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198-514: 46°13′19″N 6°09′04″E / 46.2219°N 6.1511°E / 46.2219; 6.1511 The Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies ( French : Institut de hautes études internationales et du développement , abbreviated IHEID ), also known as the Geneva Graduate Institute , is a graduate-level research university in Geneva , Switzerland dedicated to
396-611: A " den of contrabandists, aristocrats, and emigrants ". In January 1798, the French army invades the Swiss confederation and begins a trade embargo on Geneva, but the Directory wishes to annex the city on demand by its citizens and not by force. The wish would be granted on 15 April 1798 when the Genevan government is coerced by economic and political pressure to request the annexation by France. The treaty
594-613: A 15-km radius around the city), that would guarantee the city's independence and prosperity. In addition, Geneva also obtained an annual subsidy from France, and a permanent garrison funded by the Kingdom. Since then, both Savoy and France largely respected Geneva's independence, protected by its strong fortresses, and guaranteed by its alliance with the Protestant cantons of the Old Swiss Confederacy of Zürich and Bern . Nevertheless,
792-720: A French official to teachers in the department of Finistère , in western Brittany, included the following: "And remember, Gents: you were given your position in order to kill the Breton language". The prefect of Basses-Pyrénées in the French Basque Country wrote in 1846: "Our schools in the Basque Country are particularly meant to replace the Basque language with French..." Students were taught that their ancestral languages were inferior and they should be ashamed of them; this process
990-465: A blow to the city's religious purity, particularly because the first representative, Laurent de Chavingy was very provocative. In 1681, as France annexed Strasbourg , Geneva fears for the worst and the councils must skilfully navigate the diplomatic situation to safeguard the Republic's independence. The major advantages that the councillors had for this task were on the one hand the strategic position of
1188-406: A brutal conviction in their new faith by destroying images, statues, and other objects of worship. The troops quickly spread Protestant ideas, and in 1532, supported by Bern, Guillaume Farel arrived at the city to preach the new faith. Meanwhile, the authorities had been reforming the governing bodies of the city. In 1526, they set up a Council of Two Hundred , emulating the Swiss model. In 1528,
1386-431: A comprehensive academic study entitled "The World's 10 most influential languages". In the article, Weber ranked French as, after English, the second-most influential language of the world, ahead of Spanish. His criteria were the numbers of native speakers, the number of secondary speakers (especially high for French among fellow world languages), the number of countries using the language and their respective populations,
1584-585: A direct vassal of the Emperor and so his lands became part of the Holy Roman Empire . However, it is not clear how the power over the city proper was shared between the Prince-Bishopric of Geneva and the counts. Thus, a power struggle between both ensued in which the counts received the support from the canons of the chapter, a large majority of whom were members of vassal families of the count. The apex of
1782-475: A faculty chair. They are the departments of international law; international relations & political science; international history & politics; international economics; and anthropology and sociology. The Geneva Graduate Institute offers six master programmes, four executive master programmes, and five PhD programmes. They include: Admission to the Geneva Graduate Institute's study programmes
1980-543: A foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050. French is the fastest growing language on the continent (in terms of either official or foreign languages). French is increasingly being spoken as a native language in Francophone Africa, especially in regions like Ivory Coast , Cameroon , Gabon, Madagascar , and
2178-536: A handful of rankings for specialized universities . In Foreign Policy 's 2024 Inside the Ivory Tower ranking of best international relations schools wordlwide, both U.S. international relations faculty and U.S. think tank staffers ranked the Geneva Graduate Institute's master's programs 20th. In Europe, the master's programs of the London School of Economics and Political Science and Sciences Po also ranked in
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#17328443746942376-507: A large port city in Versoix to deviate the traffic en route to Lake Geneva and from there to the Swiss confederation. The city, intended for around 30,000 inhabitants, would have been bigger than Geneva (by then the largest Swiss city) and included large squares and ports. Voltaire , who had settled in Ferney , was particularly rejoiced about the idea of ruining Geneva. However, opposition from Bern to
2574-538: A new fortified town in its border in Pays de Gex, and budgetary problems in France, finally stopped the project of which few items finally were built and survive. A more lasting project was launched by Savoy in 1777, which transformed Carouge into the gateway to the northern provinces and conferred the village the status of city in 1786. The planned city was particularly innovative in the way that streets were symmetrically laid and by
2772-590: A period of prosperity and prominence among European nations. Richelieu established the Académie française to protect the French language. By the early 1800s, Parisian French had become the primary language of the aristocracy in France. Near the beginning of the 19th century, the French government began to pursue policies with the end goal of eradicating the many minorities and regional languages ( patois ) spoken in France. This began in 1794 with Henri Grégoire 's "Report on
2970-452: A ransom of 28,000 écus of Savoy. The Duchy recovered most of its possessions lost to Bern in exchange for payments, but this period marked the beginning of the end of its hegemony over the Genevan region and the start of an unstable time for the city. The right to appoint the Bishop of Geneva granted to Amadeus III was eroded and it became a political and diplomatic negotiation, between Savoy,
3168-494: A relic of the old nominal case system of Latin longer than most other Romance languages (with the notable exception of Romanian which still currently maintains a case distinction), differentiating between an oblique case and a nominative case. The phonology was characterized by heavy syllabic stress, which led to the emergence of various complicated diphthongs such as -eau which would later be leveled to monophthongs. The earliest evidence of what became Old French can be seen in
3366-573: A second language. French is the second most taught foreign language in the EU. All institutions of the EU use French as a working language along with English and German ; in some institutions, French is the sole working language (e.g. at the Court of Justice of the European Union ). French is also the 16th most natively spoken language in the world, the sixth most spoken language by total number of speakers , and
3564-513: A second language. However it has also become a native language in a number of urban areas, especially in regions like Ivory Coast , Cameroon , Gabon, Madagascar , and the Democratic Republic of the Congo . In some North African countries, though not having official status, it is also a first language among some upper classes of the population alongside indigenous languages, but only
3762-897: A second one among the general population. In 2015, approximately 40% of the Francophone population (including L2 and partial speakers) lived in Europe, 36% in sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian Ocean, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas, and 1% in Asia and Oceania. French is the second most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union . Of Europeans who speak other languages natively, approximately one-fifth are able to speak French as
3960-451: A then 26-year old French theologist , spent some time in summer in Geneva and was convinced by William Farel to stay and establish together a new Church. In January 1537 they presented their project to the mayors. They were initially reluctant to adopt Farel and Calvin's ideas of a Church that would take again control over the city, and were also displeased by both men's refusal to adopt some of
4158-455: A time Protestant. In the second half of the century, other industries develop, notably gilding and watchmaking. After the defeat of Charles III by French and Bernese forces, Savoy had temporarily given up on its efforts to take Geneva. However, in the second half of the 16th century the Dukedom allies with Spain and regains some of its power. The son of Charles III, Emmanuel Philibert , defeated
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#17328443746944356-536: A variant of Canadian French , is spoken in parts of New England . Missouri French was historically spoken in Missouri and Illinois (formerly known as Upper Louisiana ), but is nearly extinct today. French also survived in isolated pockets along the Gulf Coast of what was previously French Lower Louisiana , such as Mon Louis Island , Alabama and DeLisle, Mississippi (the latter only being discovered by linguists in
4554-602: A variety of "public men" such as Edvard Beneš , Lord David Cecil , Paul Hymans , Fridtjof Nansen , and Arthur Salter, 1st Baron Salter . The last Geneva School was held in 1939. The Geneva Graduate Institute had become known in the 1930s as a stronghold of neoliberal scholarship. As a result, it managed to attract during World War II a number of faculty and lecturers from countries with Nazi regimes, e.g., Hans Wehberg [ de ] and Georges Scelle for law, Maurice Bourquin for diplomatic history, and Swiss jurist Paul Guggenheim . Subsequently, more scholars would join
4752-531: A weekly, semester, or yearly basis. They attracted scholars like Raymond Aron , René Cassin , Luigi Einaudi , John Kenneth Galbraith , G. P. Gooch , Gottfried Haberler , Friedrich von Hayek , Hersch Lauterpacht , Lord McNair , Gunnar Myrdal , Harold Nicolson , Philip Noel Baker , Pierre Renouvin , Lionel Robbins , Jean-Rodolphe de Salis , Harold Laski , Eric Voegelin , Carlo Sforza , Jacob Viner , Quincy Wright and Martin Wight . A different initiative,
4950-441: A wise ruler, and he managed to get elected as antipope Felix V in 1439. When Bishop François de Metz died in 1444, Amadeus, now anti-pope, became the administrator of the bishopric and became de facto , but not de jure , ruler of the city. When he finally renounced his position as Pope, he kept a degree of control over the city, and succeeded in agreeing with Pope Nicholas V that the future Bishops of Geneva must be designated by
5148-532: Is Marie-Laure Salles . The Graduate Institute is constituted as a Swiss private law foundation, Fondation pour les hautes études internationales et du développement , sharing a convention with the University of Geneva . This is a particular organisational form, because the Graduate Institute is constituted as a foundation of private law fulfilling a public purpose. In addition, the political responsibility for
5346-437: Is 95%, and in the French collectivity of Wallis and Futuna , it is 84%. In French Polynesia and to a lesser extent Wallis and Futuna, where oral and written knowledge of the French language has become almost universal (95% and 84% respectively), French increasingly tends to displace the native Polynesian languages as the language most spoken at home. In French Polynesia, the percentage of the population who reported that French
5544-745: Is a Romance language of the Indo-European family . Like all other Romance languages, it descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire . French evolved from Gallo-Romance , the Latin spoken in Gaul , and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues d'oïl —languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, which French ( Francien ) largely supplanted. French
5742-484: Is a 38,000 meter-square glass building distributed into six connected sections. It contains the Kathryn and Shelby Cullom Davis Library, which holds 350,000 books about social sciences, journals and annual publications, making it one of Europe's richest libraries in the fields of development and international relations. It is named after two Institute alumni—Ambassador Shelby Cullom Davis and his wife Kathryn Davis , following
5940-467: Is a widespread second language among the Lebanese people , and is taught in many schools along with Arabic and English. French is used on Lebanese pound banknotes, on road signs, on Lebanese license plates , and on official buildings (alongside Arabic). Today, French and English are secondary languages of Lebanon , with about 40% of the population being Francophone and 40% Anglophone. The use of English
6138-484: Is also a working language in nonprofit organisations such as the Red Cross (alongside English, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic and Russian), Amnesty International (alongside 32 other languages of which English is the most used, followed by Spanish, Portuguese, German, and Italian), Médecins sans Frontières (used alongside English, Spanish, Portuguese and Arabic), and Médecins du Monde (used alongside English). Given
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6336-430: Is among the top five most studied languages worldwide, with about 120 million learners as of 2017. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 16th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. French has a long history as an international language of literature and scientific standards and is a primary or second language of many international organisations including
6534-456: Is an official language in 27 countries , as well as one of the most geographically widespread languages in the world, with about 50 countries and territories having it as a de jure or de facto official, administrative, or cultural language. Most of these countries are members of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF), the community of 54 member states which share
6732-485: Is an active member of the following associations and academic networks: The Paul Guggenheim Prize in International Law was created in 1979 and is awarded to young practitioners of international law on a biannual basis. The Edgar de Picciotto International Prize is awarded every two years and worth 100,000 Swiss Francs . It rewards an internationally renowned academic whose research has contributed to enhancing
6930-628: Is enacted only in New Brunswick, where about one third of the population is Francophone. French is also an official language of all of the territories ( Northwest Territories , Nunavut , and Yukon ). Out of the three, Yukon has the most French speakers, making up just under 4% of the population. Furthermore, while French is not an official language in Ontario , the French Language Services Act ensures that provincial services are available in
7128-495: Is growing in the business and media environment. Out of about 900,000 students, about 500,000 are enrolled in Francophone schools, public or private, in which the teaching of mathematics and scientific subjects is provided in French. Actual usage of French varies depending on the region and social status. One-third of high school students educated in French go on to pursue higher education in English-speaking institutions. English
7326-587: Is highly competitive, with only 14% of applicants attending the school in 2014. The Institute only offers master- and PhD-level programmes. The Geneva Graduate Institute is home to twelve research centers. They include the Albert Hirschman Centre on Democracy, the Centre for Finance and Development , the Centre on Conflict, Development and Peacebuilding , the Hoffmann Centre for Global Sustainability, and
7524-404: Is known as Old French. The period of Old French spanned between the 8th and 14th centuries. Old French shared many characteristics with Latin. For example, Old French made use of different possible word orders just as Latin did because it had a case system that retained the difference between nominative subjects and oblique non-subjects . The period is marked by a heavy superstrate influence from
7722-462: Is often considered to be a useful skill by business owners in the United Kingdom; a 2014 study found that 50% of British managers considered French to be a valuable asset for their business, thus ranking French as the most sought-after foreign language there, ahead of German (49%) and Spanish (44%). MIT economist Albert Saiz calculated a 2.3% premium for those who have French as a foreign language in
7920-775: Is one of the official languages of such major international and regional courts, tribunals, and dispute-settlement bodies as the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights , the Caribbean Court of Justice , the Court of Justice for the Economic Community of West African States , the Inter-American Court of Human Rights , the International Court of Justice , the International Criminal Tribunal for
8118-531: Is referred to as a republic within the Swiss Confederation. One of the most populated cantons, Geneva is considered one of the most cosmopolitan regions of the country. As a center of the Calvinist Reformation , the city of Geneva has had a great influence on the canton, which essentially consists of the city and its suburbs. Notable institutions of international importance based in the canton are
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8316-562: Is taught in universities around the world, and is one of the world's most influential languages because of its wide use in the worlds of journalism, jurisprudence , education, and diplomacy. In diplomacy, French is one of the six official languages of the United Nations (and one of the UN Secretariat 's only two working languages ), one of twenty official and three procedural languages of the European Union , an official language of NATO ,
8514-533: Is the French-speaking westernmost canton of Switzerland . It lies at the western end of Lake Geneva and on both sides of the Rhone , its main river. Within the country, the canton borders Vaud to the east, the only adjacent canton. However, most of Geneva's border is with France, specifically the region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes . As is the case in several other Swiss cantons ( Ticino , Neuchâtel , and Jura ), Geneva
8712-538: Is the language of business and communication, with French being an element of social distinction, chosen for its emotional value. French is an official language of the Pacific Island nation of Vanuatu , where 31% of the population was estimated to speak it in 2023. In the French special collectivity of New Caledonia , 97% of the population can speak, read and write French while in French Polynesia this figure
8910-431: Is the native language of about 23% of the Swiss population, and is spoken by 50% of the population. Along with Luxembourgish and German, French is one of the three official languages of Luxembourg , where it is generally the preferred language of business as well as of the different public administrations. It is also the official language of Monaco . At a regional level, French is acknowledged as an official language in
9108-492: Is the second-most spoken language (after English) in the states of Maine and New Hampshire . In Louisiana , it is tied with Spanish for second-most spoken if Louisiana French and all creoles such as Haitian are included. French is the third most spoken language (after English and Spanish) in the states of Connecticut , Rhode Island , and New Hampshire . Louisiana is home to many distinct French dialects, collectively known as Louisiana French . New England French , essentially
9306-424: Is the sole official language in the province of Quebec , where some 80% of the population speak it as a native language and 95% are capable of conducting a conversation in it. Quebec is also home to the city of Montreal , which is the world's fourth-largest French-speaking city, by number of first language speakers. New Brunswick and Manitoba are the only officially bilingual provinces, though full bilingualism
9504-512: The 1685 second wave of Huguenot refugees forced into exile after the revocation of the Nantes edict since Geneva was a favored passage for the refugees heading to Switzerland and historians estimate that between 100,000 and 120,000 huguenots transited through the city. Buoyed by the economic prosperity and relative peace between 1654 and 1688, when France went to war against the league of Augsburg and blockaded its enemies, Geneva provided much aid to
9702-738: The Aosta Valley region of Italy where it is the first language of approximately 50% of the population, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands . It is also spoken in Andorra and is the main language after Catalan in El Pas de la Casa . The language is taught as the primary second language in the German state of Saarland , with French being taught from pre-school and over 43% of citizens being able to speak French. The majority of
9900-459: The Aosta Valley region of Italy; and various communities elsewhere. French is estimated to have about 310 million speakers, of which about 80 million are native speakers. According to the OIF, approximately 321 million people worldwide are "able to speak the language" as of 2022, without specifying the criteria for this estimation or whom it encompasses. In Francophone Africa, it is spoken mainly as
10098-617: The Centre William Rappard , housed the Geneva Graduate Institute's library during that period. Villa Moynier, since 2009, houses the Institute-based Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights and Geneva Center for International Dispute Settlement. The building holds a symbolic significance as it was originally owned by Gustave Moynier , co-founder of the International Committee of
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#173284437469410296-539: The Democratic Republic of Congo . There is not a single African French , but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages . Sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth. It is also where the language has evolved the most in recent years. Some vernacular forms of French in Africa can be difficult to understand for French speakers from other countries, but written forms of
10494-625: The Eidguenots named this faction the Mammelus , after the Mamluks , the slave-soldiers of the sultan in Cairo. In 1519, the Eidguenots attempted to conclude a treaty of alliance ( combourgeoisie ) with the Swiss confederation, but this was rejected by all the cantons except for Fribourg. Bern in particular was an ally of Savoy at this time, and central Swiss cantons viewed with suspicion an eventual expansion to
10692-485: The European Union , French was the dominant language within all institutions until the 1990s. After several enlargements of the EU (1995, 2004), French significantly lost ground in favour of English, which is more widely spoken and taught in most EU countries. French currently remains one of the three working languages, or "procedural languages", of the EU, along with English and German. It is the second-most widely used language within EU institutions after English, but remains
10890-547: The Francien dialect is one that not only continued but also thrived during the Middle French period (14th–17th centuries). Modern French grew out of this Francien dialect. Grammatically, during the period of Middle French, noun declensions were lost and there began to be standardized rules. Robert Estienne published the first Latin-French dictionary, which included information about phonetics, etymology, and grammar. Politically,
11088-516: The Francs , who administratively divide the area in three parts: one centred on the city of Besançon , one around Dijon , and the last one, the Pagus Ultraioranus ("Transjurane") includes the cities of Geneva, Nyon, Sion, and Avenches. Given the peripheral location of Geneva within this region, it lost its status of capital, although it kept a certain religious prestige. In 864, Conrad II acquired
11286-466: The Global Arbitration Review . This same LL.M. also consistently featured in the top 10 LL.M. for alternative dispute resolution by the specialised website LL.M.-guide. The Graduate Institute's LL.M. in international law also featured in the top 10 LL.M. for public international law compiled by LLM-guide. The Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights ' LL.M. in international humanitarian law and human rights—a joint programme between
11484-421: The International Institute of Humanitarian Law and the World Business Council for Sustainable Development . Another section of the campus are two historic villas situated by Lake Geneva , Villa Barton and Villa Moynier. Villa Barton served as the institute's main campus from 1937 to 2007. It now mostly houses administrative staff. Adjacent to Villa Barton, the World Trade Organization 's headquarters, known as
11682-451: The International Labour Organization , the World Intellectual Property Organization , and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade . Additionally, graduates have served as commissioner-general of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency and of the High Commissioner for Human Rights . Founded by two senior League of Nations officials, the Geneva Graduate Institute maintains strong links with that international organisation's successor,
11880-439: The International Olympic Committee , the Council of Europe , the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development , Organization of American States (alongside Spanish, Portuguese and English), the Eurovision Song Contest , one of eighteen official languages of the European Space Agency , World Trade Organization and the least used of the three official languages in the North American Free Trade Agreement countries. It
12078-443: The Lutheran liturgy. In April 1538, as the government is torn between supporters of a state religion following the Bernese model and supporters of French reformation, the authorities ask both men to leave the city. However, soon after in September 1541, Calvin is asked by Geneva to return. Upon his arrival he begins to leave his mark on Church with the Ecclesiastical Ordinances and, although he had no official role other than Head of
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#173284437469412276-539: The Mammelus and Bishop Pierre de la Baume. When the Eidguenots took over the control of the city, they executed the leaders of the opposing faction in retaliation for the previous ruthless behaviour of the Duke. In an attempt to regain his influence, Bishop Pierre de la Baume requested to join the alliance with Bern and Fribourg, which refused. Afraid for his safety, he quit the city on 1 August 1527 and he would only go back for two weeks before permanently leaving Geneva in 1533. Despite its newly regained independence from
12474-420: The Oaths of Strasbourg and the Sequence of Saint Eulalia , while Old French literature began to be produced in the eleventh century, with major early works often focusing on the lives of saints (such as the Vie de Saint Alexis ), or wars and royal courts, notably including the Chanson de Roland , epic cycles focused on King Arthur and his court , as well as a cycle focused on William of Orange . It
12672-429: The Reign of Terror . Slowly, stability regains Geneva and in September 1795 with the 'act of forgetfulness' all the trials in the revolutionary courts were annulled. Old symbols of the Republic of Geneva make a comeback, and in October 1796 a new, more conservative constitution, is adopted. Things would quickly evolve when France officially annexes Savoy in the spring 1796 and Geneva is increasingly denounced by Paris as
12870-513: The Small Arms Survey . The Geneva Graduate Institute runs three specialized schools jointly with the University of Geneva. They are Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights , the Geneva Centre of Humanitarian Studies and the Geneva Center for International Dispute Settlement. As a small institution offering exclusively graduate programmes, the Geneva Graduate Institute does not participate in university rankings of generalist universities . However, It has been ranked by
13068-440: The United Nations , and many alumni have gone on to work at UN agencies . Founded in 1927, the Geneva Graduate Institute is the world's first graduate school dedicated solely to the study of international affairs. It offered one of the first doctoral programmes in international relations in the world. Today the school enrolls close to a thousand postgraduate students from over 100 countries. Foreign students make up nearly 90% of
13266-430: The United Nations , the International Committee of the Red Cross and CERN . The Canton of Geneva, whose official name is the Republic and Canton of Geneva, is the successor of the Republic of Geneva. This article focuses on the history of the canton, which begins in 1815, and some of the context leading to modern borders and events after that date. For more detail on the history of Geneva prior to that year, refer to
13464-520: The United Nations , the European Union, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization , the World Trade Organization , the International Olympic Committee , the General Conference on Weights and Measures , and the International Committee of the Red Cross . French is a Romance language (meaning that it is descended primarily from Vulgar Latin ) that evolved out of the Gallo-Romance dialects spoken in northern France. The language's early forms include Old French and Middle French . Due to Roman rule, Latin
13662-427: The University of Cambridge , and Sciences Po . In 2012, The Geneva Graduate Institute was listed among the Foreign Policy Association 's "Top 50 International Affairs Graduate Programs." The LL.M. in international dispute settlement, offered jointly with the University of Geneva by the Geneva Center for International Dispute Settlement, was ranked 2nd worldwide according to a 2012 survey of law firms conducted by
13860-427: The University of Geneva ended when the Swiss government accredited it as a university independently, rather than through the University of Geneva. The history of the Graduate Institute of Development Studies also involves Jacques Freymond , who founded the institution in 1961 as the Centre genevois pour la formation des cadres africains , later renamed Institut Africain de Genève , or African Institute of Geneva. It
14058-420: The history of the city of Geneva . Compared to other urban cantons of Switzerland (Zürich, Bern, Basel before it split, Fribourg, Lucerne), Geneva's geographical size is relatively small. This article explains the political context that led to the present-day borders. Geneva was controlled by the Allobroges , a rich and powerful Celtic tribe until 121 BC, when they were defeated by the Roman Empire . The city
14256-565: The " cujus regio, ejus religio " principle for Geneva. However, the Genevan authorities were highly suspicious and worked towards obtaining the support of catholic Solothurn and France, who agree to protect the city against potential attacks from Savoy. In effect, the threats to the city materialise with Emmanuel-Philibert's son, Charles Emmanuel I , who dreams of conquering the city and he begins plotting against Protestants, employing mercenaries to intimidate those converted by Bernese preachers. Intensifying its diplomatic efforts, Geneva obtains
14454-548: The 11th century onwards also affected Geneva. Medieval fairs appeared in Northern Europe, often driven by a political will to promote a city. In contrast, the origins of the trade fairs in the city, active from at least by the middle of the 13th century, remain unknown. However, these expanded greatly during the 14th century and their apogee took place in the middle of the 15th century, when the city counted seven yearly trade fairs, four of which had large international significance:
14652-582: The 15th century, making it the largest city in the region as Chambéry and Lausanne counted 5,000 inhabitants at the time and in modern Switzerland only Basel with its 8,000-to- 10,000 came close to Geneva's size. This explains the interest that the Dukes of Savoy took again to gain control of the city over the Bishops of Geneva upon their acquisition of the title of Counts of Geneva. On two occasions, in 1407 and again in 1420, Amadeus VIII , attempted to gain control of
14850-487: The 1980s, the faculty never exceeded 25 members. In 2008, the Graduate Institute of International Studies absorbed the Graduate Institute of Development Studies (abbreviated IUED), a smaller postgraduate institution also based in Geneva and founded in 1961. To reflect its new and broader mission, the school was renamed Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies . In 2009, its previous affiliation with
15048-502: The 1990s) but these varieties are severely endangered or presumed extinct. French is one of two official languages in Haiti alongside Haitian Creole . It is the principal language of education, administration, business, and public signage and is spoken by all educated Haitians. It is also used for ceremonial events such as weddings, graduations, and church masses. The vast majority of the population speaks Haitian Creole as their first language;
15246-798: The 20th century, when it was replaced by English as the United States became the dominant global power following the Second World War . Stanley Meisler of the Los Angeles Times said that the fact that the Treaty of Versailles was written in English as well as French was the "first diplomatic blow" against the language. During the Grand Siècle (17th century), France, under the rule of powerful leaders such as Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIV , enjoyed
15444-716: The Bishop Pierre de la Baume arrived to Geneva to exercise his right of justice on the murder of a canon, he expressed his opposition to the new Councils by leaving the city forever. He then sides with Charles III , and in August 1534, he excommunicates the city. In response, the city authorities declare in October of the same year the vacancy of the Bishopric and attribute for themselves all seigniorial rights (to make laws, to declare war and peace, to mint coin etc.). This act of independence marks
15642-635: The Bishop on the border of his County in Seyssel as the Bishop was on his way back to Geneva from Vienne , whose Bishop had been tasked by the Pope to mediate in the conflict. There, they concluded a treaty (the Traité de Seyssel ), whereby the Count restored to the Bishop of Geneva some of the churches whose rights and revenues he had acquired. Although this treaty did not fully solve the conflict, which only got fully resolved by
15840-682: The Canadian capital, is also effectively bilingual, as it has a large population of federal government workers, who are required to offer services in both French and English, and is just across the river from the Quebecois city of Gatineau . According to the United States Census Bureau (2011), French is the fourth most spoken language in the United States after English, Spanish, and Chinese, when all forms of French are considered together and all dialects of Chinese are similarly combined. French
16038-886: The Caribbean that are collectively referred to as the French West Indies , namely Guadeloupe , Saint Barthélemy , Saint Martin , and Martinique . French is the official language of both French Guiana on the South American continent, and of Saint Pierre and Miquelon , an archipelago off the coast of Newfoundland in North America. French was the official language of the colony of French Indochina , comprising modern-day Vietnam , Laos , and Cambodia . It continues to be an administrative language in Laos and Cambodia, although its influence has waned in recent decades. In colonial Vietnam,
16236-524: The Catholic Church. With this decision, the commune of Geneva, the civil authority of the city, merged with new institutions, including the territories that depended on the Bishop, the mandements . As a response, the Catholic Canton of Fribourg breaks its alliance with the city. Charles III took advantage of the tumultuous situation in Geneva to attempt to conquer the city in 1535–36, but coming to
16434-505: The Counts of Geneva, largely explains why, unlike other Swiss urban cantons, Geneva was unable to expand geographically, as its borders were dominated by those two powerful states. Unwilling to give up on the city, Savoy launched one last attempt to conquer the city during the events of the Escalade in 1602. This incursion against the “Protestant Rome” would paradoxically lead to the recognition of
16632-744: The Davis' $ 10 million donation to the institute. In addition to serving as the institute's main campus, the Maison de la paix also houses policy centres and advocacy groups with close ties to the Institute such as the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF), the Geneva Centre for Security Policy (GCSP) the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining , Interpeace ,
16830-529: The Duke, they harassed the city by confiscating food products in its borders, attacking men and ravaging the countryside. After an attempt to assault the city in March 1529 and again in October 1530, Geneva requested the aid of its allies from Bern and Fribourg . Several thousand soldiers, accompanied by negotiators from eight Swiss cantons, entered the city on the 10th of October and stayed for ten days within its walls until
17028-524: The Empire, this local elite had been slowly abandoning Gaulish entirely, but the rural and lower class populations remained Gaulish speakers who could sometimes also speak Latin or Greek. The final language shift from Gaulish to Vulgar Latin among rural and lower class populations occurred later, when both they and the incoming Frankish ruler/military class adopted the Gallo-Roman Vulgar Latin speech of
17226-573: The Epiphany, Easter, August, and October/November. Geneva benefited from several external factors at this time to explain this economic expansion: the crisis of trade fairs in Chalon-sur-Saône , and the Hundred Years' War , partially removed France from international routes linking Northern Europe to Mediterranean ports such as Montpellier and Marseille , which shifted eastwards, crossing Geneva and
17424-620: The Futuribles project led by Bertrand de Jouvenel ), the causes and possible antidotes to terrorism, Pugwash Conference concerns and much more. Freymond's term also saw many landmark publications, including the Treatise on international law by Paul Guggenheim and the six-volume compilation of historical documents relating to the Communist International . Nevertheless, the Geneva Graduate Institute remained small during that period. Before
17622-716: The Geneva Graduate Institute and the University of Geneva—also featured in LLM-guide's top 10 LL.M. programmes for human rights law. The Campus de la paix is a network of buildings extending from Place des Nations (the United Nations Headquarters in Geneva) to the shores of Lake Geneva, spanning two public parks – Parc Barton and Parc Moynier . The Graduate Institute's main campus is the Maison de la paix (literally "House of Peace"), which opened in 2013. The Maison de la Paix
17820-785: The Geneva School of International Studies, also offered summer programs at the Geneva Graduate Institute starting in the mid-1920s. These schools were run by Oxford University international relations professor Alfred Zimmern , who also sat on the Committee of the Geneva Graduate Institute, and were funded by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. and several other wealthy American donors. They would be attended by hundreds of students yearly and were particularly popular with American students. The "Geneva Schools" or "Zimmern Schools," as they became known, were taught by leading scholars like Louis Eisenmann , Ernst Jäckh , Paul Mantoux , and Arnold J. Toynbee alongside
18018-476: The Germanic Frankish language , which non-exhaustively included the use in upper-class speech and higher registers of V2 word order , a large percentage of the vocabulary (now at around 15% of modern French vocabulary ) including the impersonal singular pronoun on (a calque of Germanic man ), and the name of the language itself. Up until its later stages, Old French , alongside Old Occitan , maintained
18216-587: The Institute shared between the Swiss Confederation and the canton of Geneva . Usually in Switzerland, it is the responsibility of the cantons to run public universities, except for the Federal Institutes of Technology ( ETHZ and EPFL ). The Graduate Institute is therefore something like a hybrid institution, in-between the two standard categories. The Foundation Board is the administrative body of
18414-508: The Institute. It assembles academics, politicians, people of public life and practitioners. Its members have included Carlos Lopes (ex-U.N. under secretary general), Julia Marton-Lefèvre (former director general of the International Union for Conservation of Nature ) and Jacques Marcovitch . French language French ( français [fʁɑ̃sɛ] or langue française [lɑ̃ɡ fʁɑ̃sɛːz] )
18612-609: The Ministers, administrative matters as well as he outmanoeuvres political opponents to redact part of the Civil Edicts ( Édits Civils ) in 1543, a sort of constitution, which fix the form of government, the election rules and powers of the members of the Councils. These two texts, revised over time, would govern the Republic until the end of the 18th century. If the political Edicts brought only minor changes to prior dispositions adopted over
18810-404: The Pays de Gex, for Chancy , Avully , and Russin . In a similar treaty with Savoy in 1754, Geneva received from Savoy Cartigny , Jussy , Vandoeuvres , Gy , and some other smaller territories, in exchange for its rights on Carouge , Veyrier , Onex , Lancy , Bossey , Presinge , and others. During the baroque and classical periods, Europe saw the emergence of several planned towns. Save for
19008-741: The Red Cross (ICRC), and subsequently used by the League of Nations and as the headquarters of the ICRC between 1933 and 1946. At the time of the Geneva Graduate Institute's founding in the early 20th century, the school was briefly housed in an hôtel particulier , located at Promenade du Pin 5, that now houses the Bibliothèque d'art et d'archéologie (Genève) [ fr ] . The Geneva Graduate Institute owns and operates two halls of residence in Geneva. The Edgar and Danièle de Picciotto Student Residence neighbors
19206-604: The Red Cross , World Intellectual Property Organization and many other international organisations . The school runs joint degree programmes with universities such as Smith College and Yale University , and is Harvard Kennedy School 's only partner institution to co-deliver double degrees . It is a member of the Association of Professional Schools of International Affairs , a group of schools that specialize in public policy , public administration , and international affairs . The Graduate Institute of International Studies
19404-520: The Rhone valley; the city reaped the benefits from the pax sabauda , a long-period of peace during which it was spared from the effects of wars; and in addition, the House of Savoy spent long periods of time in the city, adding to the demand for luxury goods. The trade fairs required credit to function through letters of credit , the development of which adds to the economic expansion of the city. The fairs were also
19602-519: The Romans, the Burgundians settled in an ill-defined region named Sapaudia and Geneva was chosen as the capital of the newly formed kingdom for its first 20 years due to the city's economic importance as well as the prestige of its Bishop . As the kingdom began expanding towards Lyon and Grenoble , Geneva lost its central geographical location of the kingdom and for a time became a secondary capital until
19800-472: The Swiss government and Canton of Geneva . The school was affiliated to the University of Geneva , though independent in its program of studies and personnel. Funding from American philanthropic organizations, primarily the Rockefeller Foundation as part of its initiative to promote a scientific approach to international relations , continued until 1954. At the time, the Geneva Graduate Institute
19998-533: The Swiss, the chapel of the cathedral, and the civil authorities of the city. The decline of the Duchy was exacerbated by the internal rebellions and the series of weak and physically ill Dukes. Sensing this weakness, the Duchy's neighbours made it into a prey, incapable as well of defending Geneva's economic interests against French interference as well as incapable of physically protecting the city against foreign invasions. With this loss of reputation, new factions emerge in
20196-498: The aid of Geneva, a new army of Bernese in alliance with France defeated Savoy. It occupied the lands of Savoy in the Genevan basin (including all the Pays de Gex ), marking the end of the Duchy as a threat to Geneva and the recognition of Geneva's sovereignty. This was not without risk to Geneva, given how Bernese troops conquered Lausanne despite the cities' alliance. In 1536, John Calvin ,
20394-432: The alliance with Zürich in 1584. Between 1586 and 1587 large outbreaks of the plague affects Geneva and Savoy, which came coupled with bad harvests and famines affecting the continent. In these conditions, it was difficult to supply with food the 15,000 inhabitants of the city, despite diplomatic efforts to seek help from its allies. The Council forbids the production of white bread and pastries and bans some residents from
20592-559: The area of Satigny which eventually became the Mandement, or in 962 when Queen Berthe offered lands in Saint-Genis. The income of the Kingdom suffered from these transfers of lands and, in an attempt to stop the process, in 995 King Rudolph III tried to withdraw the hereditary rights away from some of his nobles. However, the King was defeated in this power struggle, and this led to a weakening of
20790-525: The army of French king Henri II in the battle of Saint-Quentin in 1557 and recovered the lands conquered by the French in 1535. In 1559, in the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis , France restores an independent Savoy. However, Bern did not participate in the initial negotiations, and only in the Treaty of Lausanne of 1564 did Savoy recover the lands around Geneva, while losing forever the Pays de Vaud to Bern. Until his death, Emmanuel-Philibert practiced tolerance with his non-Catholic subjects and largely respected
20988-524: The birth of the Republic of Geneva, then still mostly confined to the city and the few medieval territories gifted to the Bishops, the largest of which were Satigny , Peney, and an area around modern-day Jussy . In addition, owing to the increased rate of conversions to Protestantism, on the 21 May 1536, the General Council of Geneva fully adopted the Reformation and confiscated all the assets of
21186-564: The central power. As the King weakened, some of his local officers such as the Counts rejected his authority and even opposed him. Several independent fiefdoms emerge from this time, including the County of Geneva . In 1032, Rudolph III died without an heir. The Kingdom of Burgundy then reverted to HRE Conrad II , who tried to re-assert control of the lands by rallying the nobles who opposed Rodolph III. In exchange for his loyalty, Gerold, count of Geneva, obtained full powers over his County, becoming
21384-401: The city from the Bishops by pleading to the Pope. However, both times his requests were rejected. Possibly from the lack of interest by the local population who saw no benefit in replacing the Bishop's control with the Duke, since the Bishop shared his ruling of the city with local civilian authorities. In 1434, however, the Duke abdicated and retreated to a chapel. This added to his prestige as
21582-559: The city in exchange for an assurance of the respect of their neutrality by France. On the 19 November 1792 the National Convention declared the Edict of Fraternity which called on European peoples to rise against their rulers, both secular and spiritual, and overthrow them; in response, the Genevan government decided to grant on the day of the Escalade, the 12th of December, full rights to all
21780-421: The city seeking to distance the city from the Duchy. The degradation of the political relations between Savoy and the civil authorities of Geneva rose to prominence in 1513, when upon the death of Bishop Charles de Seyssel, Charles III maneuvred to get Jean de Savoie appointed by the Pope. Several Genevan citizens who disapproved the influence of the Duke, led by Besançon Hugues and Philibert Berthelier , form
21978-402: The city was finally forced to abandon it when France defeated Savoy and annexed the Pays de Gex for itself in the Treaty of Lyon of 1601 . This marked the point where most of Geneva's hinterland was divided between two different strong states along the Rhone banks: the Kingdom of France on the right, and the Duchy of Savoy on the left. This event and the prior domination of the area by Savoy and
22176-485: The city's independence in a period when the threat of France was not subsiding. A period of political and economic crisis and instability followed, with a new constitution adopted in 1794 and several government changes that adopt increasingly radical and controversial ideas such as vastly higher wealth tax rates for citizens of opposing factions, and death and imprisonment sentences for hundreds of adversaries. Meanwhile, in France, Robespierre fell 27 July 1794 and with him
22374-687: The city's independence. The negotiations between Savoy and Geneva from spring 1603 were successfully completed in July the same year with the treaty of Saint-Julien. Thanks to the arbitration provided by several Swiss cantons as well as France, the Republic obtained a very advantageous deal that politically placed the city in equal terms with Savoy. In addition, it obtained economic (free commerce and exemption from taxes on real estate located in Savoy owned by Genevan residents) and military rights (prohibition from building any military facilities and from keeping any garrison on
22572-621: The city's interests in the French court. Trade with the central cities of the Swiss confederation sparked an economy recovery from 1480 to 1520, but it also showed the decline of Savoy as the protector of Geneva. In addition, in the Battle of Nancy during the Burgundian Wars , the Old Swiss Confederacy achieved a decisive military victory against Charles the Bold who died in the battle. Geneva
22770-429: The city, as France was interested in keeping the status quo with Savoy as well as in respecting Geneva's alliance with the Swiss cantons in order to maintain the supply of Swiss mercenaries, and on the other hand economic interests given that the city was centrally located in the trade routes linking north and south, and that it provided a significant amount of capital to finance France's debt. Tensions were highest during
22968-426: The city. The catastrophe affected Savoy equally, and in response Charles Emmanuel I forbids the export of grains from his lands, which in essence means blockading Geneva from any supplies since the city was surrounded by the Duchy except for what goods could be imported by the lake. In response, Geneva, supported by France and a contingent of 12,000 Swiss soldiers, intermittently occupied the Pays de Gex from 1589, but
23166-666: The costs associated with the school. This transfer of financial responsibility coincided with the arrival of Rappard's successor as the school's director, historian Jacques Freymond in 1955. Freymond inaugurated a period of great expansion, increasing the range of subjects taught and the number of both students and faculty. Under his tenure, the Geneva Graduate Institute hosted many international colloquia that discussed preconditions for East–West negotiations, relations with China and its rising influence in world affairs, European integration , techniques and results of politico-socioeconomic forecasting (the famous early Club of Rome reports, and
23364-526: The count's power took place from 1078 to 1129, when Count Aymon I managed to get his brother Guy de Faucigny appointed as bishop of Geneva. Aymon took advantage of this situation by transferring the administration of some of the lands away from the Diocese of Geneva to the priory of Saint-Victor of which he became protector at the request of the Bishop, and siphoned the resources of the priory to himself. The successor of Guy de Faucigny, Bishop Humbert de Grammont,
23562-525: The country near French-speaking Quebec, however, it is the foreign language more commonly taught. Vowel phonemes in French Canton of Geneva The Canton of Geneva , officially the Republic and Canton of Geneva , is one of the 26 cantons of the Swiss Confederation . It is composed of forty-five municipalities , and the seat of the government and parliament is in the city of Geneva . Geneva
23760-477: The death of antipope count Robert in 1394, the county passed to the house of Thoire-Villars, who were related to the house of Geneva. However, some of the local nobility was displeased with the outcome and, profiting from the situation, the County of Geneva finally disappeared when it was sold to Amadeus VIII of Savoy for 45,000 gold francs on 5 August 1401. The economic rise of cities and international commerce from
23958-450: The demographic prospects of the French-speaking nations of Africa, researcher Pascal-Emmanuel Gobry wrote in 2014 that French "could be the language of the future". However, some African countries such as Algeria intermittently attempted to eradicate the use of French, and as of 2024 it was removed as an official language in Mali and Burkina Faso . Significant as a judicial language, French
24156-448: The economic power of the countries using the language, the number of major areas in which the language is used, and the linguistic prestige associated with the mastery of the language (Weber highlighted that French in particular enjoys considerable linguistic prestige). In a 2008 reassessment of his article, Weber concluded that his findings were still correct since "the situation among the top ten remains unchanged." Knowledge of French
24354-585: The elites primarily spoke French, while many servants who worked in French households spoke a French pidgin known as " Tây Bồi " (now extinct). After French rule ended, South Vietnam continued to use French in administration, education, and trade. However, since the Fall of Saigon and the opening of a unified Vietnam's economy, French has gradually been effectively displaced as the first foreign language of choice by English in Vietnam. Nevertheless, it continues to be taught as
24552-417: The end of Geneva's distinctive identity founded on the memory of the fights for independence and conviviality practices that Calvin could not tolerate. Internationally, thanks to Calvin's religious reforms, Geneva becomes a beacon for the reformation, attracting thousands of Protestant refugees from all over Europe, but especially from France and to a lesser extent Italy and Spain. With the influx of refugees,
24750-509: The faction of the Eidguenots (named after the German Eidgenossen , "confederates"), and sought the rapprochement of the city with the Swiss confederation . However, part of the Genevan political elite maintained their preference for the precarious political equilibrium with the House of Savoy, partly to stay in good terms with the rulers of all of Geneva's surroundings. As a sign of contempt,
24948-506: The first government authority to adopt Modern French as official was the Aosta Valley in 1536, while the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts (1539) named French the language of law in the Kingdom of France . During the 17th century, French replaced Latin as the most important language of diplomacy and international relations ( lingua franca ). It retained this role until approximately the middle of
25146-439: The former Yugoslavia , International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda , the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea the International Criminal Court and the World Trade Organization Appellate Body . It is the sole internal working language of the Court of Justice of the European Union , and makes with English the European Court of Human Rights 's two working languages. In 1997, George Weber published, in Language Today ,
25344-416: The future evolution of the canton of Geneva, as for the first time there was a complete separation of the ruling of the city of Geneva, by the Bishops, from the ruling of its hinterlands, the Counts. At the same time, the county was in a continuous power struggle with the House of Savoy , which by the middle of the 12th century governed a vast principality centred on the control of the main mountain passes of
25542-715: The gender of the corresponding word in Gaulish. The estimated number of French words that can be attributed to Gaulish is placed at 154 by the Petit Robert , which is often viewed as representing standardized French, while if non-standard dialects are included, the number increases to 240. Known Gaulish loans are skewed toward certain semantic fields, such as plant life ( chêne , bille , etc.), animals ( mouton , cheval , etc.), nature ( boue , etc.), domestic activities (ex. berceau ), farming and rural units of measure ( arpent , lieue , borne , boisseau ), weapons, and products traded regionally rather than further afield. This semantic distribution has been attributed to peasants being
25740-481: The house of Savoy, but without gaining full control over the city. Nevertheless, larger events began to catch up with the city. In 1462, Louis XI , king of France, decided to forbid Frenchmen and foreigners in his kingdom from attending Geneva's trade fairs, and promoted its most direct competition in Lyon , whose trade fairs began in 1420. This led to an economic decline of the city, which received support from its trade partners, Bern and Fribourg, in view of defending
25938-401: The influence of Savoy, Geneva had no real army of its own and remained a city largely dependent on the diplomatic circumstances of the large European powers. However, the supporters of Charles III did not give up in their quest to seize Geneva. They withdrew to the Pays de Vaud from where they plotted against Geneva under the banner of " Gentilshommes de la Cuiller ". Discreetly supported by
26136-452: The inhabitants of the city and its towns. However, this was too late and on the 28th of the same month, a new revolt spreads in the city and the old patrician government falls, replaced by a new regime that on the day after adopts the motto of " Liberté, Égalité, Indépendence " French for "Liberty, Equality, Independence", stressing the fact that despite its revolutionary principles, the citizens of Geneva opposed any measure that would surrender
26334-423: The institute's faculty. Hans Kelsen , theorist and philosopher of law, Guglielmo Ferrero , Italian historian, and Carl Burckhardt , scholar and diplomat were employed at the Geneva Graduate Institute. Other arrivals included Ludwig von Mises , and another economist, Wilhelm Ropke . With the Rockefeller Foundation ending its funding in 1954, the Canton of Geneva and the Swiss government began to bear most of
26532-401: The kingdom was divided between Godegisel and Gundobad , sons of Gondioc . Godegisel settled in Geneva from which he controlled the northern bishoprics. The nature of the political relationship between both brothers is not well known, but in the year 500 the kingdoms went to war, during which Godegisel was defeated and Geneva pillaged and destroyed. In 532, the Burgundians were conquered by
26730-416: The lake are entirely covered with them. These buildings all have a pleasant exterior which announces, if not magnificence, at least the last degree of cleanliness. Each house has its own well-tended gardens, often even vineyards, meadows and ploughed land. The main road was swarming with pedestrians, horses and carriages, and the surroundings were as busy as they are elsewhere on days of great solemnity ". At
26928-407: The lands in Chablais and the Pays de Gex were progressively converted back to Catholicism by the future Bishop St François de Sales from 1594, who even entered the city de incognito in an attempt to convince Theodore de Beze to hold a public debate on religion. The authorities found themselves unable to respond to the Catholic threat, as they could not afford to irritate the French king, and at
27126-401: The language are very closely related to those of the rest of the French-speaking world. French is the second most commonly spoken language in Canada and one of two federal official languages alongside English. As of the 2021 Canadian census , it was the native language of 7.7 million people (21% of the population) and the second language of 2.9 million (8% of the population). French
27324-424: The language, although it has now given way to Tamil and English. A former French mandate , Lebanon designates Arabic as the sole official language, while a special law regulates cases when French can be publicly used. Article 11 of Lebanon's Constitution states that "Arabic is the official national language. A law determines the cases in which the French language is to be used". The French language in Lebanon
27522-501: The language. The Act applies to areas of the province where there are significant Francophone communities, namely Eastern Ontario and Northern Ontario . Elsewhere, sizable French-speaking minorities are found in southern Manitoba, Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island and the Port au Port Peninsula in Newfoundland and Labrador, where the unique Newfoundland French dialect was historically spoken. Smaller pockets of French speakers exist in all other provinces. The Ontarian city of Ottawa ,
27720-428: The last to hold onto Gaulish. The beginning of French in Gaul was greatly influenced by Germanic invasions into the country. These invasions had the greatest impact on the northern part of the country and on the language there. A language divide began to grow across the country. The population in the north spoke langue d'oïl while the population in the south spoke langue d'oc . Langue d'oïl grew into what
27918-452: The local economy such as stonemasons, tailors, shoemakers, or carpenters. But from the 1550s, thanks to the skills brought for the refugees the economy developed export industries such as fabrics and printing. Printing in particular grew very fast, with the arrival of famous printers such as Jean Crespin or Robert Estienne , employing over 200 workers during Calvin's time before many of the printers moved to Lyon when that city also became for
28116-399: The main campus, Maison de la Paix. It was completed in 2012 and provides 135 apartments for students and visiting professors. The Grand Morillon Student Residence opened to students in 2021 and accommodates 680 residents. It was designed by Japanese architect Kengo Kuma . The Graduate Institute has exchange partnerships with the following institutions internationally: The Graduate Institute
28314-427: The majority of the population were then natives and residents, many of whom were educated traders or craftsmen who increasingly rejected being excluded from politics. Increased realisation of their weight, and supported by Voltaire , the natives joined forces with the faction of representatives to overthrow the councils in April 1782 and start a revolution that would facilitate the acquisition of bourgeois rights by
28512-437: The master's top 20. Meanwhile, the PhD programs for policymakers ranked 20th worldwide when assessed by U.S. international relations faculty, 23th when ranked by U.S. policymakers, and 26th when ranked by U.S. think tank staffers. The other Europe-based PhD programs for policymakers listed in the top 20 by U.S. international relations faculty were at the University of Oxford , the London School of Economics and Political Science ,
28710-461: The means of undertaking and pursuing international studies, most notably of a historic, judicial, economic, political and social nature." To fulfill its mission, the Geneva Graduate Institute developed starting in 1924 a system of summer cours temporaires (temporary courses), known as the Geneva Institute of International Relations, with financial support by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace . The courses were given by guest lecturers on
28908-461: The natives. However, only three months later, Bernese, French, and Savoy troops entered the city to re-appoint the ancient government and undo the reforms. In 1785, economic crisis hits Geneva, driven first by the protectionist policies and financial crisis of France and Germany, which reduce the demand for the luxurious Genevan timepieces. After a difficult winter in 1788–89, riots over the increasing price of bread break in Saint-Gervais and spread to
29106-420: The necessity and means to annihilate the patois and to universalize the use of the French language". When public education was made compulsory , only French was taught and the use of any other ( patois ) language was punished. The goals of the public school system were made especially clear to the French-speaking teachers sent to teach students in regions such as Occitania and Brittany . Instructions given by
29304-460: The official use or teaching of French. It is spoken as a first language (in descending order of the number of speakers) in France; Canada (especially in the provinces of Quebec, Ontario, and New Brunswick); Belgium ( Wallonia and the Brussels-Capital Region ); western Switzerland (specifically the cantons forming the Romandy region); parts of Luxembourg; parts of the United States (the states of Louisiana, Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont); Monaco;
29502-475: The other main foreign language in the Vietnamese educational system and is regarded as a cultural language. All three countries are full members of La Francophonie (OIF). French was the official language of French India , consisting of the geographically separate enclaves referred to as Puducherry . It continued to be an official language of the territory even after its cession to India in 1956 until 1965. A small number of older locals still retain knowledge of
29700-447: The population grew from 10,000 residents in 1550 to 25,000 in 1560. However, many of the new arrivals did not want or could not relocate permanently, and the population stabilised around 14,000 by 1572. Like in other cities in the Swiss landscape, the rights to live in the city was highly organised as follows: In an effort to attract talent, from 1537 the Republic granted the status of bourgeois cheaply to teachers, doctors, musicians, to
29898-401: The preferred language of certain institutions or administrations such as the Court of Justice of the European Union , where it is the sole internal working language, or the Directorate-General for Agriculture . Since 2016, Brexit has rekindled discussions on whether or not French should again hold greater role within the institutions of the European Union. A leading world language , French
30096-520: The previous decades, the Ecclesiastical Ordinances would revolutionise the organisation of religious institutions. Thus, the creation of the Consistory launches the period that some historians call the "regime of moral terror" with numerous prohibitions that were severely applied, such as in the sentencing to the pyre of theologian and doctor Michael Servetus in 1553 for heresy, or the marginalisation of ancient, pro-Bernese and anti-French bourgeois families in 1555. The removal of this last opposition, marked
30294-440: The reconstruction of towns destroyed by fires (such as Schwyz in 1642, Sion in 1788, or La Chaux-de-Fonds in 1794), Switzerland did not jump on this trend mostly circumscribed to the large monarchies and princely states. However, the desire to possess or weaken Geneva by France and Savoy provides two good examples of this urban planning, both of which are now Genevan towns. In the 18th century under Louis XV , France intended to build
30492-521: The refugees, some of whom permanently moved to the city and helped to develop new industries such as indiennes and contributed to the watchmaking industry, displeasing France in the process. No major changes occurred in Geneva's borders until 1749. In an effort to rationalise the borders marked by the medieval territories gifted to the Bishops in the Middle Ages, the Republic and France exchanged territories in that year: Geneva swapped its rights over Challex , Thoiry , Fenières, and some enclaves it possed in
30690-407: The rest largely speak French as a first language. As a French Creole language , Haitian Creole draws the large majority of its vocabulary from French, with influences from West African languages, as well as several European languages. It is closely related to Louisiana Creole and the creole from the Lesser Antilles . French is the sole official language of all the overseas territories of France in
30888-455: The rest of the city. Concerned by an escalation of the revolts, the government implemented several reforms to appease the population, including the grant of citizenship to natives and residents of the countryside villages. However, in 1792 the French Revolution reached Geneva when the revolutionaries take over Savoy in September of that year. The Genevan government received military support from its Swiss allies, but they quickly withdrew from
31086-409: The right to appoint the 4 mayors (" syndics ") was granted to the Council of Two Hundred, which also received, from 1530, the task to appoint the members of the Little Council (between 12 and 20 magistrates led by the 4 mayors), which itself appoints the members of the Council of Two Hundred. This circular election system characterised the government system of Geneva until 1792. So it is that when in 1533
31284-462: The same time the local economy increasingly depended on the use of Catholics as domestic labour and in the textile industry. Playing now on the defensive, the Republic multiplied the number of population surveys to track poor Catholics and beggars, while it was forced to accept in 1679 by king Louis XIV the presence of a permanent representative who demanded to be allowed to celebrate the Catholic mass in his home for his workers and neighbours, dealing
31482-423: The same time, political troubles were brewing. In 1526 as the Republic institutions were created, most of the power was given to the Council of Two Hundred . However, the Little Council had little by little nibbled its power, the Republic having effectively surrendered the power to the small number of bourgeois who controlled the Little Council. In 1707 the lawyer and member of the Council of Two Hundred Pierre Fatio
31680-509: The signature of a treaty with Savoy, whereby the Duke abandoned his attacks on the city and re-established the right to trade. Apart from the financial consequences on Geneva, which had to pay for the Swiss soldiers, this intervention left deep marks in the city with consequences for its future. At the time of the alliance with the confederates in 1525, few Protestants were in Geneva. Bern , however, had converted to Protestantism two years before its intervention in 1530. Bernese troops displayed
31878-402: The spark that began the approachment of Geneva with the cities of Fribourg and Bern , both of which partly depended upon the fairs for their extensive textiles manufacturing. This economic development and the centuries-long peace enjoyed by the city is reflected on its demographic expansion. The city grew from about 2,000 inhabitants by the end of the Black Death , to 11,000 by the middle of
32076-444: The stonemasons who contributed to the construction of the new fortifications, and even for free to jurists, priests, professors, and schoolmasters. The main impacts on the city from the refugees that were therefore attracted would be cultural with the influence of the French language that would gradually replace the local Franco-Provençal language, and economic. Initially this opening to foreigners would attract professions that served
32274-411: The student body and the school is officially a bilingual English-French institution, although the majority of classes are in English. With Maison de la Paix acting as its primary seat of learning, the Institute's campuses are located blocks from the United Nations Office at Geneva , International Labour Organization , World Trade Organization , World Health Organization , International Committee of
32472-427: The study of international affairs, with a particular emphasis on the cross-cutting fields of international relations and development issues. The Geneva Graduate Institute's alumni include one secretary-general , seven assistant secretaries-general, and three under-secretaries-general of the United Nations . Alumni have also held prominent positions such as director-general of the International Atomic Energy Agency ,
32670-446: The threats to the Republic's existence did not disappear, particularly as France switched its European alliances and the Kings became less tolerant of Protestants. Threatened by these changing winds and traumatised by the events of the Escalade, Geneva enlarged and professionalised its permanent garrison (from 300 soldiers in 1603 to over 700 a century later) and fortified itself behind mighty walls that become increasingly claustrophobic as
32868-480: The title of Duke of Transjurane and in 888 his son Rudolph I becomes king of the second kingdom of Burgundy after seizing the opportunity of death of Charles the Fat . At its maximum extent around the year 1000, the new kingdom extends from Provence to Basel and controls the main alpine passes of the region. In this context, Geneva regains its importance as the city was located in the intersection between several important roads connecting Italy to Northern Europe via
33066-451: The total absence of fortifications. After the aura of a highly fortified "Protestant Rome", came an image during the 18th century of a very wealthy, elegant city behind its walls. Except for the periods of crises from the Great Plague of Marseille and the crash of the John Law monetary system in France, the century was prosperous until 1785, driven by the production and exports of luxury goods, most notably watches. Between 1760 and 1790,
33264-414: The total number of French speakers will reach approximately 500 million in 2025 and 650 million by 2050, largely due to rapid population growth in sub-Saharan Africa . OIF estimates 700 million French speakers by 2050, 80% of whom will be in Africa. In a study published in March 2014 by Forbes , the investment bank Natixis said that French could become the world's most spoken language by 2050. In
33462-402: The treaty of Saint-Sigismond in 1156 which confirmed all the provisions, it marked an important step for Geneva as the count also gave up his temporal rights over the City of Geneva to the Bishop, except for the right to execute criminal sentences. The following bishops, Arducius de Faucigny (1135-1185) and Nantelme (1185-1205) kept eroding the counts' power. The touchstone of this erosion of power
33660-619: The two official languages—along with Dutch —of the Brussels-Capital Region , where it is spoken by the majority of the population (approx. 80%), often as their primary language. French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland, along with German, Italian, and Romansh , and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland, called Romandy , of which Geneva is the largest city. The language divisions in Switzerland do not coincide with political subdivisions, and some cantons have bilingual status: for example, cities such as Biel/Bienne and cantons such as Valais , Fribourg and Bern . French
33858-660: The understanding of global challenges and whose work has influenced policy-makers. The Geneva Graduate Institute organizes public lecture events. Recent guest speakers have included U.N. Secretary-Generals Antonio Guterres and Ban Ki-moon , U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees Filippo Grandi , U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights Zeid Ra'ad al-Hussein , the Dalai Lama , former Liberia president Johnson Sirleaf , Nobel laureate Dmitry Muratov , Microsoft president Brad Smith , Columbia University professor Jeffrey Sachs , and Harvard University professor Michael Sandel . The Graduate Institute has more than 24,000 alumni working around
34056-508: The urban intellectual elite. The Gaulish language likely survived into the sixth century in France despite considerable Romanization . Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French contributing loanwords and calques (including oui , the word for "yes"), sound changes shaped by Gaulish influence, and influences in conjugation and word order. Recent computational studies suggest that early gender shifts may have been motivated by
34254-425: The use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, and legal contracts; advertisements must bear a translation of foreign words. In Belgium, French is an official language at the federal level along with Dutch and German. At the regional level, French is the sole official language of Wallonia (excluding a part of the East Cantons , which are German-speaking ) and one of
34452-406: The watchmaking industry employs around 4,000 workers, a third of the men residents. During the century, the government also invests in public parks, most notably the Bastions park in 1720, one of the earliest examples of a public park in Europe created from the start for the public and by the public authorities; in beautifying the city, improving the public lighting amongst others. In a latter in 1775
34650-480: The west. Upon their return to Geneva, Charles II, supported by the Bishop, attempts to destroy this faction and executed several Eidguenots , including Philibert Berthelier in 1519 and Amé Lévrier in 1524, accused of plotting against the Bishop. The Eidguenots took refuge in Fribourg after the death of Amé Lévrier and, in 1525, successfully negotiated an alliance with the confederates that this time included Bern in addition to Fribourg. The changing attitude of Bern
34848-400: The western Alps mountain passes of Mont Cenis and Great St Bernard Pass . However, by the end of the 10th century the kingdom was engulfed in several conflicts between the king's power and the aristocracy. Notably for Geneva, some of the most important nobles began to offer some lands to the Church, such as in 912 when Eldegarde (probably a Countess in an area near Nyon) gave up her lands in
35046-450: The western Alps. By the beginning of the 13th century, the Counts of Geneva were facing an alliance of the Maison de Faucigny, de Gex, as well as the counts of Savoy. After several decades of wars of the gebenno-faucigneran conflict of 1205–1250, the counts of Geneva lost all their main lands and fortresses. In the Treaty of Paris (1355) , Savoy was awarded the Faucigny and Gex, leaving the counts of Geneva as secondary regional actors. After
35244-481: The workplace. In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese . In English-speaking Canada, the United Kingdom, and Ireland, French is the first foreign language taught and in number of pupils is far ahead of other languages. In the United States, French is the second-most commonly taught foreign language in schools and universities, although well behind Spanish. In some areas of
35442-402: The world's French-speaking population lives in Africa. According to a 2023 estimate from the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie , an estimated 167 million African people spread across 35 countries and territories can speak French as either a first or a second language . This number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as
35640-645: The world. Notable alumni and faculty include one UN Secretary-General ( Kofi Annan ), seven Nobel Prize recipients, one Pulitzer Prize winner, and numerous ambassadors, foreign ministers, and heads of state. Source: The founding directors of the Graduate Institute of International Studies were Paul Mantoux (1927-1951) and William Rappard (1928-1955). The school was then headed by Jacques Freymond (1955-1978), Christian Dominicé (1978-1984), Lucius Caflisch (1984-1990), Alexandre Swoboda (1990-1998), Peter Tschopp ( de ) (1998-2002), Jean-Michel Jacquet (2002-2004) and Philippe Burrin (2004-2020). Its current director
35838-405: The writer and philosopher Georges Sulzer wrote " Mr Bonnet was kind enough to accompany me to Geneva. It is well known that this city is, in proportion to its size, one of the richest in Europe. Its avenues already announce its opulence; everything indicates a people who live in the midst of abundance. Nowhere have I seen so many country houses as in the territory of this little Republic: the banks of
36036-438: Was "among the most important centres of scholarship" in international relations alongside other schools, mostly located in Europe, that included the Institute of Higher International Studies in Paris, the Deutsche Hochschule für Politik (or German Academy for Politics) in Berlin, the Diplomatic Academy of Vienna , and the Walsh School of Foreign Service in the United States. The Geneva Graduate Institute's original mandate
36234-417: Was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the ( Germanic ) Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to the French colonial empire , there are numerous French-based creole languages , most notably Haitian Creole . A French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French
36432-596: Was among the pioneer institutions in Europe to develop the scholarly field of sustainable development. The school was also known for the critical view of many of its professors on development aid, as well as for its journal, the Cahiers de l'IUED. The Geneva Graduate Institute has nearly 1,100 students. Of these, about a third are PhD students, and two thirds are master's students. Fourteen percent come from Switzerland. The remainder come from more than 100 other countries. Around 63 percent are women. The Geneva Graduate Institute maintains five academic departments each headed by
36630-442: Was based on a close working relationship with both the League of Nations and the International Labour Organization . It was agreed that in exchange for training staff and delegates, the school would receive intellectual resources and diplomatic expertise (guest lecturers, etc.) from the aforementioned organisations. According to its statutes, the Geneva Graduate Institute was "an institution intended to provide students of all nations
36828-418: Was co-founded in 1927 by two scholar-diplomats working for the League of Nations Geneva secretariat: the Swiss William Rappard , director of the Mandates Section, and the Frenchman Paul Mantoux , director of the Political Section. Initial funding was provided by the U.S.-based Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial Fund , which later merged with the Rockefeller Foundation , along with matching contributions from
37026-531: Was during the period of the Crusades in which French became so dominant in the Mediterranean Sea that became a lingua franca ("Frankish language"), and because of increased contact with the Arabs during the Crusades who referred to them as Franj , numerous Arabic loanwords entered French, such as amiral (admiral), alcool (alcohol), coton (cotton) and sirop (syrop), as well as scientific terms such as algébre (algebra), alchimie (alchemy) and zéro (zero). Within Old French many dialects emerged but
37224-406: Was executed for his attempt to cut back on the powers of the Little Council, by leading a new faction called the representatives that called for a greater share of powers between the two councils . In addition, owing to increased demographic growth and an increase in the price of bourgeoisie , the proportion of eligible men eligible to the governing councils fell from 28% in 1730 to 18% in 1772, as
37422-402: Was explained by the decision of the successor of Charles II, Charles III , to side with HRE Charles V in his conflict with Francis I of France , with whom the Swiss had allied themselves and signed the Perpetual Peace after the Battle of Marignano . Upon the return to Geneva of the Eidguenots , the government ratified the treaty of alliance on 25 February 1526, despite the protestations of
37620-400: Was gradually adopted by the inhabitants of Gaul. As the language was learned by the common people, it developed a distinct local character, with grammatical differences from Latin as spoken elsewhere, some of which is attested in graffiti. This local variety evolved into the Gallo-Romance tongues, which include French and its closest relatives, such as Arpitan . The evolution of Latin in Gaul
37818-469: Was known in the Occitan-speaking region as Vergonha . Spoken by 19.71% of the European Union's population, French is the third most widely spoken language in the EU, after English and German and the second-most-widely taught language after English. Under the Constitution of France , French has been the official language of the Republic since 1992, although the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts made it mandatory for legal documents in 1539. France mandates
38016-426: Was on the losing side since its Bishop, Jean-Louis de Savoie, had sided with Burgundy following directions from Yolande of Valois , regent of Savoy. Immediately, the confederate troops invaded Vaud , and Bernese troops threatened to conquer Geneva, which, owing to its status as a protected enclave within Savoy, had no standing army of its own. The treaty of Morges in 1477 put a stop to the troops advance in exchange for
38214-438: Was outraged by this situation, and requested the restitution of the churches transferred to the administration of the Count. The outcome of the Gregorian Reform materialised in the council of Vienne of 1124 which legislated on securing the ecclesiastical rights and possessions of the church. Pope Callixtus II then pressured Aymon to return the Church's estates, going as far as excommunicating him. The Count repented, and greeted
38412-438: Was relatively favourable to Geneva, whose citizens preserved the assets of the Republic, are left alone in regards to education and the economy, and granted a 5-year exemption from conscription. The city's fortifications are also kept intact and preserved, and the Protestant religion is largely tolerated, although with strict conditions such as the demotion of its status to a simple association. After long debates in Paris, Geneva
38610-411: Was shaped by its coexistence for over half a millennium beside the native Celtic Gaulish language , which did not go extinct until the late sixth century, long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire . The population remained 90% indigenous in origin; the Romanizing class were the local native elite (not Roman settlers), whose children learned Latin in Roman schools. At the time of the collapse of
38808-462: Was the acquisition of the Imperial immediacy by the Prince-Bishopric in 1154, which designated the Bishop of Geneva as a Prince of the Empire and, by right, the only lord of the city after the Emperor, a status employed several times by the Bishops in the defence of their independence from local rulers. As a result, some time around 1219 the Counts of Geneva completely quit the city and moved their capital to Annecy , which marked an important step for
39006-437: Was the language they use the most at home rose from 67% at the 2007 census to 74% at the 2017 census. In Wallis and Futuna, the percentage of the population who reported that French was the language they use the most at home rose from 10% at the 2008 census to 13% at the 2018 census. According to a demographic projection led by the Université Laval and the Réseau Démographie de l'Agence universitaire de la Francophonie ,
39204-422: Was then annexed to the Roman Empire in 121 BC and attached to Gallia Narbonensis province. Its political importance in the region was low, but it soon developed an important economy owing to the city's port that facilitated trade over Lake Geneva from the routes joining from Seyssel and Annecy towards the Roman colonies of Nyon and Avenches . The city remained part of the Empire until 443 when, welcomed by
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