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73-711: The origins of the structure of the Imperial Household can be traced back to the reign of Emperor Monmu , with the organisation of the government structure in 701 AD . Prince Naruhito , in May 2004, criticized the then-grand steward, Toshio Yuasa, for putting pressure on Masako Owada , Naruhito's wife, to bear a male child. At a press conference, Naruhito said that his wife had "completely exhausted herself" trying to adapt to royal life, and added "there were developments that denied Masako's career (up to our marriage) as well as her personality". The grand steward ( 長官 , Chōkan )

146-712: A deity ). Following Japan's surrender, the Allies issued the Shinto Directive separating church and state within Japan. In 1946, Emperor Shōwa was forced to proclaim the Humanity Declaration , but the declaration excludes the word arahitogami ( 現人神 ) , including the unusual word akitsumikami ( 現御神 , living god) instead. As such, some experts doubt whether his divinity was renounced. Jean Herbert said it would be inadmissible to deny his divine origin. Emperor Shōwa

219-582: A ceremonial head of state without even nominal political powers. For example, the emperor is the head of the Japanese honors system , conferring orders, decorations, medals, and awards in the name of the state and on behalf of its people in accordance with the advice of the Cabinet. Since the mid-nineteenth century, the emperor and other members of the imperial family have resided at the Imperial Palace , located on

292-458: A constitutional amendment per Article 73 of the Meiji Constitution. After garnering the required two-thirds majority in both chambers, it received imperial assent on November 3, 1946, and took effect on May 3, 1947. Prior to the adoption of the Meiji Constitution, Japan had in practice no written constitution . Originally, a Chinese-inspired legal system and constitution known as ritsuryō

365-513: A defected Kamakura general. The short three-year period during which the power was directly in the hand of the emperor is called the Kenmu Restoration . The direct ruling of the emperor proved however inefficient and ultimately failed, with Takauji grabbing political power for himself. In July 1853, Commodore Perry 's Black Ships of the US Navy made their first visit to Edo Bay . Japan lacked

438-868: A direct descendant of Amaterasu and of utmost importance in the Shinto religion and sentimental traditions. Thus no shogun tried to usurp the emperor, instead they tried to keep the emperor under control and away from politics. However, the emperor still had the power to "control time" via the Japanese Nengō which names eras on calendars after emperors. Meiji Constitution Naruhito [REDACTED] Fumihito [REDACTED] Shigeru Ishiba ( LDP ) Second Ishiba Cabinet ( LDP – Komeito coalition ) [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Fukushiro Nukaga Kōichirō Genba [REDACTED] Masakazu Sekiguchi Hiroyuki Nagahama Saburo Tokura Kazuo Ueda The Constitution of

511-665: A form of mixed constitutional and absolute monarchy , based jointly on the German and British models . In theory, the Emperor of Japan governed the empire with the advice of his ministers; in practice, the Emperor was head of state but the Prime Minister was the actual head of government . Under the Meiji Constitution, the Prime Minister and his Cabinet were not necessarily chosen from

584-508: A minister in order to take effect, thus passing political responsibility to the minister. By contrast, Japan is one of only two such sovereign states where the monarch is not even the nominal chief executive; the other is Sweden . Rather, Article 65 of the Constitution of Japan explicitly vests executive authority in the Cabinet , of which the prime minister is the leader. The emperor

657-763: A period of sweeping political and social reform and westernization aimed at strengthening Japan to the level of the nations of the Western world. The immediate consequence of the Constitution was the opening of the first Parliamentary government in Asia. The Meiji Constitution established clear limits on the power of the executive branch and the Emperor. It also created an independent judiciary . Civil rights and civil liberties were allowed, though they were freely subject to limitation by law. Free speech, freedom of association and freedom of religion were all limited by laws. The leaders of

730-623: Is also not the commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces . Instead, the Japan Self-Defense Forces Act of 1954 explicitly vests supreme command and control in the prime minister. Nevertheless, the emperor remains Japan's internationally recognized head of state. The emperor's fundamental role within the machinery of the Japanese constitution is to perform important representational functions as "…the symbol of

803-557: Is barred from making political statements. It is the emperor's preeminent constitutional duty to appoint the Prime Minister as designated by the Diet and the Chief Justice as designated by the Cabinet. However, the emperor does not have the authority to decline the nominations. The emperor's other responsibilities, laid down in Article 7 of the Constitution, concern the basic functioning of

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876-523: Is given to a number of competitions such as football, judo, volleyball, and the top division yūshō winner of a sumo tournament. Although the emperor has been a symbol of continuity with the past, the degree of power exercised by the emperor has varied considerably throughout Japanese history. According to the traditional account of the Nihon Shoki , Japan was founded by Emperor Jimmu 2683 years ago. However most modern scholars agree to regard Jimmu and

949-442: Is the hereditary monarch and head of state of Japan . The emperor is defined by the Constitution of Japan as the symbol of the Japanese state and the unity of the Japanese people, his position deriving from "the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power". The Imperial Household Law governs the line of imperial succession . Pursuant to his constitutional role as a national symbol, and in accordance with rulings by

1022-683: Is the head of the secretariat, and is responsible for managing the part of the household staff who are omote ( おもて ) , or "outside the house"; these employees serve as drivers , cooks , gardeners , or administrative officials. The secretariat is composed of these divisions: Emperor of Japan Naruhito [REDACTED] Fumihito [REDACTED] Shigeru Ishiba ( LDP ) Second Ishiba Cabinet ( LDP – Komeito coalition ) [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Fukushiro Nukaga Kōichirō Genba [REDACTED] Masakazu Sekiguchi Hiroyuki Nagahama Saburo Tokura Kazuo Ueda The Emperor of Japan

1095-560: Is the only remaining monarch and head of state in the world who holds the title of Emperor . Most constitutional monarchies formally vest executive power in the reigning monarch in their capacity as the head of state, who in turn is bound by either convention or statute to act on the advice of ministers responsible to the duly elected parliament. Some monarchies, such as those in Belgium , Denmark , Spain and Thailand , codify this principle by requiring royal acts to be countersigned by

1168-501: The Utakai Hajime is the annual poetry reading competition convened by the emperor. The emperor is supported in this function by the empress and other members of the imperial family, who have honorary patronages of many associations and organisations. They travel extensively throughout the year within the country to uphold these roles. In sports, the Emperor's Cup (天皇賜杯, Tennō shihai )

1241-586: The shōguns , or their shikken regents in Kamakura (1203–1333), were the de facto rulers of Japan, although they were nominally appointed by the emperor. After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the emperor was the embodiment of all sovereign power in the realm, as enshrined in the Meiji Constitution of 1889. Since the enactment of the 1947 constitution, the role of emperor has been relegated to that of

1314-703: The Article 42 of the post-war Japanese Constitution based on bicameralism ) and the House of Peers as the upper house , (which resembled the Prussian Herrenhaus and the British House of Lords , now the House of Councillors of Japan under the Article 42 of the post-war Japanese Constitution based on bicameralism), and in the formal Speech from the Throne delivered by the Emperor on Opening Day (existing currently, under

1387-399: The Article 7 of the post-war Japanese Constitution ). The second chapter of the constitution, detailing the rights of citizens , bore a resemblance to similar articles in both European and North American constitutions of the day. The Meiji Constitution consists of 76 articles in seven chapters, together amounting to around 2,500 words. It is also usually reproduced with its Preamble,

1460-474: The Diet and thence to the electorate. Nevertheless, the emperor enjoys three rights in the conduct of state business: (a) the right to be consulted before acting on ministerial advice; (b) the right to encourage a given policy or course of administrative action; and (c) the right to warn the Cabinet against the same. In these respects, the emperor personifies the democratic state, sanctions legitimate authority, ensures

1533-491: The National Foundation Day of Japan in 660 BC), but came into effect on November 29, 1890. The first National Diet of Japan , a new representative assembly , convened on the day the Meiji Constitution came into force. The organizational structure of the Diet reflected both Prussian and British influences, most notably in the inclusion of the House of Representatives as the lower house (existing currently, under

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1606-510: The Privy Council was established in 1888 to evaluate the forthcoming constitution, and to advise Emperor Meiji. The draft committee included Inoue Kowashi , Kaneko Kentarō , Itō Miyoji and Iwakura Tomomi , along with a number of foreign advisors , in particular the German legal scholars Rudolf von Gneist and Lorenz von Stein . The central issue was the balance between sovereignty vested in

1679-508: The Prusso - German model, in which the Emperor of Japan was an active ruler and wielded considerable political power over foreign policy and diplomacy which was shared with an elected Imperial Diet . The Diet primarily dictated domestic policy matters. After the Meiji Restoration, which restored direct political power to the emperor for the first time in over a millennium, Japan underwent

1752-544: The Supreme Court of Japan , the emperor is personally immune from prosecution. By virtue of his position as the head of the Imperial House , the emperor is also recognized as the head of the Shinto religion, which holds him to be the direct descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu . According to tradition, the office of emperor was created in the 7th century BC, but the first historically verifiable emperors appear around

1825-523: The ritsuryō system of government had become largely an empty formality as early as in the middle of the Heian period in the 10th and 11th centuries, a development which was completed by the establishment of the Kamakura Shogunate in 1185. The high positions in the ritsuryō system remained as sinecures , and the emperor was de-powered and set aside as a symbolic figure who "reigned, but did not rule" (on

1898-594: The surrender in the World War II on September 2, 1945, the Empire of Japan was deprived of sovereignty by the Allies , and the Meiji Constitution was suspended. During the Occupation of Japan , the Meiji Constitution was replaced by a new document, the postwar Constitution of Japan . This document replaced imperial rule with a form of Western-style liberal democracy . To preserve legal continuity, these changes were enacted as

1971-489: The 5th or 6th centuries AD . The role of the Emperor of Japan has historically alternated between a largely ceremonial symbolic role and that of an actual imperial ruler. Since the establishment of the first shogunate in 1192, the emperors of Japan have rarely taken on a role as supreme battlefield commander, unlike many Western monarchs . Japanese emperors have nearly always been controlled by external political forces, to varying degrees. For example, between 1192 and 1867,

2044-434: The 7th–8th centuries AD. The growth of the samurai class from the 10th century gradually weakened the power of the imperial family over the realm, leading to a time of instability. Emperors are known to have come into conflict with the reigning shogun from time to time. Some instances, such as Emperor Go-Toba 's 1221 rebellion against the Kamakura shogunate and the 1336 Kenmu Restoration under Emperor Go-Daigo , show

2117-519: The Constitution or the Emperor is supreme. The Emperor of Japan had the right to exercise executive authority, and to appoint and dismiss all government officials. The Emperor also had the sole rights to declare war, make peace, conclude treaties, dissolve the lower house of Diet , and issue Imperial ordinances in place of laws when the Diet was not in session. Most importantly, command over the Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy

2190-451: The Diet, an amendment had to be adopted in both chambers by a two-thirds majority of the total number of members of each (rather than merely two-thirds of the total number of votes cast). Once it had been approved by the Diet, an amendment was then promulgated into law by the Emperor, who had an absolute right of veto. No amendment to the constitution was permitted during the time of a regency. Despite these provisions, no amendments were made to

2263-447: The Diet, and no measure could become law without the agreement of the Emperor and the Diet. On the other hand, the Diet was given the authority to initiate legislation, approve all laws, and approve the budget. Amendments to the constitution were provided for by Article 73. This stipulated that, to become law, a proposed amendment had to be submitted first to the Diet by the Emperor through an imperial order or rescript. To be approved by

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2336-588: The Diet, was established with two houses. The Upper House, or House of Peers consisted of members of the Imperial Family, hereditary peerage and members appointed by the Emperor. The Lower House, or House of Representatives was directly elected by all males who paid at least 15 yen in property taxes, effectively limiting the suffrage to 1.1 percent of the population. These qualifications were loosened in 1900 and 1919 with universal adult male suffrage introduced in 1925. The Emperor shared legislative authority with

2409-455: The Empire of Japan ( Kyūjitai : 大日本帝國憲法 ; Shinjitai : 大日本帝国憲法 , romanized: Dai-Nippon Teikoku Kenpō ), known informally as the Meiji Constitution ( 明治憲法 , Meiji Kenpō ), was the constitution of the Empire of Japan which was proclaimed on February 11, 1889, and remained in force between November 29, 1890, and May 2, 1947. Enacted after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, it provided for

2482-627: The Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty", and he "exercises them, according to the provisions of the present Constitution". His rights included to sanction and promulgate laws, to execute them and to exercise "supreme command of the Army and the Navy". The liaison conference created in 1893 also made the emperor the leader of the Imperial General Headquarters . On Meiji's death in 1912 and

2555-532: The House of Representatives. Extra sessions usually convene in the autumn and are opened then. The Tennō is regarded as the foremost Shintō priest in terms of religion. This sacred duty dates back to the Niiname-sai (新嘗祭, "tasting of new rice") imperial harvest festival. In this ritual, the emperor presents newly gathered rice to the gods. The celebration is known as Daijōsai (大嘗祭, "Great Tasting") and takes place in

2628-506: The Imperial Household Agency reversed its position and decided to allow researchers to enter some of the kofun with limited time and way. In the early 7th century, the emperor had begun to be called the " Son of Heaven " ( 天子 , tenshi , or 天子様 tenshi-sama ) . The title of emperor was borrowed from China, being derived from Chinese characters, and was retroactively applied to the legendary Japanese rulers who reigned before

2701-706: The Imperial Oath Sworn in the Sanctuary in the Imperial Palace, and the Imperial Rescript on the Promulgation of the Constitution, which together come to nearly another 1,000 words. The seven chapters are: Unlike its modern successor, the Meiji Constitution was founded on the principle that sovereignty resided in person of the Emperor, by virtue of his divine ancestry "unbroken for ages eternal", rather than in

2774-514: The State and of the unity of the People, deriving his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power." He is limited to performing "acts in matters of state" as delineated by the Constitution, without even nominal powers related to government . Moreover, said acts are only exercised in accordance with the binding advice and consent of the Cabinet , which is collectively responsible to

2847-633: The accession of his son Taishō , who suffered from ill-health and various disabilities, many of these powers were assumed by the Imperial Diet in an era known as the Taishō Democracy . Emperor Shōwa (Hirohito) was in power during the Pacific War ; he controlled both the sovereign of the state and the imperial forces. The role of the emperor as head of the State Shinto religion was exploited during

2920-614: The ancient tombs known as kofun , constructed between the early 3rd century and the early 7th century AD. However, since the Meiji period , the Imperial Household Agency has refused to open the kofun to the public or to archaeologists, citing their desire not to disturb the spirits of the past emperors. Kofun period artefacts were also increasingly crucial in Japan as the Meiji government used them to reinforce their authority. In 2016,

2993-523: The call of sonnō jōi ("revere the emperor, expel the barbarians"). The domains of Satsuma and Chōshū , historic enemies of the Tokugawa, used this turmoil to unite their forces and won an important military victory outside of Kyoto against Tokugawa forces. On 9 November 1867, the Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu formally stepped down to restore Emperor Meiji to nominal full power. He issued

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3066-492: The courts "in the name of the Emperor". Rules on the succession of the imperial throne and on the Imperial household were left outside the Constitution; instead, a separate Act on the Imperial household ( koshitu tenpan ) was adopted. This Act was not publicly promulgated, because it was seen as a private Act of the Imperial household rather than a public law. Separate provisions of the Constitution are contradictory as to whether

3139-552: The elected members of parliament . During the Allied occupation of Japan , the Meiji Constitution was replaced with the " Postwar Constitution " on November 3, 1946; the latter document has been in force since May 3, 1947. In order to maintain legal continuity, the Postwar Constitution was enacted as an amendment to the Meiji Constitution. The Meiji Restoration in 1868 provided Japan a form of constitutional monarchy based on

3212-540: The emperor with great symbolic authority, but little political power, to the pope , and the shōgun to secular European rulers (e.g., the Holy Roman emperor ). In keeping with the analogy, they even used the term "emperor" in reference to the shōguns and their regents, e.g. in the case of Toyotomi Hideyoshi , whom missionaries called "Emperor Taico-sama" (from Taikō and the honorific sama ). A Dutch embassy report used similar terminology in 1691. Empress Go-Sakuramachi

3285-486: The emperors, who were still the source of sovereignty, although they could not exercise their powers independently from the shogunate. During the major part of 1192 to 1867, political sovereignty of the state was exercised by the shōguns or their shikken regents (1203–1333), whose authority was conferred by Imperial warrant. When Portuguese explorers first came into contact with the Japanese (see Nanban period ), they described Japanese conditions in analogy, likening

3358-480: The first year after the emperor's accession to the throne. The historical text Nihonshoki , written in the year 720, has the first mention of this ceremony, whose beginnings are believed to date back even further. The event evolved through time to become the Day of Thanksgiving for Labour, a recognized official holiday today. The office of the emperor is also cultural bearer and steward of tradition and culture. For example,

3431-518: The former site of Edo Castle in the heart of Tokyo , the current capital of Japan. Earlier, emperors resided in Kyoto , the ancient capital, for nearly eleven centuries. The Emperor's Birthday (currently 23 February) is a national holiday. Naruhito is the current emperor of Japan. He acceded to the Chrysanthemum Throne upon the abdication of his father, Emperor Akihito , on 1 May 2019. He

3504-403: The government and the political parties were left with the task of interpretation as to whether the Meiji Constitution could be used to justify authoritarian or liberal-democratic rule. It was the struggle between these tendencies that dominated the government of the Empire of Japan. Franchise was limited, with only 1.1% of the population eligible to vote for the Diet. Universal manhood suffrage

3577-415: The government since the beginnings of the Meiji government . The conservative Meiji oligarchy viewed anything resembling democracy or republicanism with suspicion and trepidation, and favored a gradualist approach. The Freedom and People's Rights Movement demanded the immediate establishment of an elected national assembly , and the promulgation of a constitution. On October 21, 1881, Itō Hirobumi

3650-399: The imperial constitution from the time it was adopted until its demise in 1947. The present constitution is legally reckoned as an amendment to the Meiji Constitution; this was done to preserve legal continuity even though it is a completely new document. However, according to Article 73 of the Meiji Constitution, the amendment should be authorized by the Emperor. Indeed, the 1947 Constitution

3723-408: The imperial decree of constitutionalism on 14 April 1875. The Meiji Constitution was adopted on 11 February 1889. The emperor of Japan became an active ruler with considerable political power over foreign policy and diplomacy which was shared with an elected Imperial Diet . The Japanese subjects gained many rights and duties. The constitution described the emperor (in Article 4) as: "the head of

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3796-521: The justification of the emperor's authority through his divine descent and the unbroken line of emperors, and the unique relationship between subject and sovereign. The Council of State was replaced in 1885 with a cabinet headed by Itō as Prime Minister . The positions of Chancellor , Minister of the Left , and Minister of the Right , which had existed since the seventh century, were abolished. In their place,

3869-410: The legality of his official acts, and guarantees the execution of the public will. These functions, when considered altogether, serve two purposes: foremost, to uphold the continuity and stability of Japanese democracy; and second, to foster a shared national identity and cultural heritage that transcends party politics. In order to maintain his institutional neutrality as Japan's national symbol, he

3942-516: The military and industrial power to prevent it. Unequal treaties coerced and took advantage of Japan. Consequently, Japan was forcibly opened to foreign trade and the shogunate proved incapable of hindering the "barbarian" interlopers; Emperor Kōmei thus began to assert himself politically. By the early 1860s, the relationship between the Imperial Court and the shogunate was changing radically. Disaffected domains and rōnin began to rally to

4015-538: The most interest to the Constitutional Study Mission. Influence was also drawn from the British Westminster system , although it was considered as being unwieldy and granting too much power to Parliament . He also rejected some notions as unfit for Japan, as they stemmed from European constitutional practice and Christianity. He therefore added references to the kokutai or "national polity" as

4088-458: The nine first emperors as mythical. Emperor Sujin , the 10th emperor, may have been a real historical figure. The emperors from Emperor Ōjin are considered as perhaps factual. As one argument, the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( c.  509 –571 AD), the 29th emperor, is the first for whom contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates. Archaeological information about the earliest historical rulers of Japan may be contained in

4161-597: The people, rather than be treated like a god or robot. Inoue believes that during his reign, he transformed the symbolic role of emperor into a human being. In March 2019, the Mainichi reported 87% thought Akihito fulfilled his role as symbol of the state. On 30 April 2019, Emperor Akihito abdicated due to health issues and Heisei era ended. The previous time abdication occurred was Emperor Kōkaku in 1817. Akihito's eldest son, Naruhito ascended on 1 May 2019, referred to as Kinjō Tennō and Reiwa era started. In 1947

4234-414: The people. Article 4 states that the "Emperor is the head of the Empire, combining in himself the rights of sovereignty". The Emperor, nominally at least, united within himself all three branches ( executive , legislative and judiciary ) of government, although legislation (article 5) and the budget (article 64) were subject to the "consent of the Imperial Diet". Laws were issued and justice administered by

4307-475: The person of the Emperor, and an elected representative legislature with powers that would limit or restrict the power of the sovereign. After numerous drafts from 1886 to 1888, the final version was submitted to Emperor Meiji in April 1888. The Meiji Constitution was drafted in secret by the committee, without public debate. The new constitution was promulgated by Emperor Meiji on February 11, 1889 (the anniversary of

4380-407: The position of Tennō (emperor). Rather it is the emperor's symbolic and religious power of authority. Since the Kamakura shogunate , the emperor held de jure ownership of the realm. Throughout most of medieval Japan, the shogun 's legitimate authority was based on being appointed and receiving the power from the emperor even though the shogun was the de facto ruler. The emperor was considered

4453-420: The post-war Constitution of Japan ( 日本国憲法 , Nihonkoku-Kenpō ) became law when it received the emperor's assent on 3 November 1946. It provides for a parliamentary system of government and guarantees certain fundamental rights. Under its terms, the emperor of Japan is "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people" and exercises a purely ceremonial role without the possession of sovereignty. It

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4526-916: The power struggle between the Imperial Court in Kyoto and the military governments of Japan. There have been seven non-imperial families who have controlled Japanese emperors: the Soga (530s–645), the Fujiwara (850s–1070), the Taira (1159–1180s), the Minamoto (1192–1199), the Hōjō (1199–1333), the Ashikaga (1336–1565), and the Tokugawa (1603–1867). However, every shogun from the Minamoto, Ashikaga, and Tokugawa families had to be officially recognized by

4599-461: The state. To this end, the emperor, on behalf of the Japanese people: Regular ceremonies of the emperor with a constitutional basis are the Imperial Investitures (Shinninshiki) in the Tokyo Imperial Palace and the Speech from the Throne ceremony in the House of Councillors in the National Diet Building . The latter ceremony opens ordinary and extra sessions of the Diet. Ordinary sessions are opened each January and also after new elections to

4672-402: The theory that the living god should not have to defile himself with matters of earthly government). The Charter Oath was promulgated on 6 April 1868, which outlined the fundamental policies of the government and demanded the establishment of deliberative assemblies , but it did not determine the details. The idea of a written constitution had been a subject of heated debate within and without

4745-452: The war, creating an Imperial cult that led to kamikaze bombers and other manifestations of fanaticism . This in turn led to the requirement in the Potsdam Declaration for the elimination "for all time of the authority and influence of those who have deceived and misled the people of Japan into embarking on world conquest". In State Shinto, the emperor was believed to be an arahitogami ( 現人神 ) (manifest kami or incarnation of

4818-439: Was appointed to chair a government bureau to research various forms of constitutional government, and in 1882, Itō led an overseas mission to observe and study various systems first-hand. The United States Constitution was rejected as too liberal. The French and Spanish models were rejected as tending toward despotism . The Reichstag and legal structures of the German Empire , particularly that of Prussia , proved to be of

4891-410: Was directly held by the Emperor, and not the Diet. The Meiji Constitution provided for a cabinet consisting of Ministers of State who answered to the Emperor rather than the Diet, and to the establishment of the Privy Council . Not mentioned in the Constitution were the genrō , an inner circle of advisors to the Emperor, who wielded considerable influence. Under the Meiji Constitution, a legislature,

4964-402: Was drawn up under the Allied occupation that followed World War II and changed Japan's previous Prussian-style Meiji Constitution that granted the emperor theoretically unlimited powers. The liberal constitution was inspired by several European states. Currently, it is a rigid document and the oldest unamended constitution. Historically, territorial designations are not a requirement for

5037-429: Was enacted in the 6th century (in the late Asuka period and early Nara period ); it described a government based on an elaborate and theoretically rational meritocratic bureaucracy, serving under the ultimate authority of the emperor and organised following Chinese models. In theory the last ritsuryō code, the Yōrō Code enacted in 752, was still in force at the time of the Meiji Restoration. However, in practice

5110-460: Was excluded from the postwar Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal . Scholars dispute the power he had and the role he played during WWII. Emperor Shōwa's reign from 1926 until his death in 1989 makes him the longest-lived and longest-reigning historical Japanese emperor, and one of the longest-reigning monarchs in the world . The Emperors of Japan have not visited Yasukuni Shrine since 1978. Hirohito maintained an official boycott of Yasukuni Shrine after it

5183-426: Was not established (under law) until the General Election Law , which gave every male aged 25 and over a voting right, was enacted in 1925. The Meiji Constitution was used as a model for the 1931 Constitution of Ethiopia by the Ethiopian intellectual Tekle Hawariat Tekle Mariyam . This was one of the reasons why the progressive Ethiopian intelligentsia associated with Tekle Hawariat were known as "Japanizers". By

5256-599: Was revealed to him that Class-A war criminals had secretly been enshrined. The boycott was continued by his son and grandson, Akihito and Naruhito . By 1979, Emperor Shōwa was the only monarch in the world with the monarchical title " emperor ." Emperor Shōwa was the longest-reigning historical monarch in Japan's history and the world's longest reigning monarch until surpassed by King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand in July 2008. According to journalist Makoto Inoue of The Nikkei , Emperor Emeritus Akihito wanted to be closer to

5329-468: Was the last ruling empress of Japan and reigned from 1762 to 1771. During the Sakoku period of 1603 to 1868, there was very limited trade between Japan and foreigners. The Dutch were the only westerners who had limited access to Japan. Emperor Go-Daigo succeeded in 1333 to get back the direct authority directly to the emperor after overthrowing the Kamakura shogunate , with the help of Ashikaga Takauji ,

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