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53-426: Many of the members had no formal education, but came by their expertise through extensive direct observation. They spent their weekdays in the rigorous and exacting work of describing and classifying species. But their nights were spent in revelry. They particularly enjoyed partaking in ale , oysters , eggnog , and whatever other fineries their meager budgets could afford. On Sundays, however, they recuperated from

106-483: A citrus-like flavoring. Session ale, named for its purpose of being enjoyed within a single "session" without inducing significant intoxication, features a low ABV, typically ranging from 3% to 5%. Though they share similarities with table beers, they maintain a higher alcohol percentage. They are characterized by a balanced flavor profile, as the production method does not stray far from traditional ale brewing. Esters may be present in medium quantities adding sweetness to

159-442: A deep caramel color, the shade of which may vary depending on the brewing techniques. They have a relatively high ABV, falling between 6.6% and 8.5%. British-style summer ale is characteristically lighter in gold color. Filled with esters, this beer yields a fruity flavor and maintains a subdued yet weak profile in bitterness and hop. The ale is traditionally high in carbonation due to its respective brewing techniques. Falling within

212-921: A direct transliteration of the Greek text, scholars have attempted a phonological reconstruction using the Greek as clues, thus, while τ ( tau ) would usually be given the value "t", it instead is "d", which is thought to be the way the early Ossetes would have pronounced it. The scholarly transliteration of the Alanic phrases is: "dӕ ban xʷӕrz, mӕ sfili, (ӕ)xsinjӕ kurθi kӕndӕ" and "du farnitz, kintzӕ mӕ sfili, kajci fӕ wa sawgin?"; equivalents in modern Ossetian would be "Dӕ bon xwarz, me’fšini ‘xšinӕ, kurdigӕj dӕ?" and "(De’) f(s)arm neč(ij), kinźi ӕfšini xӕcc(ӕ) (ku) fӕwwa sawgin" . The passage translates as: The Alans I greet in their language: "Good day to you my lord's lady, where are you from?" "Good day to you my lord's lady, where are you from?" and other things: When an Alan woman takes

265-439: A distinctive bitter aroma, while the general absence of diacetyl groups and the presence of esters contribute to a sweeter and fruitier flavor compared to other ales. The average alcohol by volume (ABV) of these ales ranges from 3.2% to 5.3%. Scotch ale, also known as "wee heavy", boasts an exceptionally malty taste accented by sweet malty undertones due to the heavy concentration of esters. Generally low in bitterness, it exhibits

318-451: A few years. Upon completion, it yields an extremely sweet drink comparable to wine. The final ABV of the ale ranges from 5.0% to 9.3%, with higher percentages correlating to the amount of sugar added during fermentation. Brown ale, distinguished by its dark hue, is commonly enriched with a blend of roasted and caramel malts, leading to a distinctively unique toffee-flavored ale. Both esters and diacetyl are found in low levels, contributing to

371-459: A low bitter fruity flavor and aroma. The flavors of barley wines are diverse, ranging from bread-like to hints of molasses and toffee. They have an unusually high ABV, ranging from 8.5% to 12.2%. Amber ale is an American craft beer named after the hue it possesses from being flavored using caramel malt. The ale is brewed with an assortment of hops and has a balanced flavor. It maintains a low level of esters and lacks any trace of diacetyl, leading to

424-408: A moderately bitter and slightly fruity undertone. The ABV of amber ales ranges anywhere from 4.4% to 5.4%. Sour ale, more commonly known as wild ale, is characterized by a unique sour flavor, produced during fermentation when acid-producing bacteria like lactobacillus or acetobacter feed on sugars. The acidity produced comes from mild concentrations of lactic or acetic acid and further develops during

477-469: A priest as a lover, you might hear this: "Aren't you ashamed, my lordly lady, that you are having sex with a priest?" "Aren't you ashamed, my lady, to have a love affair with the priest?" Marginalia of Greek religious books, with some parts (such as headlines) of the book translated into Old Ossetic, have recently been found. It is theorized that during the Proto-Ossetic phase, Ossetian underwent

530-401: A process of phonological change conditioned by a Rhythmusgesetz or "Rhythm-law" whereby nouns were divided into two classes, those heavily or lightly stressed . "Heavy-stem" nouns possessed a "heavy" long vowel or diphthong , and were stressed on the first-occurring syllable of this type; "light-stem" nouns were stressed on their final syllable. This is precisely the situation observed in

583-416: A standard approachable bitterness, all of which make this ale highly sessionable. Medium flavors of candy-like caramel malt distinguish the ale, and a tan foam forms at the top, due to the inclusion of roasted barley. Hailing from Cologne, Germany, Kölsch is an ale characterized by its unique brewing techniques. This ale is crafted with low amounts of wheat and undergoes a cold finishing process, resulting in

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636-405: A typically lower alcohol content. Consequently, two types of yeast are commonly used: ale yeast and lager yeast, this choice depends on bottling methods and the desired flavor profile. The brew has low levels of esters, with the residual fruit flavor expressed as a pear wine-like flavor. Its final ABV falls within a narrower range compared to other ales, spanning from 4.8% to 5.3%. Originating from

689-399: Is a style of beer , brewed using a warm fermentation method. In medieval England , the term referred to a drink brewed without hops . As with most beers, ale typically has a bittering agent to balance the malt and act as a preservative . Ale was originally bittered with gruit , a mixture of herbs or spices boiled in the wort before fermentation, before hops replaced gruit as

742-585: Is a monthly magazine Max dug (Мах дуг, "Our era"), mostly devoted to contemporary Ossetian fiction and poetry. Ossetian is taught in secondary schools for all pupils. Native Ossetian speakers also take courses in Ossetian literature . The first modern translation of the Qur’an into Ossetic took place in 2007, initiated by an Ossetian Robert Bolloev, who at that time resided in St. Petersburg. The first Ossetian language Bible

795-654: Is an Eastern Iranian language that is spoken predominantly in Ossetia , a region situated on both sides of the Russian-Georgian border in the Greater Caucasus region. It is the native language of the Ossetian people , and a relative and possibly a descendant of the extinct Scythian , Sarmatian , and Alanic languages. The northern half of the Ossetia region is part of Russia and is known as North Ossetia–Alania , while

848-480: Is believed to be the only surviving descendant of a Sarmatian language. The closest genetically related language may be the Yaghnobi language of Tajikistan, the only other living Northeastern Iranian language. Ossetian has a plural formed by the suffix - ta , a feature it shares with Yaghnobi, Sarmatian and the now-extinct Sogdian; this is taken as evidence of a formerly wide-ranging Iranian-language dialect continuum on

901-794: Is its colour, giving rise to both the Germanic word * alú-þ- and the Ossetic word æluton . In this account, the Indo-European word * olú-t- was also borrowed into the Finnic languages , giving Finnish olut and Estonian õlu . The relationship of similar words in the Slavonic languages (such as Old Bulgarian olu 'cider', Slovenian ol 'beer') and the Baltic languages (Lithuanian alus , Latvian alus , 'beer', Old Prussian alu 'mead') remains uncertain. Ale

954-528: Is low to moderate in esters and contains a similar malt sweetness to most other ales. The ale's ABV ranges from 4.4%  to 8% and has a range of appearances, with its primary descriptions being “Light Amber, Chestnut Brown, or Red.”  While most popular in France, this style has become much more frequent in the U.S. as the ale industry grows. Irish red ale is characterized by its definitive amber or dark red hue, having an ABV ranging from 4.0% to 4.8%, and having

1007-614: Is the official language in both South and North Ossetia (along with Russian), its official use is limited to publishing new laws in Ossetian newspapers. There are two daily newspapers in Ossetian: Ræstdzinad (Рӕстдзинад / Рӕстꚉінад, "Truth") in the North and Xurzærin (Хурзӕрин, "The Sun") in the South. Some smaller newspapers, such as district newspapers, use Ossetian for some articles. There

1060-602: The 2010 Russian census only 36% of North Ossetians claimed to be fluent in Ossetian, with the number decreasing year by year. Ossetian is the spoken and literary language of the Ossetians , an Iranian ethnic group living in the central part of the Caucasus and constituting the basic population of North Ossetia–Alania , which is part of the Russian Federation , and of the de facto country of South Ossetia (recognized by

1113-533: The Central Asian steppe . The names of ancient Iranian tribes (as transmitted through Ancient Greek ) in fact reflect this pluralization, e.g. Saromatae ( Σαρομάται ) and Masagetae ( Μασαγέται ). The earliest known written sample of Ossetian is an inscription (the Zelenchuk Inscription  [ ru ] ) which dates back to the 10th–12th centuries and named after the river near which it

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1166-686: The North Germanic languages, almost certainly appearing in ancient runic inscriptions in the form alu , and subsequently in Old Norse as ǫl . Through linguistic reconstruction it is possible to infer that the Common Germanic form of this word was * alúþ- . According to the third edition of the Oxford English Dictionary , however, the origin of this word is 'uncertain and disputed'. Research by Harald Bjorvand , however, has favored

1219-756: The Saka , the Sarmatians , the Alans , and the Roxolani . The more easterly Khwarazm and Sogdians were also closely affiliated in linguistic terms. Ossetian, together with Kurdish , Tat , and Talysh , is one of the main Iranian languages with a sizable community of speakers in the Caucasus. As it is descended from Alanic, spoken by the Alan medieval tribes emerging from the earlier Sarmatians, it

1272-951: The United Nations as de jure part of the Republic of Georgia ). The Ossetian language belongs to the Iranian group of the Indo-European family of languages (as hinted by its endonym: ирон , irōn ). Within Iranian, it is placed in the Eastern subgroup and further to a Northeastern sub-subgroup , but these are areal rather than genetic groups . The other Eastern Iranian languages such as Pashto (spoken in Afghanistan and Pakistan ) and Yaghnobi (spoken in Tajikistan ) show certain commonalities, but also deep-reaching divergences from Ossetian. From

1325-503: The 7th–8th centuries BCE, the languages of the Iranian group were distributed across a vast territory spanning present-day Iran ( Persia ), Central Asia , Eastern Europe , and the Caucasus . Ossetian is the sole survivor of the branch of Iranian languages known as Scythian . The Scythian group included numerous tribes, known in ancient sources as the Scythians , the Massagetae ,

1378-549: The Brewers Association Style Guide. Porter originated in London in the 18th century. It is well- hopped and dark in appearance owing to the use of brown malt . The name is believed to have originated from its popularity with porters . Porters typically have an alcohol content of 4% to 6%, though stronger versions can go higher. Stout originated in 18th-century England as a stronger, bolder version of Porter, with

1431-532: The Düsseldorf region of Germany, Altbier pays homage to traditional brewing methods, with "alt" meaning old in English. The complexion ranges from light amber to a deep copper color. Esters are present in low quantities, which is attributed to their lightly citrus profile, while diacetyls are completely absent. The ale boasts a moderate level of bitterness owing to hops utilized in fermentation. Its ultimate ABV falls within

1484-514: The Middle Ages show that ale was consumed in huge quantities. In 1272, a husband and wife who retired at Selby Abbey were given 2 gallons of ale per day with two loaves of white bread and one loaf of brown bread . Monks at Westminster Abbey consumed 1 gallon of ale each day. In 1299, Henry de Lacy ' s household purchased an average of 85 gallons of ale daily and in 1385–86 Framlingham Castle consumed 78 gallons per day. Brewing ale in

1537-677: The Middle Ages was a local industry primarily pursued by women. Brewsters, or alewives , would brew in the home for both domestic consumption and small scale commercial sale. Brewsters provided a substantial supplemental income for families; however, only in select few cases, as was the case for widows, was brewing considered the primary income of the household. From the mid-17th century, strong ales became particularly fashionable. Strong ales of this period were fermented up to 11% ABV and would have been similar to modern day barley wines . They were known by names such as Huff-Cap, Nippitate and Hum-Cup, so called because it caused "a humming sensation in

1590-658: The aging process. Utilizing wooden bourbon barrels imbued with either vanillin or sherry plays a crucial role in augmenting the beer's flavor complexity during aging. The presence of esters and diacetyl fluctuates depending on the sought-after flavor profile of the brew. The final ABV varies widely depending on the length and methods used during brewing. Table beer typically has a low ABV of around 0.5% - 2.0%. Popular in Eastern Europe, these beverages are brewed with malt barley, wheat, oats, or rye. They are commonly flavored with additive sugar and either orange or lemon peels to yield

1643-413: The beer's unique taste. The ABV of brown ales typically ranges between 4.2% and 6.0%. Barley wine is known for its balance of flavor and high alcohol content. The ale's color varies widely depending on the duration of its age, as its flavor profile evolves dramatically over time. Low levels of diacetyl and carbonation are found in all barely wines, while esters are found in high quantities, contributing to

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1696-526: The bittering agent. In England, however, it was also common to brew ale without adding herbs. The word ale comes into English from its ancestor-language, Proto-Germanic . English belongs to the West Germanic branch of Proto-Germanic, and some other languages in this branch also attest to the word: Middle Dutch āle and ael , and the Old Saxon word alo-fat 'ale-cup'. The word is also found throughout

1749-440: The brand, the beer tends to have a modest level of bitterness owing to the hops during fermentation. The aroma of the brew is described as subtle yet persistent, due to phenol compounds. In terms of ABV, dark ale ranks notably high compared to other brews, ranging from 7.1% to 11.2%, often veiled by its diverse flavor profile. Bière de Garde is a hybrid beer whose name translates from French to English as “Beer for Keeping”. The ale

1802-431: The chemical gives the beer an unappealing smell akin to garlic or burnt rubber. However, the compound SO2 can affect many facets of ale quality, and is not detrimental to the fermentation process, making brewers search and find ways to reduce H2S but keep SO2  levels steady. To create the highest quality product, the yeast must be able to survive the harsh environment within the brewer's wort to fully take advantage of

1855-735: The earliest (though admittedly scanty) records of Ossetian presented above. This situation also obtains in Modern Ossetian, although the emphasis in Digor is also affected by the "openness" of the vowel. The trend is also found in a glossary of the Jassic dialect dating from 1422. The first printed book in Ossetian was a short catechism published in Moscow in 1798. The first newspaper, Iron Gazet , appeared on July 23, 1906, in Vladikavkaz . While Ossetian

1908-402: The fermentation process. Flocculation is the tendency for the yeast to conglomerate into large masses at the top and bottom of the fermentation tank at the end of the fermentation process. This selective trait in the yeast came about as the majority of the yeast that gets repurposed is that which aggregates and gets easily removed. This selective trait is gradually characterized in most yeast as

1961-426: The final flavor, while diacetyl is non-existent. Most commercially available ales fall under the distinction of session ales due to their cost-effective ability to be brewed in mass. The flavor profile of dark ale is characterized by a malty sweetness resulting from the abundance of esters in the brew. A discernible spiciness is attributed to yeast-derived phenolic compounds present in moderate quantities. Depending on

2014-501: The following explanation: the Germanic word * alú-þ- descends from the Indo-European word * *olú-t- (from an earlier Indo-European base *h₂elut- ), which originally meant 'golden or reddish colour'. Other Indo-European words related to this root include Old Indic aruṣá- ('reddish'; the r comes from an earlier l , * alu-sá- ) and Old High German elo ('yellowy, pale yellow, reddish yellow, tawny'). The Indo-European word * olú-t- then came to refer specifically to ale because this

2067-410: The head". Strong ale, like wine, was typically decanted due to the high sediment content into small glasses , which were better suited to the high ABV ale. Modern ale is typically fermented at temperatures between 15 and 24 °C (59 and 75 °F). At temperatures above 24 °C (75 °F) the yeast can produce significant amounts of esters and other secondary flavor and aroma products, and

2120-457: The institution's assistant secretary. And they attracted a variety of learned speakers to their meetings, including Louis Agassiz , John Torrey , and John Cassin . But they were eventually thrown out of their castle suites by the institution's secretary, Joseph Henry , who disapproved of the way members held sack races in the Great Hall and periodically serenaded his daughters. Membership

2173-476: The range of 4.6% to 5.6%, aligning typically with other ales. Ossetic language Georgia Partially recognised state Ossetian ( / ɒ ˈ s ɛ t i ən / o- SET -ee-ən , / ɒ ˈ s iː ʃ ən / o- SEE -shən , / oʊ ˈ s iː ʃ ən / oh- SEE -shən ), commonly referred to as Ossetic and rarely as Ossete ( ирон ӕвзаг , romanized: iron ӕvzag pronounced [iˈron ɐvˈzäɡ] southern; [iˈron ɐvˈʒäɡ] northern),

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2226-434: The result is often a beer with slightly "fruity" compounds resembling those found in fruits, such as apple, pear, pineapple, banana, plum, cherry, or prune. Yeast produces two different sulphur compounds regardless of the strain of yeast (H2S, SO2), with the main concern being how concentrated and quick the production is. Optimal yeast selection has ale brewers choosing strands of yeast with low production of H2S overall, as

2279-474: The southern half is part of the de facto country of South Ossetia (recognized by the United Nations as Russian-occupied territory that is de jure part of Georgia ). Ossetian-speakers number about 614,350, with 451,000 recorded in Russia per the 2010 Russian census . Despite Ossetian being the official languages of both North and South Ossetia, since 2009 UNESCO has listed Ossetian as "vulnerable". In

2332-410: The standard ABV range of 3.7% to 5.1% aligns with most beer's typical potency. Old ale is classified as an intensely dark red ale. It is said to have a fruity aroma, with brewers occasionally adding caramel to sweeten the product. The hop flavoring and bitterness of an old ale are relatively low compared to other types of categorized ales. Adequately brewing an old ale involves an aging process spanning

2385-413: The sugars that create a sweeter taste and lighter overall ale. The greatest effect on the application of these sugars is the yeast's tolerance to the oxygen-deprived, ethanol and sugar-concentrated environment. Traits that prolong the ability of the yeast to remain in these conditions, and the yeast's ability to effectively process the sugars are the two ideal traits brewers seek out to best capitalize during

2438-445: The term "stout" originally meaning "strong." It is characterized by dark roasted malts, flavors of coffee or chocolate, and a creamy texture, often with a higher alcohol content. The average alcohol by volume (ABV) of these ales ranges from 5% to 12%. In 18th-century England, brewers coined the term "pale ale" to distinguish this golden-hued ale from the more prevalent dark ales of the time. The use of hops during fermentation introduces

2491-567: The two lines of "Alanic" phrases appearing in the Theogony of John Tzetzes , a 12th century Byzantine poet and grammarian : Τοῖς ἀλανοῖς προσφθέγγομαι κατὰ τὴν τούτων γλῶσσαν Καλὴ ἡμέρα σου αὐθέντα μου ἀρχόντισσα πόθεν εἶσαι Ταπαγχὰς μέσφιλι χσινὰ κορθὶ κάντα καὶ τ’ ἄλλα ἂν ὃ ἔχῃ ἀλάνισσα παπᾶν φίλον ἀκούσαις ταῦτα οὐκ αἰσχύνεσαι αὐθέντρια μου νά μου γαμῇ τὸ μουνί σου παπᾶς τὸ φάρνετζ κίντζι μέσφιλι καίτζ φουὰ σαοῦγγε The portions in bold face above are Ossetian. Going beyond

2544-524: The week's stresses and excesses with long nature hikes . The club was named for the Megatherium , an extinct genus of giant ground sloth . The leading spirit of the club was marine biologist William Stimpson, who hosted its earliest meetings in his home. Members dubbed the place "The Stimpsonian." By 1863, though, Stimpson and others had taken up residence in the castle of the actual Smithsonian. Club members were encouraged by Spencer Fullerton Baird ,

2597-540: The yeast that exhibits this behavior lasts a greater number of generations. "Real ale" is a British term, coined by the Campaign for Real Ale , for cask and bottle-conditioned beer . The following list breaks the many various ales into separate, diverse categories. The ales listed are categorized into their respective style groups of origin and accompanied by information regarding the specific brew. For further classification, more comprehensive information can be found in

2650-498: Was an important source of nutrition in the medieval world. It was one of three main sources of grain in the diet at the start of the fourteenth century in England, along with pottage and bread . Scholars believe grains accounted for around 80% of the calorie intake of agricultural workers and 75% for soldiers. Even nobles received around 65% of their calories from grains. Small beer , also known as table beer or mild beer, which

2703-872: Was found: the Bolshoy Zelenchuk River in Arkhyz , Russia. The text is written in the Greek alphabet , with special digraphs . ΣΑΧΗΡΗ Saxiri ΦΟΥΡΤ Furt ΧΟΒΣ Xovs ΗΣΤΟΡΗ Istori ΦΟΥΡΤ Furt ΠΑΚΑΘΑΡ Bӕqӕtar ΠΑΚΑΘΑΡΗ Bӕqӕtari ΦΟΥΡΤ Furt ΑΝΠΑΛΑΝ Æmbalan ΑΝΠΑΛΑΝΗ Æmbalani ΦΟΥΡΤ Furt ΛΑΚ Lak ΑΝΗ Ani ΤΖΗΡΘΕ čirtī ΣΑΧΗΡΗ ΦΟΥΡΤ ΧΟΒΣ ΗΣΤΟΡΗ ΦΟΥΡΤ ΠΑΚΑΘΑΡ ΠΑΚΑΘΑΡΗ ΦΟΥΡΤ ΑΝΠΑΛΑΝ ΑΝΠΑΛΑΝΗ ΦΟΥΡΤ ΛΑΚ ΑΝΗ ΤΖΗΡΘΕ Saxiri Furt Xovs Istori Furt Bӕqӕtar Bӕqӕtari Furt Æmbalan Æmbalani Furt Lak Ani čirtī "K., son of S., son of I., son of B., son of A.; [this is] their monument." The only other extant record of Proto-Ossetic are

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2756-506: Was highly nutritious, contained just enough alcohol to act as a preservative, and provided hydration without intoxicating effects. Small beer would have been consumed daily by almost everyone, including children, in the medieval world, with higher-alcohol ales served for recreational purposes. The lower cost for proprietors combined with the lower taxes levied on small beer inevitably led to the selling of some beer labeled "strong beer" that had actually been diluted with small beer. Records from

2809-462: Was transitory as individuals undertook independent studies abroad, sometimes for years at a time. Formal meetings ceased about the year 1866 when Stimpson moved to Chicago to oversee that city's Academy of Sciences . Several other "Megatherium Clubs" exist; one formed of overseas Smithsonian researchers, yet another only in fiction, supposedly located in London , United Kingdom . Ale Ale

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