH). These oxidation reactions occur more rapidly when pyrite

700-423: Is accounted for by point symmetry groups C 3 i and C 3 , respectively. The missing center of inversion at S lattice sites has important consequences for the crystallographic and physical properties of iron pyrite. These consequences derive from the crystal electric field active at the sulfur lattice site, which causes a polarization of S ions in the pyrite lattice. The polarisation can be calculated on

750-790: Is also found in the Smoky Hills  of Northcentral Kansas, and the same Graneros Formation is found in the river banks there. In Iowa and Nebraska, the Graneros grades into middle- Cenomanian rock of the Woodbury Member the Dakota Formation . As discussed in the Description section, the Graneros exceptionally demonstrates Walther's Law of Facies . As the Greenhorn Cycle of the Western Interior Seaway advanced eastward, formation of

800-554: Is also the fastest growing in terms of the unroasted iron pyrites imports, with a CAGR of +27.8% from 2007 to 2016. In July 2020 scientists reported that they have observed a voltage-induced transformation of normally diamagnetic pyrite into a ferromagnetic material, which may lead to applications in devices such as solar cells or magnetic data storage. Researchers at Trinity College Dublin , Ireland have demonstrated that FeS 2 can be exfoliated into few-layers just like other two-dimensional layered materials such as graphene by

850-522: Is brighter yellow with a greenish hue when wet and is softer (3.5–4 on Mohs' scale). Arsenopyrite (FeAsS) is silver white and does not become more yellow when wet. Iron pyrite is unstable when exposed to the oxidizing conditions prevailing at the Earth's surface: iron pyrite in contact with atmospheric oxygen and water, or damp, ultimately decomposes into iron oxyhydroxides ( ferrihydrite , FeO(OH)) and sulfuric acid ( H 2 SO 4 ). This process

900-443: Is brittle, gold is malleable. Natural gold tends to be anhedral (irregularly shaped without well defined faces), whereas pyrite comes as either cubes or multifaceted crystals with well developed and sharp faces easy to recognise. Well crystallised pyrite crystals are euhedral ( i.e. , with nice faces). Pyrite can often be distinguished by the striations which, in many cases, can be seen on its surface. Chalcopyrite ( CuFeS 2 )

950-449: Is finely dispersed (framboidal crystals initially formed by sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) in argillaceous sediments or dust from mining operations). Pyrite oxidation by atmospheric O 2 in the presence of moisture ( H 2 O ) initially produces ferrous ions ( Fe ) and sulfuric acid which dissociates into sulfate ions and protons , leading to acid mine drainage (AMD). An example of acid rock drainage caused by pyrite

1000-417: Is interred at Congressional Cemetery . Pyrite The mineral pyrite ( / ˈ p aɪ r aɪ t / PY -ryte ), or iron pyrite , also known as fool's gold , is an iron sulfide with the chemical formula Fe S 2 (iron (II) disulfide). Pyrite is the most abundant sulfide mineral . Pyrite's metallic luster and pale brass-yellow hue give it a superficial resemblance to gold , hence

1050-453: Is not a formally recognised mineral, and is named after the Peruvian scientist Jose J. Bravo (1874–1928). Pyrite is distinguishable from native gold by its hardness, brittleness and crystal form. Pyrite fractures are very uneven , sometimes conchoidal because it does not cleave along a preferential plane. Native gold nuggets , or glitters, do not break but deform in a ductile way. Pyrite

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1100-430: Is sprayed onto the exposed coal surfaces to reduce the hazard of dust explosions . This has the secondary benefit of neutralizing the acid released by pyrite oxidation and therefore slowing the oxidation cycle described above, thus reducing the likelihood of spontaneous combustion. In the long term, however, oxidation continues, and the hydrated sulfates formed may exert crystallization pressure that can expand cracks in

1150-419: Is the 2015 Gold King Mine waste water spill . Pyrite oxidation is sufficiently exothermic that underground coal mines in high-sulfur coal seams have occasionally had serious problems with spontaneous combustion . The solution is the use of buffer blasting and the use of various sealing or cladding agents to hermetically seal the mined-out areas to exclude oxygen. In modern coal mines, limestone dust

1200-566: Is used to make marcasite jewelry . Marcasite jewelry, using small faceted pieces of pyrite, often set in silver , has been made since ancient times and was popular in the Victorian era . At the time when the term became common in jewelry making, "marcasite" referred to all iron sulfides including pyrite, and not to the orthorhombic FeS 2 mineral marcasite which is lighter in color, brittle and chemically unstable, and thus not suitable for jewelry making. Marcasite jewelry does not actually contain

1250-643: The Dakota Group and is in turn overlain by the Greenhorn Limestone . The thickness varies from 114–1,000 feet (35–305 m). Because the Graneros Shale is nearly monolithologic, only one member and one bed have ever been named. As discussed in the previous Naming and Rank section, the Graneros name was applied in South Dakota to a group of other units; however, this has no relation to the description of

1300-772: The Megatherium Club at the Smithsonian Institution. In 1867, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society . Besides many separate contributions to science, he prepared with WM Gabb (1839–1878) two volumes on the palaeontology of California (1864–1869) and a Report on the Invertebrate Cretaceous and Tertiary Fossils of the Upper Missouri Country (1876). He died of tuberculosis at Washington in 1876 and

1350-636: The United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories as an assistant to D. D. Owen in Iowa , and subsequently in Wisconsin and Minnesota . In 1852 he became assistant to Professor James Hall at Albany, New York , and worked at palaeontology with him until 1858. He received training in illustration from Frederick Swinton. Meanwhile, in 1853 he accompanied FV Hayden in an exploration of

1400-439: The badlands of Dakota and brought back valuable collections of fossils. In 1858 following clashes with Hall he went to Washington, D.C. , where he devoted his time to the palaeontological work of the United States geological and geographical surveys, his work bearing the stamp of the most faithful and conscientious research, and raising him to the highest rank as a palaeontologist. About this time, both he and Hayden joined

1450-522: The 15th century, new methods of such leaching began to replace the burning of sulfur as a source of sulfuric acid . By the 19th century, it had become the dominant method. Pyrite remains in commercial use for the production of sulfur dioxide , for use in such applications as the paper industry , and in the manufacture of sulfuric acid. Thermal decomposition of pyrite into FeS ( iron(II) sulfide ) and elemental sulfur starts at 540 °C (1,004 °F); at around 700 °C (1,292 °F), p S 2

1500-432: The 20th century, pyrite was used as a mineral detector in radio receivers, and is still used by crystal radio hobbyists. Until the vacuum tube matured, the crystal detector was the most sensitive and dependable detector available—with considerable variation between mineral types and even individual samples within a particular type of mineral. Pyrite detectors occupied a midway point between galena detectors and

1550-571: The Black Hills is seen with "microfauna identical to" that of the Newcastle, which, in sequence, traces to the Dakota type in the east. By the 1960s, Darton's definition was recognized as problematic, but many geologists continued to use this classification. It is understood that the listed formations are widely known individually, most with little relationship to the original Graneros Formation definition; and,

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1600-447: The Elder described one of them as being brassy, almost certainly a reference to what is now called pyrite. By Georgius Agricola 's time, c.  1550 , the term had become a generic term for all of the sulfide minerals . Pyrite is usually found associated with other sulfides or oxides in quartz veins , sedimentary rock , and metamorphic rock , as well as in coal beds and as

1650-699: The Graneros Shale formation. The Graneros/Belle Fouche Shale is an important hydrocarbon source rock in the High Plains production basins . The upper part of the formation contains abundant oyster fossils and the ammonoids Tarrantoceras sellardsi Adkins, Desmoceras , Anthoceras , and Borissiakoceras . The mollusks Inoceramus rutherfordi Warren, Ostrea beloiti Logan, and Turrilites acutus americanus are also present. Fossils become more scarce in Wyoming. Fielding Bradford Meek Fielding Bradford Meek (December 10, 1817 – December 22, 1876)

1700-608: The Graneros also shifted eastward, but also upward in elevation and time, to such an extent that the top of the Graneros at Pueblo is older than the lowest Graneros in Iowa. North of Kansas, the application of the name has been somewhat different. In 1904, describing the geology of the Black Hills of South Dakota, N.H. Darton applied the name Graneros Group to descending members; marine Belle Fourche Shale and Mowry Shale , terrestrial Newcastle Sandstone (a tongue of Dakota Formation from

1750-452: The arrangement of the metal and diatomic anions differ from that of pyrite. Despite its name, chalcopyrite ( CuFeS 2 ) does not contain dianion pairs, but single S sulfide anions. Pyrite usually forms cuboid crystals, sometimes forming in close association to form raspberry-shaped masses called framboids . However, under certain circumstances, it can form anastomosing filaments or T-shaped crystals. Pyrite can also form shapes almost

1800-426: The basis of higher-order Madelung constants and has to be included in the calculation of the lattice energy by using a generalised Born–Haber cycle . This reflects the fact that the covalent bond in the sulfur pair is inadequately accounted for by a strictly ionic treatment. Arsenopyrite has a related structure with heteroatomic As–S pairs rather than S-S pairs. Marcasite also possesses homoatomic anion pairs, but

1850-438: The concrete pores) and gypsum creates inner tensile forces in the concrete matrix which destroy the hardened cement paste, form cracks and fissures in concrete, and can lead to the ultimate ruin of the structure. Normalized tests for construction aggregate certify such materials as free of pyrite or marcasite. Pyrite is the most common of sulfide minerals and is widespread in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. It

1900-420: The mineral marcasite. The specimens of pyrite, when it appears as good quality crystals, are used in decoration. They are also very popular in mineral collecting. Among the sites that provide the best specimens are Soria and La Rioja provinces (Spain). In value terms, China ($ 47 million) constitutes the largest market for imported unroasted iron pyrites worldwide, making up 65% of global imports. China

1950-450: The more mechanically complicated perikon mineral pairs. Pyrite detectors can be as sensitive as a modern 1N34A germanium diode detector. Pyrite has been proposed as an abundant, non-toxic, inexpensive material in low-cost photovoltaic solar panels. Synthetic iron sulfide was used with copper sulfide to create the photovoltaic material. More recent efforts are working toward thin-film solar cells made entirely of pyrite. Pyrite

2000-706: The original sediments, and as a secondary mineral, deposited during diagenesis . Pyrite and marcasite commonly occur as replacement pseudomorphs after fossils in black shale and other sedimentary rocks formed under reducing environmental conditions. Pyrite is common as an accessory mineral in shale, where it is formed by precipitation from anoxic seawater, and coal beds often contain significant pyrite. Notable deposits are found as lenticular masses in Virginia, U.S., and in smaller quantities in many other locations. Large deposits are mined at Rio Tinto in Spain and elsewhere in

2050-444: The oxidation state of molybdenum is Mo . The mineral arsenopyrite has the formula Fe As S. Whereas pyrite has [S 2 ] units, arsenopyrite has [AsS] units, formally derived from deprotonation of arsenothiol (H 2 AsSH). Analysis of classical oxidation states would recommend the description of arsenopyrite as Fe [AsS] . Iron-pyrite FeS 2 represents the prototype compound of the crystallographic pyrite structure. The structure

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2100-528: The perspective of classical inorganic chemistry , which assigns formal oxidation states to each atom, pyrite and marcasite are probably best described as Fe [S 2 ] . This formalism recognizes that the sulfur atoms in pyrite occur in pairs with clear S–S bonds. These persulfide [ S–S ] units can be viewed as derived from hydrogen disulfide , H 2 S 2 . Thus pyrite would be more descriptively called iron persulfide, not iron disulfide. In contrast, molybdenite , Mo S 2 , features isolated sulfide S centers and

2150-685: The pyrite structure. The Fe atoms are bonded to six S atoms, giving a distorted octahedron. The material is a semiconductor . The Fe ions is usually considered to be low spin divalent state (as shown by Mössbauer spectroscopy as well as XPS). The material as a whole behaves as a Van Vleck paramagnet , despite its low-spin divalency. The sulfur centers occur in pairs, described as S 2 . Reduction of pyrite with potassium gives potassium dithioferrate , KFeS 2 . This material features ferric ions and isolated sulfide (S ) centers. The S atoms are tetrahedral, being bonded to three Fe centers and one other S atom. The site symmetry at Fe and S positions

2200-636: The rock and lead eventually to roof fall . Building stone containing pyrite tends to stain brown as pyrite oxidizes. This problem appears to be significantly worse if any marcasite is present. The presence of pyrite in the aggregate used to make concrete can lead to severe deterioration as pyrite oxidizes. In early 2009, problems with Chinese drywall imported into the United States after Hurricane Katrina were attributed to pyrite oxidation, followed by microbial sulfate reduction which released hydrogen sulfide gas ( H 2 S ). These problems included

2250-560: The same as a regular dodecahedron , known as pyritohedra, and this suggests an explanation for the artificial geometrical models found in Europe as early as the 5th century BC. Cattierite ( Co S 2 ), vaesite ( Ni S 2 ) and hauerite ( Mn S 2 ), as well as sperrylite ( Pt As 2 ) are similar in their structure and belong also to the pyrite group. Bravoite is a nickel-cobalt bearing variety of pyrite, with > 50% substitution of Ni for Fe within pyrite. Bravoite

2300-609: The same or equivalent units are classified in Wyoming and Colorado as Dakota Group . As a result, newer reports include the Belle Fourche (Graneros equivalent), Mowry, Newcastle, and Skull Creek within the Dakota Group of this region. The Graneros Shale is primarily dark gray sandy and silty shale with minor sandstone and limestone lenses, with visible crystalline minerals ( pyrite , marcasite , selenite , calcite ). It also features septarians and other concretions. It rests on

2350-425: The southeast of South Dakota), and marine Skull Creek Shale . This group definition was a wide departure from the preceding applications of the early- Cenomanian Graneros name by applying it to late- Albian units. Robert M. Grace (1952) explains the basis for this association; previous studies associated these units by their fossil species rather than their lithological sequence. The late-Albian Skull Creek Shale in

2400-629: The upper Missouri River, Dakota-Benton-Niobrara , was already widely observed from Canada to New Mexico over the Great Plains up to the foothills of the Rocky Mountains . In southcentral Colorado, southeast of Pueblo , this series expresses topographical patterns that inspired subdivision of the Benton shales. Wind and rivers rapidly erode the shales, producing bluffs: massive blocks of Niobrara Chalk cap high slopes of non-chalky Benton shale leading down

2450-517: The well-known nickname of fool's gold . The color has also led to the nicknames brass , brazzle , and brazil , primarily used to refer to pyrite found in coal . The name pyrite is derived from the Greek πυρίτης λίθος ( pyritēs lithos ), 'stone or mineral which strikes fire', in turn from πῦρ ( pŷr ), 'fire'. In ancient Roman times, this name was applied to several types of stone that would create sparks when struck against steel ; Pliny

2500-507: Was an American geologist and a paleontologist who specialized in the invertebrates. The son of a lawyer, he was born in Madison, Indiana . In early life he was in business as a merchant, but he became deaf and spent his leisure hours devoted to collecting fossils and studying the rocks of the neighborhood of Madison. Being unsuccessful in business with delicate health he turned his whole attention to science, and in 1848 he gained employment on

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