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51-549: Beginning again in 1897, missionaries, collectors of rubber, settlers, and the government of Peru began to encroach on the Gran Pajonal. In the 1980s, the Asháninka achieved a measure of security when most of the land of the Gran Pajonal was deeded to 36 communities. The population of the Gran Pajonal in 2002 was estimated at 7,000, of which 90 percent were Asháninka. The plateau area of the Gran Pajonal as defined by different scholars

102-629: A large loss of Amazonian rainforest around 2050 due to drought , forest dieback and the subsequent release of more carbon dioxide. Tropical rainforests provide timber as well as animal products such as meat and hides. Rainforests also have value as tourism destinations and for the ecosystem services provided. Many foods originally came from tropical forests, and are still mostly grown on plantations in regions that were formerly primary forest. Also, plant-derived medicines are commonly used for fever, fungal infections, burns, gastrointestinal problems, pain, respiratory problems, and wound treatment. At

153-490: A moist layer of leaf litter, the presence of epiphytes and lianas and the absence of wildfire. The largest areas of rainforest are tropical or temperate rainforests, but other vegetation associations including subtropical rainforest , littoral rainforest , cloud forest , vine thicket and even dry rainforest have been described. Tropical rainforests are characterized by a warm and wet climate with no substantial dry season: typically found within 10 degrees north and south of

204-423: A more open canopy layer than other rainforests, and are found in areas of lower rainfall (630–1,100 mm (25–43 in)). They generally have two layers of trees. A tropical rainforest typically has a number of layers, each with different plants and animals adapted for life in that particular area. Examples include the emergent, canopy , understory and forest floor layers. The emergent layer contains

255-490: A national emergency. Amazon deforestation jumped by 69% in 2008 compared to 2007's twelve months, according to official government data. However, a January 30, 2009 New York Times article stated, "By one estimate, for every acre of rainforest cut down each year, more than 50 acres of new forest are growing in the tropics." The new forest includes secondary forest on former farmland and so-called degraded forest . Wycliffe Translators Wycliffe Global Alliance

306-531: A new " doing business as " name, Wycliffe Global Alliance. Wycliffe bases its philosophy on Townsend's Protestantism which regards the intercultural and multilinguistic spread of Christianity as a divine command. The organization adheres to the principle of sola scriptura and regards Biblical texts as the authoritative and infallible word of God. Wycliffe states its focus is participating with and encouraging Christian churches to minister to minority languages, so that every language community can have access to

357-710: A region of tropical rain forest , it features patches of small grasslands amounting to about 4 percent of its total area. The Pajonal has no definite boundaries, but lies east of the Cerro de la Sal (Salt Mountain) area and is an outlier of the Andes . It rises above the Palcazu River on the west and the Ucayali River on the east and is bordered on the south by the Perene and Tambo rivers. The El Sira Communal Reserve and mountains border

408-513: A small net impact on atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, though they may have other climatic effects (on cloud formation, for example, by recycling water vapour ). No rainforest today can be considered to be undisturbed. Human-induced deforestation plays a significant role in causing rainforests to release carbon dioxide, as do other factors, whether human-induced or natural, which result in tree death, such as burning and drought. Some climate models operating with interactive vegetation predict

459-407: A small number of very large trees called emergents , which grow above the general canopy , reaching heights of 45–55 m, although on occasion a few species will grow to 70–80 m tall. They need to be able to withstand the hot temperatures and strong winds that occur above the canopy in some areas. Eagles , butterflies , bats and certain monkeys inhabit this layer. The canopy layer contains

510-797: A study by Colin Turnbull , The Forest People , in 1962. Pygmies who live in Southeast Asia are, amongst others, referred to as " Negrito ". There are many tribes in the rainforests of the Malaysian state of Sarawak. Sarawak is part of Borneo, the third largest island in the world. Some of the other tribes in Sarawak are: the Kayan, Kenyah, Kejaman, Kelabit, Punan Bah, Tanjong, Sekapan, and the Lahanan. Collectively, they are referred to as Dayaks or Orangulu which means "people of

561-437: A trend towards declining populations in rainforests, for example, reptiles that feed on amphibians and reptiles. This trend requires close monitoring. The seasonality of rainforests affects the reproductive patterns of amphibians, and this in turn can directly affect the species of reptiles that feed on these groups, particularly species with specialized feeding, since these are less likely to use alternative resources. Despite

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612-436: A very broad array of fauna , including mammals , reptiles , amphibians , birds and invertebrates . Mammals may include primates , felids and other families. Reptiles include snakes , turtles , chameleons and other families; while birds include such families as vangidae and Cuculidae . Dozens of families of invertebrates are found in rainforests. Fungi are also very common in rainforest areas as they can feed on

663-503: Is abundant. Many seedlings that will grow to the canopy level are present in the understory. Only about 5% of the sunlight shining on the rainforest canopy reaches the understory. This layer can be called a shrub layer , although the shrub layer may also be considered a separate layer. The forest floor , the bottom-most layer, receives only 2% of the sunlight. Only plants adapted to low light can grow in this region. Away from riverbanks , swamps and clearings, where dense undergrowth

714-564: Is also a member of the Forum of Bible Agencies International . As of September 2023 , translations of either portions of the Bible, the New Testament , or the whole Bible exist in over 3,658 of the 7,394 languages used on Earth , including 386 sign languages. Wycliffe Bible Translators USA was founded in 1942 by William Cameron Townsend . When other Wycliffe organisations were founded around

765-555: Is an alliance of organizations that have the objective of translating the Bible into every language. The organisation is named after John Wycliffe , who was responsible for the first complete English translation of the whole Bible into Middle English . Wycliffe is most often associated with the Protestant section of Christianity . There are currently over 100 Wycliffe member organisations from over 60 countries. Wycliffe Global Alliance

816-452: Is between 2,000 square kilometres (770 sq mi) to 4,000 square kilometres (1,500 sq mi). The term Gran Pajonal is often applied loosely to a much larger area. The Gran Pajonal has elevations ranging from about 900 metres (3,000 ft) to 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) and is incised by the headwaters of several small rivers. The Gran Pajonal was named by the Spanish because, in

867-518: Is distinct from other divisions of the ethnic group. Like most peoples of the Amazon rainforest, they practiced slash-and-burn agriculture. Their principle crop was manioc (yuka), but they also cultivated bananas , peanuts , beans , and many other useful plants. The Asháninka farmer might grow as many as 50 different plants on his farm. The Gran Pajonal was difficult of access due to its elevation and lack of navigable rivers. The first Spaniard to visit

918-419: Is found, the forest floor is relatively clear of vegetation because of the low sunlight penetration. It also contains decaying plant and animal matter, which disappears quickly, because the warm, humid conditions promote rapid decay. Many forms of fungi growing here help decay the animal and plant waste. More than half of the world's species of plants and animals are found in rainforests. Rainforests support

969-434: Is more than 2,100 millimetres (83 in) with a three-month dry period (June to August). The natural vegetation is tropical rain forest except for the anthropogenic grasslands, totaling about 9,700 hectares (24,000 acres) and deriving from hundreds or thousands of years of cultivation by the indigenous people. In 2004 another 3,500 hectares (8,600 acres) of grasslands used as pasture had been created since 1975 by immigrants to

1020-461: The Amazon rainforest ), Central America (e.g. Bosawás , the southern Yucatán Peninsula - El Peten - Belize - Calakmul ), Australia , and on Pacific Islands (such as Hawaiʻi ). Tropical forests have been called the "Earth's lungs ", although it is now known that rainforests contribute little net oxygen addition to the atmosphere through photosynthesis . Tropical forests cover a large part of

1071-832: The Intertropical Convergence Zone . The broader category of tropical moist forests are located in the equatorial zone between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn . Tropical rainforests exist in Southeast Asia (from Myanmar (Burma) ) to the Philippines , Malaysia , Indonesia , Papua New Guinea and Sri Lanka ; also in Sub-Saharan Africa from the Cameroon to the Congo ( Congo Rainforest ), South America (e.g.

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1122-418: The equator . Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 °C (64 °F) during all months of the year. Average annual rainfall is no less than 168 cm (66 in) and can exceed 1,000 cm (390 in) although it typically lies between 175 cm (69 in) and 200 cm (79 in). Many of the world's tropical forests are associated with the location of the monsoon trough , also known as

1173-488: The "jewels of the Earth" and the " world's largest pharmacy ", because over one quarter of natural medicines have been discovered there. Rainforests as well as endemic rainforest species are rapidly disappearing due to deforestation , the resulting habitat loss and pollution of the atmosphere . Rainforests are characterized by a closed and continuous tree canopy, high humidity, the presence of moisture-dependent vegetation,

1224-400: The 20th century and the area covered by rainforests around the world is shrinking. Biologists have estimated that large numbers of species are being driven to extinction (possibly more than 50,000 a year; at that rate, says E. O. Wilson of Harvard University , a quarter or more of all species on Earth could be exterminated within 50 years) due to the removal of habitat with destruction of

1275-633: The Asháninka worked as cattle herders or coffee harvesters for the outsiders; others practiced traditional agriculture on the lands within their communities. The Gran Pajonal laps over the borders of three Departments: Raimondi District in the Atalaya Province of Ucayali Department ; Puerto Bermúdez District in the Oxapampa Province of Pasco Department ; and a small part of Rio Tambo District of Satipo Province in Junín Department. At

1326-417: The Earth, but one to two hundred feet above it, extending over thousands of square miles." A true exploration of this habitat only began in the 1980s, when scientists developed methods to reach the canopy, such as firing ropes into the trees using crossbows . Exploration of the canopy is still in its infancy, but other methods include the use of balloons and airships to float above the highest branches and

1377-508: The Franciscans began to force the indigenous people to live in communities adjacent to the missions rather than dispersed in small groups as was their custom. The rebellion of Juan Santos Atahualpa, beginning in 1742, destroyed the missionary enterprise and left the Gran Pajonal in Asháninka control for 150 years although they suffered from periodic epidemics of European diseases and in the late 19th century from slave raids by businesses engaged in

1428-462: The Pajonal on the north. The Cerro de la Sal mountain range outlines its southern boundary. Mountains around the edge of the plateau have elevations of more than 1,800 metres (5,900 ft). The elevation of the Gran Pajonal results in lower average temperatures than the Amazon lowlands. Average temperatures on the plateau range from 21 °C (70 °F) to 23 °C (73 °F). Annual precipitation

1479-639: The Peruvian army defeated a guerrilla organization, the Left Revolutionary Movement in a battle in the Pajonal and the army remained in Oventeni for 3 years. The missions were closed. In 1965, another religious organization, the Wycliffe Translators began work in the Pajonal and the majority of the missionaries became Protestants rather than Roman Catholics. The Protestant presence coincided with

1530-510: The area, mostly farmers from the Andes . The indigenous people inhabiting the Gran Pajonal at the time of its discovery by the Spanish were called Campa, Anti, or Chuncho by the Spaniards and are known to scholars and themselves as Asháninka, a widespread people of the Amazon Basin of Peru and neighboring Brazil. The Asháninka of the Gran Pajonal are sometimes called Ashéninka as their language

1581-464: The building of cranes and walkways planted on the forest floor. The science of accessing tropical forest canopy using airships or similar aerial platforms is called dendronautics . The understory or understorey layer lies between the canopy and the forest floor. It is home to a number of birds , snakes and lizards , as well as predators such as jaguars , boa constrictors and leopards . The leaves are much larger at this level and insect life

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1632-451: The center of the Gran Pajonal is the community of Oventeni, elevation 1,003 metres (3,291 ft) surrounded in every direction by the patches of grassland which gave the Gran Pajonal its name. The 36 communities of Asháninka had a population of about 6,500 in 2002 and the non-Asháninka numbered about 650. Rain forest Rainforests are forests characterized by a closed and continuous tree canopy , moisture-dependent vegetation,

1683-417: The decomposing remains of plants and animals. The great diversity in rainforest species is in large part the result of diverse and numerous physical refuges , i.e. places in which plants are inaccessible to many herbivores, or in which animals can hide from predators. Having numerous refuges available also results in much higher total biomass than would otherwise be possible. Some species of fauna show

1734-475: The gathering of rubber . In 1896 and 1897, a Franciscan priest, Gabriel Sala, visited the Grand Pajonal along with a group of armed men. In the wake of his expedition, various plans to build roads, railroads, and establish Catholic missions in the Pajonal came to nothing until 1935 when three missions were established and in 1938 an airstrip was built in Oventeni, the largest of the mission communities. In 1965,

1785-669: The globe, but temperate rainforests only occur in a few regions around the world. Temperate rainforests are rainforests in temperate regions. They occur in North America (in the Pacific Northwest in Alaska , British Columbia , Washington , Oregon and California ), in Europe (parts of the British Isles such as the coastal areas of Ireland and Scotland , southern Norway , parts of

1836-455: The growing consciousness of the Asháninka that they must organize to meet the challenges facing them from outsiders. In the 1980s, with assistance from the World Bank and Denmark , the Asháninka achieved legal title to land belonging to 36 communities in the Gran Pajonal. Non-Asháninka, mostly people of Andean origin, were allowed to reside and own land only in the community of Oventeni. Some of

1887-422: The growth of vegetation in a tropical rainforest, soil quality is often quite poor. Rapid bacterial decay prevents the accumulation of humus . The concentration of iron and aluminium oxides by the laterization process gives the oxisols a bright red colour and sometimes produces mineral deposits such as bauxite . Most trees have roots near the surface because there are insufficient nutrients below

1938-468: The increasing deforestation rate, especially in Indonesia, is the expansion of oil palm plantations to meet growing demand for cheap vegetable fats and biofuels . In Indonesia, palm oil is already cultivated on nine million hectares and, together with Malaysia , the island nation produces about 85 percent of the world's palm oil. Several countries, notably Brazil , have declared their deforestation

1989-469: The interior". About half of Sarawak's 1.5 million people are Dayaks. Most Dayaks, it is believed by anthropologists, came originally from the South-East Asian mainland. Their mythologies support this. Tropical and temperate rainforests have been subjected to heavy legal and illegal logging for their valuable hardwoods and agricultural clearance ( slash-and-burn , clearcutting ) throughout

2040-506: The island of New Guinea is home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups. The tribes are in danger because of the deforestation, especially in Brazil. Central African rainforest is home of the Mbuti pygmies , one of the hunter-gatherer peoples living in equatorial rainforests characterised by their short height (below one and a half metres, or 59 inches, on average). They were the subject of

2091-437: The majority of the largest trees, typically 30 metres (98 ft) to 45 metres (148 ft) tall. The densest areas of biodiversity are found in the forest canopy, a more or less continuous cover of foliage formed by adjacent treetops. The canopy, by some estimates, is home to 50 percent of all plant species. Epiphytic plants attach to trunks and branches , and obtain water and minerals from rain and debris that collects on

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2142-473: The poor soil quality. First is that the soil is highly acidic. The roots of plants rely on an acidity difference between the roots and the soil in order to absorb nutrients. When the soil is acidic, there is little difference, and therefore little absorption of nutrients from the soil. Second, the type of clay particles present in tropical rainforest soil has a poor ability to trap nutrients and stop them from washing away. Even if humans artificially add nutrients to

2193-460: The presence of epiphytes and lianas and the absence of wildfire. Rainforests can be generally classified as tropical rainforests or temperate rainforests , but other types have been described. Estimates vary from 40% to 75% of all biotic species being indigenous to the rainforests. There may be many millions of species of plants, insects and microorganisms still undiscovered in tropical rainforests. Tropical rainforests have been called

2244-703: The rainforests. Another factor causing the loss of rainforest is expanding urban areas . Littoral rainforest growing along coastal areas of eastern Australia is now rare due to ribbon development to accommodate the demand for seachange lifestyles. Forests are being destroyed at a rapid pace. Almost 90% of West Africa 's rainforest has been destroyed. Since the arrival of humans, Madagascar has lost two thirds of its original rainforest. At present rates, tropical rainforests in Indonesia would be logged out in 10 years and Papua New Guinea in 13 to 16 years. According to Rainforest Rescue , an important reason for

2295-482: The same time, rainforests are usually not used sustainably by non-native peoples but are being exploited or removed for agricultural purposes . On January 18, 2007, FUNAI reported also that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition, Brazil has now overtaken the island of New Guinea as the country having the largest number of uncontacted tribes. The province of Irian Jaya or West Papua in

2346-421: The soil, the nutrients mostly wash away and are not absorbed by the plants. Finally, these soils are poor due to the high volume of rain in tropical rainforests washes nutrients out of the soil more quickly than in other climates. A natural rainforest emits and absorbs vast quantities of carbon dioxide . On a global scale, long-term fluxes are approximately in balance, so that an undisturbed rainforest would have

2397-443: The supporting plants. The fauna is similar to that found in the emergent layer but more diverse. A quarter of all insect species are believed to exist in the rainforest canopy. Scientists have long suspected the richness of the canopy as a habitat, but have only recently developed practical methods of exploring it. As long ago as 1917, naturalist William Beebe declared that "another continent of life remains to be discovered, not upon

2448-433: The surface; most of the trees' minerals come from the top layer of decomposing leaves and animals. On younger substrates, especially of volcanic origin, tropical soils may be quite fertile. If rainforest trees are cleared, rain can accumulate on the exposed soil surfaces, creating run-off, and beginning a process of soil erosion . Eventually, streams and rivers form and flooding becomes possible. There are several reasons for

2499-730: The western Balkans along the Adriatic coast, as well as in Galicia and coastal areas of the eastern Black Sea , including Georgia and coastal Turkey ), in East Asia (in southern China , Highlands of Taiwan , much of Japan and Korea , and on Sakhalin Island and the adjacent Russian Far East coast), in South America (southern Chile ) and also in Australia and New Zealand . Dry rainforests have

2550-547: The world, they initially operated as its divisions in those countries. A new organisation, Wycliffe Bible Translators International, was started in May 1980 to provide this international leadership. In 1991 Wycliffe International was restructured so that the Wycliffe organisations in each country became fully independent, causing Wycliffe International to become an association of organisations. In February 2011, Wycliffe International took on

2601-441: Was Juan Bautista de la Marca, a Franciscan missionary, in 1733. The area was immediately attractive to both missionaries and settlers due to its relatively dense population of indigenous people and more salubrious climate than the Amazon lowlands. In 1735, an armed expedition including three Franciscans began missionary work and by 1739 the Franciscans were working in 10 villages. Following the common Spanish strategy of reductions ,

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