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137-560: In the nineteenth century the United States Coast Survey, known from 1878 as the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey , embarked on an ambitious program to map the seafloors of the world's main oceanways. This produced extensive maps of the more shallow areas, but deep-ocean work was hampered by lack of robust equipment. In 1872, English scientist Sir William Thomson invented a wire-based depth-sounding mechanism which

274-611: A San Francisco , California, newspaper into an addendum to that year ' s Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Coast Survey . Although the Survey had previously published its work indirectly via the Blunts ' American Coast Pilot , it was the first time that the Survey had published its sailing directions directly in any way other than through local newspapers. On June 21, 1860,

411-558: A solar eclipse from a vantage point off Aulezavik , Labrador , on July 18, 1860, as part of an international effort to study the eclipse. Bibb became the first Coast Survey vessel to operate in subarctic waters. The outbreak of the American Civil War in April 1861 caused a dramatic shift in direction for the Coast Survey. All U.S. Army officers were withdrawn from the Survey, as were all but two U.S. Navy officers. Since most men of

548-519: A depth of 33 meters (108 ft). In the early twentieth century, Albert I, Prince of Monaco spent considerable time exploring and mapping the Gorringe Bank, using a total of three ships: Princess Alice , Princess Alice II , and Hirondelle II . The ships' names were given to several mounds and large banks between Madeira and the Azores. The first documented scuba diving expedition, as published in

685-563: A harbor red and those on the left black; instituted by Lieutenant Commander John R. Goldsborough in 1847, the "red right return" system of markings has been in use in the United States ever since. In the early 1840s, the Survey began work in Delaware Bay to chart the approaches to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . Amid renewed calls for the Survey again to be transferred to the Department of

822-415: A means of reducing U.S. government expenditures, and Hassler and Bache had fought back periodic attempts to cut its funding. By 1850, the Coast Survey had surveyed enough of the U.S. coastline for a long enough time to learn that – with a few exceptions, such as the rocky coast of New England – coastlines were dynamic and required return visits by Coast Surveyors to keep charts up to date. In 1858, Bache for

959-504: A new royal palace be built in Campo de Ourique as the new royal residence in 1760, but was later abandoned due to a lack of priority or interest in a palace being built in the Campo de Ourique neighborhood of Lisbon. The king and the prime minister immediately launched efforts to rebuild the city. On 4 December 1755, a little more than a month after the earthquake, Manuel da Maia , chief engineer to

1096-416: A staunch and devout Roman Catholic country. Theologians and philosophers focused and speculated on the religious cause and message, seeing the earthquake as a manifestation of divine judgment . A 2009 study estimated that the earthquake cost between 32 and 48 per cent of Portugal's GDP. Also, "in spite of strict controls, prices and wages remained volatile in the years after the tragedy. The recovery from

1233-666: A survey in the Pacific Ocean off the United States West Coast towing a magnetometer invented by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography . The first such survey in history, it discovered magnetic striping on the seafloor, a key finding in the development of the theory of plate tectonics . 1755 Lisbon earthquake The 1755 Lisbon earthquake , also known as the Great Lisbon earthquake , impacted Portugal,

1370-651: A transcontinental triangulation between the United States East and West Coasts, the Hawaiian Islands , Alaska , and "other coasts under the jurisdiction of the United States," which by then included also included the Philippines, Guam , American Samoa , and Puerto Rico. In 1903, the Organization and Law of the Department of Commerce and Labor stated that from the time the Survey began scientific activities in

1507-468: A way of giving them a pension even though the law did not provide for a pension system, paid employees whether they worked or not, and misused per diem money intended for the expenses of personnel in the field by paying per diem funds to employees who were not in the field as a way of augmenting their very low authorized wages and providing them with fair compensation. Chenoweth saw these practices as embezzlement . Chenoweth also suspected embezzlement in

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1644-529: A wide range of technical positions. Coast and Geodetic Survey personnel also worked as reconnaissance surveyors for a worldwide aeronautical charting effort, and a Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps officer was the first commanding officer of the Army Air Forces Aeronautical Chart Plant at St. Louis , Missouri . Coast and Geodetic Survey civilians who remained in the United States during the war produced over 100 million maps and charts for

1781-569: Is a concept album detailing the story of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. The album is entirely sung in Portuguese and explores not only the history but also its effects on Portuguese society, culture and spirituality. The Lisbon earthquake is vividly depicted in Avram Davidson 's Masters of the Maze , one of the many times and places visited by the book's time-traveling protagonists. The board game Lisboa

1918-674: Is at its minimum – and to the development of telemetering radio sonobuoys and marine seismic exploration techniques. The Air Commerce Act , which went into effect on May 20, 1926, among other things directed that the airways of the United States be charted for the first time and assigned this mission to the Coast and Geodetic Survey. In 1933, the Coast and Geodetic Survey opened a ship base in Norfolk , Virginia . From 1934 to 1937, it organized surveying parties and field offices to employ over 10,000 people, including many unemployed engineers , during

2055-598: Is located near the Serra da Estrela mountain range in central inland Portugal) were visibly affected by the earthquake, the tsunami, or both. The shock waves of the earthquake destroyed part of Covilhã's castle walls and its large towers and damaged several other buildings in Cova da Beira , as well as in Salamanca, Spain . In Setúbal, parts of the Fort of São Filipe de Setúbal were damaged. On

2192-723: The 1755 Lisbon earthquake and the resulting tsunami initially suspected a displacement in the Gorringe Ridge, but later concluded that there was a simultaneous event involving two separate faults along the African Plate boundary, both faults displacing by around 20 m (66 ft). The Gorringe Ridge is a particular and unique site for having an enormous diversity of habitats and species - namely corals, such as gorgonians and deep-sea sponges. The peaks are covered by kelp forests . Over 850 species have been registered so far. Organizations such as Oceana have been trying to include

2329-573: The Allied forces. Three Coast and Geodetic Survey officers and eleven members of the agency who had joined other services were killed during the war. Following World War II, the Coast and Geodetic Survey resumed its peacetime scientific and surveying efforts. In 1945 it adapted the British Royal Air Force ' s Gee radio navigation system to hydrographic surveying, ushering in a new era of marine electronic navigation. In 1948 it established

2466-569: The Canary hotspot mantle plume passed by and caused alkaline magma to intrude. Where there is crust, it is very thin, so that the Moho comes up to the sea floor. Sediment overlies the mantle, so this could be considered as crust. Since the Miocene Era there has been shortening of the ocean crust absorbed by folding, and thrusting. A 2003 study of the ridge's gravity and magnetic anomalies concluded that

2603-515: The Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps was created as a new uniformed service of the United States to carry out both wartime and peacetime surveying and related operations. In 1970, the Coast and Geodetic Survey was abolished when it merged with other government agencies to create the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), but its elements were reorganized and incorporated into NOAA as

2740-625: The Gedney Channel at the entrance to New York Harbor , which significantly reduced sailing times to and from New York City. Gedney was in command of the Revenue-Marine revenue cutter USRC  Washington on August 26, 1839, when she discovered and seized the Spanish schooner La Amistad off Culloden Point on Long Island , New York . A slave ship , La Amistad had been taken over by African people on board who were being transported to

2877-515: The Iberian Peninsula , and Northwest Africa on the morning of Saturday, 1 November, Feast of All Saints , at around 09:40 local time. In combination with subsequent fires and a tsunami , the earthquake almost completely destroyed Lisbon and adjoining areas. Seismologists estimate the Lisbon earthquake had a magnitude of 7.7 or greater on the moment magnitude scale , with its epicenter in

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3014-623: The Mundo Nautico magazine was led by David de Carvalho with three other scuba divers : Miguel Oliveira, Alexandre Ramos, and José Eduardo, and took place in October 1997. The expedition was made possible by support from The Hydrographic Institute, TMN, and Ipimar. In June 2005, the Oceana Organization mounted an extensive exploration of the biota on Gorringe Ridge's two largest peaks. It aimed to categorize and determine relative abundance of

3151-801: The North Sea (where they supported the laying of the North Sea Mine Barrage ), as troop transport navigators, as intelligence officers, and as officers on the staff of U.S. Army General John "Black Jack" Pershing , commander of the American Expeditionary Forces on the Western Front . During the period between the world wars, the Coast and Geodetic Survey returned to its peaceful scientific and surveying pursuits, including land surveying, sea floor charting, coastline mapping, geophysics , and oceanography . In 1923 and 1924, it began

3288-698: The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center in Honolulu Hawaii . The onset of the Cold War in the late 1940s led the Survey also to make a significant effort in support of defense requirements, such as conducting surveys for the Distant Early Warning Line and for rocket ranges, performing oceanographic work for the U.S. Navy, and monitoring nuclear tests. In 1955, the Coast and Geodetic Survey ship USC&GS Pioneer (OSS 31) conducted

3425-616: The Pombaline Lower Town ( Baixa Pombalina ), is one of the city's famed attractions. Sections of other Portuguese cities, such as the Vila Real de Santo António in Algarve , were also rebuilt along Pombaline principles. The Casa Pia , a Portuguese institution founded by Maria I (known as A Pia , "Maria the Pious"), and organized by Police Intendant Pina Manique in 1780, was founded following

3562-485: The Portuguese Empire . The event was widely discussed and dwelt upon by European Enlightenment philosophers , and inspired major developments in theodicy . As the first earthquake studied scientifically for its effects over a large area, it led to the birth of modern seismology and earthquake engineering . The earthquake struck on the morning of 1 November 1755, All Saints' Day . Contemporary reports state that

3699-648: The Survey of the Coast from 1807 to 1836, and as the United States Coast Survey from 1836 until 1878) was the first scientific agency of the United States Government . It existed from 1807 to 1970, and throughout its history was responsible for mapping and charting the coast of the United States , and later the coasts of U.S. territories . In 1871, it gained the additional responsibility of surveying

3836-634: The United States Revenue Cutter Service ) for surveying operations afloat, the U.S. Department of the Navy worked around the law by allowing Lieutenant Thomas R. Gedney to purchase the schooner Jersey for the Navy, then deeming Jersey suited only for use by the Survey. Under Gedney ' s command, Jersey began the Survey ' s first depth sounding operations in October 1834, and made its first commercially and militarily significant discovery in 1835 by discovering what became known as

3973-445: The United States government ' s first scientific agency, represented the interest of the administration of President Thomas Jefferson in science and the stimulation of international trade by using scientific surveying methods to chart the waters of the United States and make them safe for navigation. A Swiss immigrant with expertise in both surveying and the standardization of weights and measures , Ferdinand R. Hassler ,

4110-510: The copyright for the American Coast Pilot – the Blunt family publication which had appeared in 21 editions since 1796 and had come to consist almost entirely of public information produced by the Survey anyway – in 1867, and the Survey thus took responsibility for publishing it regularly for the first time, spawning a family of such publications for the various coasts of the United States and

4247-561: The " American Method ," it soon was emulated worldwide. Disaster struck the Coast Survey on September 8, 1846, when the survey brig Peter G. Washington encountered a hurricane while she was conducting studies of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of North Carolina . She was dismasted in the storm with the loss of 11 men who were swept overboard, but she managed to limp into port. The Mexican War of 1846–1848 saw

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4384-612: The 1 November event found them vague and difficult to separate from reports of another local series of earthquakes on 18–19 November . Pereira estimated the total death toll in Portugal, Spain and Morocco from the earthquake and the resulting fires and tsunami at 40,000 to 50,000 people. Eighty-five percent of Lisbon's buildings were destroyed, including famous palaces and libraries, as well as most examples of Portugal's distinctive 16th-century Manueline architecture. Several buildings that had suffered little earthquake damage were destroyed by

4521-451: The 1807 law. On July 10, 1832, Congress passed a law renewing the original law of 1807 and somewhat extending its scope, placing the responsibility for coastal surveying back in the Survey of the Coast, returning it to the Department of the Treasury, and permitting the hiring of civilians to carry it out. Hassler was reappointed as the Survey ' s superintendent that year. As authorized by

4658-669: The 1832 law, the administration of President Andrew Jackson expanded and extended the Survey of the Coast ' s scope and organization. The Survey of the Coast resumed field work in April 1833. In July 1833, Edmund E. Blunt, the son of hydrographer Edmund B. Blunt , accepted a position with the Survey. The elder Blunt had begun publication of the American Coast Pilot – the first book of sailing directions , nautical charts , and other information for mariners in North American waters to be published in North America – in 1796. Although

4795-415: The 1850s, the Coast Survey also conducted surveys and measurements in support of efforts to reform the Department of the Treasury ' s Lighthouse Establishment , and it briefly employed the artist James McNeill Whistler as a draughtsman in 1854–1855. Ever since it began operations, the Coast Survey had faced hostility from politicians who believed that it should complete its work and be abolished as

4932-561: The Atlantic Ocean about 200 km (110 nmi; 120 mi) west-southwest of Cape St. Vincent , a cape in Algarve region, and about 290 km (160 nmi; 180 mi) southwest of Lisbon. Chronologically, it was the third known large-scale earthquake to hit the city (following those of 1332 and 1531 ). Estimates place the death toll in Lisbon around 30,000–40,000. A further 10,000 may have died in Morocco. The earthquake accentuated political tensions in Portugal and profoundly disrupted

5069-718: The Coast Survey, developed the Sigsbee sounding machine while conducting the first true bathymetric surveys in the Gulf of Mexico . With the outbreak of the Spanish–American War in April 1898, the U.S. Navy again withdrew its officers from Coast and Geodetic Survey duty. As a result of the war, which ended in August 1898, the United States took control of the Philippine Islands and Puerto Rico , and surveying their waters became part of

5206-617: The Coast and Geodetic Survey also operated in support of military and naval requirements. About half of the Survey ' s civilian work force, slightly over 1,000 people, joined the armed services. Officers and civilians of the Survey saw service in North Africa , Europe , and the Pacific and in the defense of North America and its waters, serving as artillery surveyors, hydrographers , amphibious engineers, beachmasters (i.e., directors of disembarkation), instructors at service schools, and in

5343-628: The Coast and Geodetic Survey and its successor organizations ever since. On February 5, 1889, by a joint resolution of Congress, the U.S. government accepted an invitation by the government of the German Empire to become a party to the International Geodetic Association . By law, the U.S. delegate to the association was a Coast and Geodetic Survey officer appointed by the President. By a resolution of April 12, 1892, Congress granted

5480-513: The Coast and Geodetic Survey continuing its entire program of scientific research, and recommended that the Coast and Geodetic Survey remain under civilian control rather than be subordinated to the U.S. Navy. It was a victory for Thorn and Colonna. Another victory followed in 1887, when Thorn headed off a congressional attempt to subordinate the Survey to the Navy despite the Allison Commission's findings, providing Cleveland with information on

5617-456: The Coast and Geodetic Survey introduced the wire-drag technique into hydrography, in which a wire attached to two ships or boats and set at a certain depth by a system of weights and buoys was dragged between two points. This method revolutionized hydrographic surveying, as it allowed a quicker, less laborious, and far more complete survey of an area than did the use of lead lines and sounding poles that had preceded it, and it remained in use until

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5754-607: The Coast and Geodetic Survey raised by the Allison Commission and the Chenoweth investigation, Cleveland made the Chief Clerk of the Internal Revenue Bureau , Frank Manly Thorn , Acting Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey on July 23, 1885, and appointed him as the permanent superintendent on September 1. Thorn, a lawyer and journalist who was the first non-scientist to serve as superintendent, quickly concluded that

5891-500: The Coast and Geodetic Survey was transferred from the Department of the Treasury to the newly created United States Department of Commerce and Labor . By the time of its transfer, the Survey had established suboffices at San Francisco , California , and at Manila in the Philippines and had expanded the scope of its operations to include Lake Champlain , the Pacific coast of North America from San Diego , California, to Panama ,

6028-510: The Coast and Geodetic Survey's duties. The Survey opened a field office in Seattle , Washington in 1899, to support survey ships operating in the Pacific Ocean as well as survey field expeditions in the western United States ; this office eventually would become the modern National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Pacific Marine Center. The system of U.S. Navy officers and men crewing

6165-412: The Coast and Geodetic Survey, at least some scientists were not prone to following bureaucratic requirements related to the funding of their projects, and their lax financial practices led to charges of mismanagement of funds and corruption. When Grover Cleveland became president in 1885, James Q. Chenoweth became First Auditor of the Department of the Treasury, and he began to investigate improprieties at

6302-528: The Coast and Geodetic Survey, traces its ancestry to the Coast and Geodetic Survey's Office of Weights and Measures. The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey began its existence as the United States Survey of the Coast , created within the United States Department of the Treasury by an Act of Congress on February 10, 1807, to conduct a "Survey of the Coast." The Survey of the Coast,

6439-513: The Confederates while working in support of Union forces. Army officers never returned to the Coast Survey, but after the war Navy officers did, and the Coast Survey resumed its peacetime duties. The acquisition of the Department of Alaska in 1867 expanded its responsibilities, as did the progressive exploration, settlement, and enclosure of the continental United States . George W. Blunt sold

6576-406: The Department of the Treasury to resume the administration of the Survey, which was renamed the United States Coast Survey in 1836. However, the Navy retained a close connection with the hydrographic efforts of the Coast Survey under law requiring Survey ships to be commanded and crewed by U.S. Navy officers and men when the Navy could provide such support. Under this system, which persisted until

6713-663: The Department, District , and Territory of Alaska in the coming years. In 1888, the publications for the United States East and Gulf coasts took the name United States Coast Pilot for the first time, and the publications for the United States West Coast took this name 30 years later. NOAA produces the United States Coast Pilots to this day. In 1871, Congress officially expanded the Coast Survey ' s responsibilities to include geodetic surveys in

6850-450: The Gulf Stream study served as a model for all subsequent integrated oceanographic cruises. Bache also instituted regular and systematic observations of the tides and investigated magnetic forces and directions, making the Survey the center of U.S. government expertise in geophysics for the following century. In the late 1840s, the Survey pioneered the use of the telegraph to provide highly accurate determinations of longitude ; known as

6987-410: The Lisbon disaster"). Voltaire's Candide attacks the notion that all is for the best in this, " the best of all possible worlds ", a world closely supervised by a benevolent deity. The Lisbon disaster provided a counterexample for Voltaire. Theodor Adorno wrote, "the earthquake of Lisbon sufficed to cure Voltaire of the theodicy of Leibniz " ( Negative Dialectics 361). Jean-Jacques Rousseau

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7124-408: The Moho is relatively flat across the ridge, and that the ridge's upper part corresponds to a northwestwards vergent fold. The thrusting activity probably started some 20 million years ago, and has covered about 20 kilometres (11 nmi; 12 mi). The seamount is composed of gabbros of the oceanic crust, serpentized rocks and alkaline basalts . Modern seismologists who studied the cause of

7261-473: The National Ocean Survey, later renamed the National Ocean Service . In addition to the National Ocean Service, NOAA's National Geodetic Survey , Office of Coast Survey , and NOAA fleet all trace their ancestry in whole or in part to the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps is the descendant of the Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps. In addition, the modern National Institute of Standards and Technology , although long separated from

7398-410: The Navy could perform hydrography, it could not provide the full range of geodetic disciplines necessary for scientifically accurate surveying and mapping work. In 1886, the Allison Commission wrapped up its investigation and published its final report. Although it determined that all topographic responsibility outside of coastal areas would henceforth reside in the U.S. Geological Survey, it approved of

7535-407: The Navy, Congress enacted legislation on March 3, 1843, providing for President John Tyler to establish a board to study the Survey and recommend a permanent organization for it. Its report recommended an organization which Tyler approved on April 29, 1843, and still was in place when the Survey left the Department of the Treasury in 1903. Professor Alexander Dallas Bache became superintendent of

7672-560: The Survey ' s operations from nine U.S. states to seventeen, and by 1849 it also operated along the United States West Coast , giving it a presence along all coasts of the United States. In 1845, he instituted the world ' s first systematic oceanographic project for studying a specific phenomenon when he directed the Coast Survey to begin systematic studies of the Gulf Stream and its environs, including physical oceanography, geological oceanography, biological oceanography, and chemical oceanography. Bache ' s initial orders for

7809-452: The Survey ' s ships that had prevailed for most of the 19th century came to an end when the appropriation law approved on June 6, 1900, provided for "all necessary employees to man and equip the vessels" instead of Navy personnel. The law went into effect on July 1, 1900; at that point, all Navy personnel assigned to the Survey ' s ships remained aboard until the first call at each ship ' s home port , where they transferred off, with

7946-428: The Survey during its early years. Hassler believed that expertise in coastal surveys would be of importance in future wars and welcomed the participation of Army and Navy personnel, and his vision in this regard laid the foundation for the commissioned corps of officers that would be created in the Survey in 1917 as the ancestor of today ' s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Corps . During

8083-426: The Survey had Union sympathies, all but seven of them stayed on with the Survey rather than resigning to serve the Confederate States of America , and their work shifted in emphasis to support of the Union Navy and Union Army . Civilian Coast Surveyors were called upon to serve in the field and provide mapping, hydrographic, and engineering expertise for Union forces. One of the individuals who excelled at this work

8220-522: The Survey in its disputes with its critics. Eventually, the relationship between the Survey and the Blunts would lead to the establishment of the Survey ' s United States Coast Pilot publications in the latter part of the 19th century. The Survey had barely resumed its work when President Jackson transferred it from the Department of the Treasury to the Department of the Navy on March 11, 1834. Survey results under Navy Department authority again were unsatisfactory, and on March 26, 1836, Jackson ordered

8357-401: The Survey of the Coast from the Department of the Treasury, prohibited the U.S. government from employing civilians to conduct coastal surveys, and gave the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy responsibility for such surveys under the auspices of the United States Department of War and United States Department of the Navy , respectively. Although the 1818 law did not abolish the Survey of the Coast, it had

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8494-410: The Survey reimbursing the Navy for their pay accrued after July 1, 1900. Thereafter, the Coast and Geodetic Survey operated as an entirely civilian organization until May 1917. In 1901, the Office of Weights and Measures was split off from the Coast and Geodetic Survey to become the separate National Bureau of Standards. It became the National Institute of Standards and Technology in 1988. In 1903,

8631-409: The Survey relied on articles it published in local newspapers to provide information to mariners in the next decades, Blunt ' s employment with the Survey began a relationship between the American Coast Pilot and the Survey in which the Survey ' s findings were incorporated into the American Coast Pilot and the Survey ' s charts were sold by the Blunt family, which became staunch allies of

8768-479: The Survey was granted the authority to crew its ships in 1900, nearly half the Survey's ships were crewed and officered by U.S. Navy personnel over the 50-year period between 1848 and 1898; U.S. Navy officers and Coast Survey civilians served alongside one another aboard ship, and many of the most famous names in hydrography for both the Survey and Navy of the period are linked. In addition, the United States Department of War provided U.S. Army officers for service with

8905-406: The Survey's financial and budgetary procedures and improving its operations so as to demonstrate the value of its scientific program in performing accurate mapping while setting and meeting production deadlines for maps and charts. To the Survey's critics, Thorn and Colonna championed the importance of the Coast and Geodetic Survey's inland geodetic work and how it supported, rather than duplicated,

9042-446: The Survey's practice of providing its employees with money in advance for large and expensive purchases when operating in remote areas because of the Survey's inability to verify that the expenses were legitimate. Moreover, the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, Julius Hilgard , was exposed as a drunkard and forced to resign in disgrace along with four of his senior staff members at Survey headquarters. To address issues at

9179-422: The U.S. Coast Survey after Hassler ' s death in 1843. During his years as superintendent, he reorganized the Coast Survey in accordance with the plan President Tyler approved and expanded the Survey's work southward along the United States East Coast into the Florida Keys . In 1846 the Survey began to operate a ship, Phoenix , on the United States Gulf Coast for the first time. By 1847, Bache had expanded

9316-513: The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey or the U.S. Geological Survey; whether the Coast and Geodetic Survey should be removed from the Department of the Treasury and placed under the control of the Department of the Navy, as it had been previously from 1834 to 1836; and whether weather services should reside in a military organization or in the civilian part of the government, raising the broader issue of whether U.S. government scientific agencies of all kinds should be under military or civilian control. At

9453-467: The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S. Geological Survey, and United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, more commonly referred to as the United States Fish Commission . He had little impact on the Geological Survey or the Fish Commission, but at the Coast and Geodetic Survey he found many improprieties. Chenoweth found that the Coast and Geodetic Survey had failed to account for government equipment it had purchased, continued to pay retired personnel as

9590-422: The U.S. Navy, the Survey operated as a completely civilian organization from 1900 until after the United States entered World War I in April 1917. To avoid the dangerous situation Coast Survey personnel had faced during the American Civil War, when they could have been executed as spies if captured by the enemy, a new Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps was created on May 22, 1917, as one of the uniformed services of

9727-441: The U.S. government, namely the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the United States Geological Survey , the United States Army Signal Corps (responsible for studying and predicting weather at the time), and the United States Navy 's United States Hydrographic Office . The commission looked into three main issues: the role of geodesy in the U.S. government's scientific efforts and whether responsibility for inland geodetics should reside in

9864-572: The United States , giving the Survey ' s officers a commissioned status that protected them from treatment as spies if captured, as well as providing the United States armed forces with a ready source of officers skilled in surveying that could be rapidly assimilated for wartime support of the armed forces. Over half of all Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps officers served in the U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, and U.S. Marine Corps during World War I, and Coast and Geodetic Survey personnel were active as artillery orienteering officers, as minelaying officers in

10001-478: The United States to be sold as slaves , and Gedney's seizure of La Amistad led to the freedom suit United States v. Schooner Amistad , argued before the United States Supreme Court in 1841. In 1838, U.S. Navy Lieutenant George M. Bache , while attached to the Survey, suggested standardizing the markings of buoys and navigational markers ashore by painting those on the right when entering

10138-491: The United States until August 16, 1815. The Survey finally began surveying operations in 1816, when Hassler started work in the vicinity of New York City . The first baseline was measured and verified in 1817. With surveying work barely underway, Hassler was taken by surprise when the United States Congress – frustrated by the slow and limited progress the Survey had made in its first decade, unwilling to endure

10275-530: The beginnings of scientific geography in Germany. And certainly the beginnings of seismology". Werner Hamacher has claimed that the earthquake's consequences extended into the vocabulary of philosophy, making the common metaphor of firm "grounding" for philosophers' arguments shaky and uncertain: "Under the impression exerted by the Lisbon earthquake, which touched the European mind in one [of] its more sensitive epochs,

10412-405: The charges against Coast and Geodetic Survey personnel largely were overblown, and he set his mind to the issues of rebuilding the Survey's integrity and reputation and ensuring that it demonstrated its value to its critics. Ignorant of the Survey's operations and the scientific methods that lay behind them, he left such matters to his assistant, Benjamin J. Colonna , and focused instead on reforming

10549-468: The city, after attending Mass at sunrise, fulfilling the wish of one of the king's daughters to spend the holiday away from Lisbon. After the catastrophe, Joseph I developed a fear of living within walls, and the court was accommodated in a huge complex of tents and pavilions in the hills of Ajuda , then on the outskirts of Lisbon. The king's claustrophobia never waned, and it was only after Joseph's death that his daughter Maria I of Portugal began building

10686-404: The coast of North Africa , and struck Martinique and Barbados across the Atlantic Ocean. A three-metre (ten-foot) tsunami hit Cornwall on the southern British coast. Galway , on the west coast of Ireland, was also hit, resulting in partial destruction of the " Spanish Arch " section of the city wall. In County Clare, Aughinish Island was created when a low lying connection to the mainland

10823-501: The design of experiments and on a criterion for the statistical treatment of outliers . Ferdinand Hassler became the first Superintendent of Weights and Measures beginning in November 1830, and the Office of Weights and Measures, the ancestor of today ' s National Institute of Standards and Technology , was placed under the control of the Coast Survey in 1836; until 1901, the Survey thus

10960-463: The development of early current measurement technology, particularly the Pillsbury current meter invented by John E. Pillsbury , USN , while on duty with the Survey. It was in connection with intensive studies of the Gulf Stream that the Coast and Geodetic Survey ship USC&GS George S. Blake became such a pioneer in oceanography that she is one of only two U.S. ships with her name inscribed in

11097-677: The diverse lifeforms there. Most recently, an expedition was conducted by the Oceano Azul Foundation in September 2024. The Gorringe Bank was eventually renamed Gorringe Ridge owing to its extensive length and the determination that it is the result of two tectonic plates which are sliding into and past each other. The plate boundaries here are converging at 4 mm/y, as well as sliding past each other. Upper mantle and oceanic crust are exposed along this ridge. Ferrogabbro dated at 77 Mya has been intruded, Also at 66 Mya

11234-426: The early 19th century it had produced "a stimulus to all educational and scientific work. The methods used by the Survey have been the standard for similar undertakings in the United States, and many commendations of their excellence have been received from abroad. The influence of the Survey in the various operations resulting from the advancing scientific activity of the country can hardly be overestimated." In 1904,

11371-576: The earthquake also led to a rise in the wage premium of construction workers. More significantly, the earthquake became an opportunity to reform the economy and to reduce the economic semi-dependency vis-à-vis Britain." The earthquake and its aftermath strongly influenced the intelligentsia of the European Age of Enlightenment . The noted writer-philosopher Voltaire used the earthquake in Candide and in his Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne ("Poem on

11508-558: The earthquake lasted from three and a half to six minutes, causing fissures 5 metres (16 ft) wide in the city center. Survivors rushed to the open space of the docks for safety and watched as the sea receded, revealing a plain of mud littered with lost cargo and shipwrecks. Approximately 40 minutes after the earthquake, a tsunami engulfed the harbor and downtown area, rushing up the Tagus river "so fast that several people riding on horseback ... were forced to gallop as fast as possible to

11645-426: The earthquake, he collected all the information available in news pamphlets and formulated a theory of the causes of earthquakes. Kant's theory, which involved shifts in huge caverns filled with hot gases, though inaccurate, was one of the first systematic attempts to explain earthquakes in natural rather than supernatural terms. According to Walter Benjamin , Kant's slim early book on the earthquake "probably represents

11782-549: The earthquake. A fictionalised version of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake features as a main plot element of the 2014 video game Assassin's Creed Rogue , developed and published by Ubisoft . Notably, a similar earthquake occurs earlier in the story in Port-au-Prince , Haiti , and possibly coincides with a real-world earthquake recorded there in 1751 . The album 1755 by the Portuguese Gothic metal band Moonspell

11919-561: The effect of removing Hassler from the superintendency and suspending the Survey's operations. During the 14 years from 1818 to 1832, the Survey existed without a superintendent or civilian workforce and without conducting any surveys. During these years, the Army conducted no surveys, those the Navy carried out achieved unsatisfactory results, and the United States Secretary of the Navy and others repeatedly called on Congress to revive

12056-596: The epicenter was in the Atlantic to the west of the Iberian Peninsula, its exact location has been a subject of considerable debate. Early hypotheses had proposed the Gorringe Ridge , about 320 km (170 nmi; 200 mi) south-west of Lisbon, until simulations showed that a location closer to the shore of Portugal was required to comply with the observed effects of the tsunami. A 1992 seismic reflection survey of

12193-612: The façade of the Oceanographic Museum (Musée Océanographique) in Monaco due to her being "the most innovative oceanographic vessel of the Nineteenth Century" with development of deep ocean exploration through introduction of steel cable for sounding, dredging and deep anchoring and data collection for the "first truly modern bathymetric map of a deep sea area." By the mid-1880s, the Coast and Geodetic Survey had been caught up in

12330-520: The first time publicly stated that the Coast Survey was not a temporary organization charged with charting the coasts once, but rather a permanent one that would continually survey coastal areas as they changed over time. Another significant moment in the Survey ' s history that occurred in 1858 was the first publication of what would later become the United States Coast Pilot , when Survey employee George Davidson adapted an article from

12467-453: The front lines carrying out mapping duties, and Coast Survey officers produced many of the coastal charts and interior maps used by Union forces throughout the war. Coast Surveyors supporting the Union Army were given assimilated military rank while attached to a specific command, but those supporting the U.S. Navy operated as civilians and ran the risk of being executed as spies if captured by

12604-478: The fundamental standards of length and mass of the United States from the customary English system to the metric system . The metric standards defined under the order remained the U.S. standard until July 1, 1959, by which time increasing precision in measurement required their revision. During the 1890s, while attached to the Coast and Geodetic Survey as commanding officer of George S. Blake , Lieutenant Commander Charles Dwight Sigsbee , USN , Assistant in

12741-462: The greatest loss of life in a single incident in the history of NOAA and its ancestor agencies occurred when a commercial schooner collided with the Coast Survey paddle steamer Robert J. Walker in the Atlantic Ocean off New Jersey . Robert J. Walker sank with the loss of 20 men. A Coast Survey ship took part in an international scientific project for the first time when Bibb observed

12878-500: The growing role of geodesy in its operations, the U.S. Coast Survey was renamed the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey ( USC&GS ) by a statute passed on June 20, 1878. The American Coast Pilot had long been lacking in current information when the Coast Survey took control of it in 1867, and the Survey had recognized that deficit but had been hindered by a lack of funding and the risks associated with mooring vessels in deep waters or along dangerous coasts in order to collect

13015-523: The height of the Great Depression . When the United States entered World War II in December 1941, all of this work was suspended as the Survey dedicated its activities entirely to support of the war effort. Over half of the Coast and Geodetic Corps commissioned officers were transferred to either the U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps, or United States Army Air Forces , while those who remained in

13152-537: The increased scrutiny of U.S. government agencies by politicians seeking to reform governmental affairs by curbing the spoils system and patronage common among office holders of the time. One outgrowth of this movement was the Allison Commission – a joint commission of the United States Senate and United States House of Representatives – which convened in 1884 to investigate the scientific agencies of

13289-451: The information necessary for updates. The U.S. Congress specifically appropriated funding for such work in the 1875–1876 budget under which the 76-foot (23-meter) schooner Drift was constructed and sent out under U.S. Navy Acting Master and Coast Survey Assistant Robert Platt to the Gulf of Maine to anchor in depths of up to 140 fathoms (840 feet; 256 meters) to measure currents. The Survey's requirement to update sailing directions led to

13426-490: The interior of the United States and geodesy became a more important part of its work, leading to it being renamed the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1878. Long the U.S. government's only scientific agency, the Survey accumulated other scientific and technical responsibilities as well, including astronomy , cartography , metrology , meteorology , geology , geophysics , hydrography , navigation , oceanography , exploration, pilotage , tides , and topography . It also

13563-468: The interior of the country, and one of its first major projects in the interior was to survey the 39th Parallel across the entire country. Between 1874 and 1877, the Coast Survey employed the naturalist and author John Muir as a guide and artist during the survey of the 39th Parallel in the Great Basin of Nevada and Utah . To reflect its acquisition of the mission of surveying the U.S. interior and

13700-483: The island of Madeira , Funchal and many smaller settlements suffered significant damage. Almost all of the ports in the Azores archipelago suffered most of their destruction from the tsunami, with the sea penetrating about 150 metres (490 ft) inland. Current and former Portuguese towns in northern Africa were also affected by the earthquake. Places such as Ceuta (ceded by Portugal to Spain in 1668) and Mazagon , where

13837-461: The king, but the aristocracy despised him as an upstart son of a country squire. The prime minister, in turn, disliked the old nobles, whom he considered corrupt and incapable of practical action. Before 1 November 1755, there had been a constant struggle for power and royal favour, but the competent response of the Marquis of Pombal effectively severed the power of the old aristocratic factions. However,

13974-401: The late 1980s. The Department of Commerce and Labor was abolished in 1913 and divided into the United States Department of Commerce and the United States Department of Labor . With this change, the Coast and Geodetic Survey came under the jurisdiction of the Department of Commerce. Although some personnel aboard Coast and Geodetic Survey ships wore uniforms virtually identical to those of

14111-408: The metaphor of ground and tremor completely lost their apparent innocence; they were no longer merely figures of speech" (263). Hamacher claims that the foundational certainty of René Descartes ' philosophy began to shake following the Lisbon earthquake. The earthquake had a major impact on politics. The prime minister, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal , was the favourite of

14248-514: The need for the Survey to focus on the broad range of geodetic disciplines Colonna identified as necessary for accurate chart- and mapmaking: triangulation , astronomical observations , levelling , tidal observations , physical geodesy , topography , hydrography , and magnetic observations. To those who advocated transfer of the Coast and Geodetic Survey's work to the Navy Hydrographic Office, Thorn and Colonna replied that although

14385-454: The newly acquired coasts of Texas and California . The famous naturalist Louis Agassiz studied marine life off New England from the Coast Survey steamer Bibb in 1847 and also conducted the first scientific study of the Florida reef system in 1851 under a Coast Survey commission; his son, Alexander Agassiz , later also served aboard Coast Survey ships for technical operations. In

14522-455: The nineteenth century, the remit of the Survey was rather loosely drawn and it had no competitors in federally funded scientific research. Various superintendents developed its work in fields as diverse as astronomy , cartography , meteorology , geodesy , geology , geophysics , hydrography , navigation , oceanography , exploration , pilotage , tides , and topography . The Survey published important articles by Charles Sanders Peirce on

14659-586: The ocean floor along the Azores–Gibraltar Transform Fault detected a 50-kilometre-long (31 mi) thrust fault southwest of Cape St. Vincent , with a dip-slip throw of more than 1 km (0.62 mi). This structure may have created the primary tectonic event. Economic historian Álvaro Pereira estimated that of Lisbon's population at the time of approximately 200,000 people, 30,000–40,000 were killed. Another 10,000 may have died in Morocco. A 2009 study of contemporary reports relating to

14796-459: The previous lack of success of such an arrangement. When Thorn left the superintendency in 1889, the Coast and Geodetic Survey's position in the U.S. government had become secure. Before Thorn left the superintendency, the United States Congress passed a bill requiring that henceforth the president would select the superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey with the consent of the U.S. Senate. This practice has continued for senior positions in

14933-497: The priests' accounts, modern scientists were able to reconstruct the event from a scientific perspective. Without the questionnaire designed by the Marquis of Pombal, that would have been impossible. Because Pombal was the first to attempt an objective scientific description of the broad causes and consequences of an earthquake, he is regarded as a forerunner of modern seismological scientists. The 18th-century English Baroque composer Richard Carter composed and published an ode on

15070-424: The realm, presented his plans for the re-building of Lisbon. Maia presented four options from abandoning Lisbon to building a completely new city. The first, and cheapest, plan was to rebuild the old city using recycled materials. The second and third plans proposed widening certain streets. The fourth option boldly proposed razing the entire Baixa quarter and "laying out new streets without restraint". This last option

15207-681: The ridge in the network of protected sites of the Atlantic Ocean since 2005. On 23 July 2015, a Site of Community Importance , spanning 22,927.8 km (8,852.5 sq mi) was authorized by the Portuguese government making it the first marine protected area included in the Natura 2000 program in the Portuguese EEZ . Though protected, some areas were affected by human activity, and are littered with lost fishing equipment. United States Coast and Geodetic Survey The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey ( abbreviated USC&GS ; known as

15344-461: The royal Ajuda Palace , which still stands on the site of the old tented camp. Like the king, the prime minister Sebastião de Melo (1st Marquis of Pombal) survived the earthquake. When asked what was to be done, Pombal reportedly replied "bury the dead and heal the living", and set about organizing relief and rehabilitation efforts. Firefighters were sent to extinguish the raging flames, and teams of workers and ordinary citizens were ordered to remove

15481-455: The silent opposition and resentment of King Joseph I began to rise, which would culminate with the attempted assassination of the king in 1758 and the subsequent elimination of the powerful Duke of Aveiro and the Távora family . In 1752, a Sebastianist predicted that a terrible earthquake would destroy Lisbon on All Saints' Day . After the 1755 Lisbon earthquake struck on All Saints' Day, there

15618-407: The social disarray of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. The purpose of the institution was to provide shelter and schooling to children in need. The earthquake had wide-ranging effects on the lives of the populace and intelligentsia . The earthquake had struck on an important religious holiday and had destroyed almost every important church in the city, causing anxiety and confusion amongst the citizens of

15755-556: The south of the country, in particular the Algarve , destruction was rampant. The tsunami destroyed some coastal fortresses in the Algarve and, at lower levels, it razed several houses. Almost all the coastal towns and villages of the Algarve were heavily damaged, except Faro , which was protected by the sandy banks of Ria Formosa . In Lagos , the waves reached the top of the city walls. Other towns in different Portuguese regions, such as Peniche , Cascais , Setúbal and even Covilhã (which

15892-652: The subsequent fire. The new Lisbon opera house (the " Ópera do Tejo "), opened seven months before, burned to the ground. The Royal Ribeira Palace , which stood just beside the Tagus river in the modern square Praça do Comércio , was destroyed by the earthquake and tsunami. Inside, the 70,000-volume royal library as well as hundreds of works of art, including paintings by Titian , Rubens , and Correggio , were lost. The royal archives disappeared together with detailed historical records of explorations by Vasco da Gama and other early navigators. The palace of Henrique de Meneses, 3rd Marquis of Louriçal , which housed 18,000 books,

16029-695: The thousands of corpses before disease could spread. Contrary to custom and against the wishes of the Church, many corpses were loaded onto barges and buried at sea beyond the mouth of the Tagus. To prevent disorder in the ruined city, the Portuguese Army was deployed and gallows were constructed at high points around the city to deter looters; more than thirty people were publicly executed. The army prevented many able-bodied citizens from fleeing, pressing them into relief and reconstruction work. A project proposed that

16166-592: The time and expense involved in scientifically precise surveying, unconvinced of the propriety of expending U.S. government funds on scientific endeavors, and uncomfortable with Hassler leading the effort because of his foreign birth – enacted legislation on April 14, 1818, which repealed most of the 1807 statute. Congress believed that United States Army and United States Navy officers could achieve surveying results adequate for safe navigation during their routine navigation and charting activities and could do so more quickly and cheaply than Hassler, so its 1818 law removed

16303-680: The tsunami hit hard the coastal fortifications of both towns, in some cases going over it, and flooding the harbor area, were affected. In Spain, the tsunamis swept the Andalusian Atlantic Coast, damaging the city of Cadiz . Shocks from the earthquake were felt throughout Europe as far as Finland and in North Africa, and according to some sources even in Greenland and the Caribbean . Tsunamis as tall as 20 metres (66 ft) swept along

16440-414: The upper grounds for fear of being carried away." It was followed by two more waves. Candles lit in homes and churches all around the city for All Saints' Day were knocked over, starting a fire that developed into a firestorm which burned for hours in the city, asphyxiating people up to 30 metres (98 ft) from the blaze. Lisbon was not the only Portuguese city affected by the catastrophe. Throughout

16577-414: The use of acoustic sounding systems and developed radio acoustic ranging , which was the first marine navigation system in history that did not rely on a visual means of position determination. These developments led to the Survey ' s 1924 discovery of the sound fixing and ranging (SOFAR) channel or deep sound channel (DSC) – a horizontal layer of water in the ocean at which depth the speed of sound

16714-605: The use of the facilities of the Coast and Geodetic Survey for research and study by scientific investigators and students of any institution of higher education. On April 5, 1893, Survey Superintendent Thomas Corwin Mendenhall , with the approval of United States Secretary of the Treasury John Griffin Carlisle , formally issued the Mendenhall Order , which required the Office of Weights and Measures to change

16851-406: The withdrawal of virtually all U.S. Army officers from the Coast Survey and the Coast Survey brig Washington was taken over for U.S. Navy service in the war, but overall the war effort had little impact on the Coast Survey ' s operations. Army officers returned after the war, and the expansion of U.S. territory as a result of the war led to the Coast Survey expanding its operations to include

16988-565: The work of the Geological Survey and was in any event an important component of the Coast and Geodetic Survey's hydrographic work along the coasts. Thorn also advocated civilian control of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, pointing out to Cleveland and others that earlier experiments with placing it under U.S. Navy control had fared poorly. Thorn described the Coast and Geodetic Survey's essential mission as, in its simplest form, to produce "a perfect map,". and to this end he and Colonna championed

17125-449: Was Joseph Smith Harris , who supported Rear Admiral David G. Farragut and his Western Gulf Blockading Squadron in the Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip in 1862; this survey work was particularly valuable to Commander David Dixon Porter and his mortar bombardment fleet. Coast Surveyors served in virtually all theaters of the war and were often in the front lines or in advance of

17262-491: Was a significant improvement over rope-type equipment used previously. This Thomson Sounding Machine made its first discovery in 1874, of several seamounts in the Pacific Ocean west of the Hawaiian Islands . Its second use was on the USS ; Gettysburg , an ocean-going United States Navy steamer which in 1875 embarked a United States Hydrographic Office team to extensively map the eastern Atlantic seafloor . The ship

17399-461: Was a surge of converts to Sebastianism. The prime minister's response was not limited to the practicalities of reconstruction. He ordered a query sent to all parishes of the country regarding the earthquake and its effects. Questions included the following: The answers to those and other questions are still archived in the Torre do Tombo , the national historical archive. Studying and cross-referencing

17536-527: Was also destroyed. The earthquake damaged several major churches in Lisbon, namely Lisbon Cathedral , St Paul's Cathedral , Santa Catarina, São Vicente de Fora , and the Church of Nossa Senhora da Conceição Velha . The Royal Hospital of All Saints (the largest public hospital at the time) in the Rossio square was consumed by fire and hundreds of patients burned to death. The tomb of national hero Nuno Álvares Pereira

17673-401: Was also influenced by the devastation following the earthquake, whose severity he believed was due to too many people living within the close quarters of the city. Rousseau used the earthquake as an argument against cities as part of his desire for a more naturalistic way of life. Immanuel Kant published three separate texts in 1756 on the Lisbon earthquake. As a younger man, fascinated with

17810-457: Was also lost. Visitors to Lisbon may still walk the ruins of the Carmo Convent , which were preserved to remind Lisboners of the destruction. Most of the documentation of the 1722 Algarve earthquake sent to Lisbon for archiving became lost after the fire that followed the 1755 earthquake. The royal family escaped unharmed from the catastrophe: King Joseph I of Portugal and the court had left

17947-588: Was chosen by the king and his minister. In less than a year, the city was cleared of debris. Keen to have a new and perfectly ordered city, the king commissioned the construction of big squares, rectilinear, large avenues and widened streets – the new mottos of Lisbon. The Pombaline buildings are among the earliest seismically protected constructions in Europe. Small wooden models were built for testing, and earthquakes were simulated by marching troops around them. Lisbon's "new" Lower Town, known today as

18084-484: Was commanded by Captain Henry Honychurch Gorringe . On 6 November 1875 this expedition discovered the raised area (which was referred to as Gorringe Bank in reference to the ship's commanding officer ), and spent time mapping it. They determined that it contained two significant peaks, which they named Gettysburg — the highest, at depth of 20 meters (66 ft) — and Ormonde , the second highest, at

18221-518: Was not until 1811 that Jefferson ' s successor, President James Madison , sent Hassler to Europe to purchase the instruments necessary to conduct the planned survey, as well as standardized weights and measures. Hassler departed on August 29, 1811, but eight months later, while he was in England , the War of 1812 broke out, forcing him to remain in Europe until its conclusion in 1815. Hassler did not return to

18358-448: Was responsible for the standardization of weights and measures throughout the United States from 1836 to 1901. In 1959, it was assigned the responsibility for U.S. government oceanographic studies worldwide. By the mid-19th century, the Coast and Geodetic Survey operated a fleet of survey ships that constituted a distinct seagoing service of the United States until 1970. The Survey supported U.S. military operations in wartime, and in 1917

18495-543: Was responsible for the standardization of weights and measures throughout the United States. When it resumed operations in 1833, the Survey returned to surveys of the New York City area and its maritime approaches. Although U.S. law prohibited the Survey from procuring its own ships, requiring it to use existing public ships such as those of the Navy and the United States Revenue-Marine (which in 1894 became

18632-547: Was selected to lead the Survey. Hassler submitted a plan for the survey work involving the use of triangulation to ensure scientific accuracy of surveys, but international relations prevented the new Survey of the Coast from beginning its work; the Embargo Act of 1807 brought American overseas trade virtually to a halt only a month after Hassler ' s appointment and remained in effect until Jefferson left office in March 1809. It

18769-428: Was washed away. At Kinsale , several vessels were whirled round in the harbor, and water poured into the marketplace. In 2015, it was determined that the tsunami waves may have reached the coast of Brazil, then a colony of Portugal. Letters sent by Brazilian authorities at the time of the earthquake describe damage and destruction caused by gigantic waves. Although seismologists and geologists have always agreed that

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