115-563: The Gopachal Rock-Cut Jain Monuments , or Gopachal Jain Colossi , also called Gop Parvat Jaina Monuments , are a group of gigantic and large proportionate Jain rock-cut carvings dated to between the 14th and 15th centuries. They are located around the walls of the Gwalior Fort , Madhya Pradesh . They depict Tirthankaras in seated Padmasana posture as well as standing Kayotsarga posture, in
230-484: A Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of "assuming temporary ascetic status". There are many rituals in Jainism's various sects. According to Dundas, the ritualistic lay path among Śvētāmbara Jains is "heavily imbued with ascetic values", where the rituals either revere or celebrate the ascetic life of tirthankaras, or progressively approach the psychological and physical life of an ascetic. The ultimate ritual
345-567: A Jain mendicant for the period. Śvētāmbara Jains do similarly in the eight day paryusana with samvatsari-pratikramana . The practice is believed to remove karma from one's soul and provides merit ( punya ). A "one day" fast lasts about 36 hours, starting at sunset before the day of the fast and ending 48 minutes after sunrise the day after. Among laypeople, fasting is more commonly observed by women, as it shows their piety and religious purity, gains merit earning and helps ensure future well-being for their family. Some religious fasts are observed in
460-424: A body are called Siddhas (liberated souls). Only a soul with human body can attain enlightenment and liberation. The liberated beings are the supreme beings and are worshipped by all heavenly, earthly and hellish beings who aspire to attain liberation themselves. Purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the path of three jewels: Samyak Darśana (Correct View), meaning faith, acceptance of
575-574: A difference between the teachings of Parshvanatha and Mahavira. Padmanabh Jaini writes that the Digambaras interpret "fourfold" as referring "not to four specific vows", but to "four modalities" (which were adapted by Mahavira into five vows). Western and some Indian scholarship "has been essentially Śvētāmbara scholarship", and has largely ignored Digambara literature related to the controversy about Parshvanatha's and Mahavira's teachings. Paul Dundas writes that medieval Jain literature, such as that by
690-411: A duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from rebirths. Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates bad karma which affects one's rebirth, future well-being and causes suffering. Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined
805-580: A few years excavated the most extensive series of Jaina caves known to exist anywhere." The Gopachal Jain Collosi is one of the Archaeological Survey of India 's Adarsh Smarak Monument along with other monuments in the Gwalior Fort. The Gopachal rock-cut Jain monuments are located on the rock cliffs of the hill topped by the Gwalior Fort , Madhya Pradesh. Gopgiri or Gop Parvat is the old designation of
920-454: A follower of Parshvanatha and Indrabhuti Gautama as a disciple of Mahavira and discusses which doctrine is true: the fourfold restraint or the five great vows. Gautama says that there are outward differences, and these differences are "because the moral and intellectual capabilities of the followers of the ford-makers have differed". According to Wendy Doniger , Parshvanatha allowed monks to wear clothes; Mahavira recommended nude asceticism,
1035-485: A geographical region, such as Shankheshwar Parshvanath and Panchasara Parshvanath . Parshvanatha is usually depicted in a lotus or kayotsarga posture. Statues and paintings show his head shielded by a multi-headed serpent, fanned out like an umbrella. Parshvanatha's snake emblem is carved (or stamped) beneath his legs as an icon identifier. His iconography is usually accompanied by Dharnendra and Padmavati, Jainism's snake god and goddess. Serpent-hood iconography
1150-569: A historical figure. According to Paul Dundas , Jain texts such as section 31 of Isibhasiyam provide circumstantial evidence that he lived in ancient India. Historians such as Hermann Jacobi have accepted him as a historical figure because his Chaturyama Dharma (Four Vows) are mentioned in Buddhist texts . In the Manorathapurani, a Buddhist commentary on the Anguttara Nikaya , Vappa,
1265-517: A practice which has been a significant difference between the Digambara and Śvētāmbara traditions. According to the Śvētāmbara texts, Parshvanatha's four restraints were ahimsa , aparigraha (non-possession), asteya (non-stealing) and satya (non-lying). Ancient Buddhist texts (such as the Samaññaphala Sutta ) which mention Jain ideas and Mahavira cite the four restraints, rather than
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#17328475324661380-464: A predominantly lacto-vegetarian lifestyle. Parasparopagraho jīvānām (the function of souls is to help one another) is the faith's motto, and the Namokar Mantra is its most common and strongest prayer. Jainism is one of the oldest religions still practiced today. It has two major ancient sub-traditions, Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras , which hold different views on ascetic practices, gender, and
1495-444: A serpent hood and a Ganesha -like yaksha , and Digambara art depicts him with serpent hood and Dhranendra. According to Umakant Premanand Shah, Hindu gods (such as Ganesha) as yaksha and Indra as serving Parshvanatha, assigned them to a subordinate position. The Parsvanatha ayagapata , a circa 15 CE ayagapata excavated from Kankali Tila , is a tablet of homage dedicated to Parshvanatha. The table represents Parshvanatha in
1610-523: A social and supportive female group. Long fasts are celebrated by friends and families with special ceremonies. Jainism considers meditation ( dhyana ) a necessary practice, but its goals are very different from those in Buddhism and Hinduism. In Jainism, meditation is concerned more with stopping karmic attachments and activity, not as a means to transformational insights or self-realization in other Indian religions. According to Padmanabh Jaini , Sāmāyika
1725-411: A stricter vow by eating only once a day. Jains fast particularly during festivals. This practice is called upavasa , tapasya or vrata , and may be practiced according to one's ability. Digambaras fast for Dasa-laksana-parvan , eating only one or two meals per day, drinking only boiled water for ten days, or fasting completely on the first and last days of the festival, mimicking the practices of
1840-665: A universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions". Dundas states this is a misreading of historical texts and Mahāvīra's teachings. According to him, the "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahāvīra is about the nature of absolute reality and human existence. He claims that it is not about condoning activities such as killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right". The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there
1955-400: Is anekāntavāda , from anekānta ("many-sidedness," etymologically " non -oneness" or "not being one") and vada ("doctrine"). The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects. It further states that reality can be experienced, but cannot be fully expressed with language. It suggests that human attempts to communicate are Naya , "partial expression of
2070-440: Is sallekhana , a religious death through ascetic abandonment of food and drinks. The Digambara Jains follow the same theme, but the life cycle and religious rituals are closer to a Hindu liturgy. The overlap is mainly in the life cycle (rites-of-passage) rituals, and likely developed because Jain and Hindu societies overlapped, and rituals were viewed as necessary and secular. Jains ritually worship numerous deities, especially
2185-1022: Is a "religious death" ritual observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age. In this vow, there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one's life by choice and with dispassion, This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths. Of the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition. Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for reaching siddha and moksha ("liberation from rebirths" and "salvation"). Jain texts like Tattvartha Sūtra and Uttaradhyayana Sūtra discuss austerities in detail. Six outer and six inner practices are oft-repeated in later Jain texts. Outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying
2300-985: Is a fundamental tenet of Jainism. It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless. In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty. Jain texts such as Ācārāṅga Sūtra and Tattvarthasūtra state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable. Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly. Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought. It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other". Jains believe that violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when
2415-602: Is a poem composed by Shantikirt Muni in 1730 AD, this poem narrates the seven siddhis of Parshvanatha. Guru Gobind Singh wrote a biography of Parshvanatha in the 17th-century Paranath Avtar , part of the Dasam Granth . Parshvanatha is a popular tirthankar who is worshiped ( bhakti ) with Rishabhanatha, Shantinatha , Neminatha and Mahavira. He is believed to have the power to remove obstacles and save devotees. In Shvetambara tradition, there are 108 prominent idols of Parshvanath idols these idols derive their name from
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#17328475324662530-478: Is a practice of "brief periods in meditation" in Jainism that is a part of siksavrata (ritual restraint). The goal of Sāmāyika is to achieve equanimity, and it is the second siksavrata . The samayika ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with other ritual practices such as Puja in a Jain temple and doing charity work. According to Johnson, as well as Jaini, samayika connotes more than meditation, and for
2645-421: Is a sin in Jainism, with negative karmic effects. Jainism states that souls begin in a primordial state, and either evolve to a higher state or regress if driven by their karma. It further clarifies that abhavya (incapable) souls can never attain moksha (liberation). It explains that the abhavya state is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act. Souls can be good or evil in Jainism, unlike
2760-513: Is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in the Śvētāmbara tradition. For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity. According to Natubhai Shah, aparigraha applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form. Unchecked attachment to possessions
2875-513: Is accepted as a truth, as in Hinduism but not Buddhism. The cycle of rebirths has a definite beginning and end in Jainism. Jain theosophy asserts that each soul passes through 8,400,000 birth-situations as they circle through Saṃsāra , going through five types of bodies: earth bodies, water bodies, fire bodies, air bodies and vegetable lives, constantly changing with all human and non-human activities from rainfall to breathing. Harming any life form
2990-534: Is called devapuja , and is found in all Jain sub-traditions. Typically, the Jain layperson enters the Derasar (Jain temple) inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the namaskar , completes his or her litany and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs. Jain practices include performing abhisheka (ceremonial bath) of
3105-426: Is considered as "faith in the tattvas ". The spiritual goal in Jainism is to reach moksha for ascetics, but for most Jain laypersons, it is to accumulate good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation. Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge ( pramana ). It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception ( pratyaksa ), inference ( anumana ) and testimony ( sabda or
3220-508: Is considered the holiest shrine among Śvētāmbara murtipujaka. The replicas of Parshvanath temples are popular among Śvētāmbara murtipujaka, for example, Godiji is located in Sindh has a replica in Mumbai . According to Jain belief, worshipping these local replication idols allow them to directly worship to the original idol. Parshvanath is prayed to obtain various desires, especially tantric rites ,
3335-485: Is dated to c. 599 – c. 527 BCE in the Jain tradition, and Parshvanatha is dated to c. 872 – c. 772 BCE . According to Dundas, historians outside the Jain tradition date Mahavira as contemporaneous with the Buddha in the 5th century BCE and, based on the 273-year gap, date Parshvanatha to the 8th or 7th century BCE. Doubts about Parshvanatha's historicity are also supported by
3450-446: Is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare. Jain monks, nuns and some followers avoid root vegetables such as potatoes, onions, and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being. Jain monks and advanced lay people avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata . Monks observe
3565-554: Is essential for spiritual progress and the attainment of samyak darshan or self realization , which marks the beginning of the aspirant's journey towards liberation . The three main pillars of Jainism are ahiṃsā (non-violence), anekāntavāda (non-absolutism), and aparigraha (asceticism). Jain monks take five main vows: ahiṃsā (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (not stealing), brahmacharya (chastity), and aparigraha (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to
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3680-481: Is no "perhaps" about them. Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa. The third main principle in Jainism is aparigraha which means non-attachment to worldly possessions. For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions. The ascetic
3795-554: Is not accepted by the Digambaras, a tradition whose canonical texts have been lost and who do not accept Śvētāmbara texts as canonical. Digambaras have a sizable literature, however, which explains their disagreement with Śvētāmbara interpretations. Prafulla Modi rejects the theory of differences between Parshvanatha's and Mahavira's teachings. Champat Rai Jain writes that Śvētāmbara texts insist on celibacy for their monks (the fifth vow in Mahavira's teachings), and there must not have been
3910-818: Is not unique to Parshvanatha; it is also found above the icons of Suparshvanatha , the seventh of the 24 tirthankaras , but with a small difference. Suparshvanatha's serpent hood has five heads, and a seven (or more)-headed serpent is found in Parshvanatha icons. Statues of both tirthankaras with serpent hoods have been found in Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, dating to the 5th to 10th centuries. Earliest images of Parshvanatha having seven snakes over his head date back to first century BCE. Archeological sites and medieval Parshvantha iconography found in temples and caves include scenes and yaksha . Digambara and Śvētāmbara iconography differs; Śvētāmbara art shows Parshvanatha with
4025-448: Is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is", and "it is not", qualified with "perhaps", to understand Absolute Reality. The permanent being is conceptualized as jiva (soul) and ajiva (matter) within a dualistic anekāntavāda framework. According to Paul Dundas , in contemporary times the anekāntavāda doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to "promote
4140-458: Is observed by Jains as the anniversary of Mahāvīra's attainment of moksha . The Hindu festival of Diwali is also celebrated on the same date ( Kartika Amavasya ). Jain temples, homes, offices, and shops are decorated with lights and diyas (small oil lamps). The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance. Sweets are often distributed. On Diwali morning, Nirvan Ladoo is offered after praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples across
4255-476: Is one of the five most devotionally revered Tirthankaras, along with Mahavira, Rishabhanatha, Neminatha and Shantinatha. Various Jain temple complexes across India feature him, and these are important pilgrimage sites in Jainism. Mount Parasnath of Jharkhand , for example, which is believed to have been a place where 20 out of 24 Tirthankaras achieved nirvana , along with Parshvanatha. Shankheshwar Parshvanath in northern Gujarat , along with Mount Shatrunjaya
4370-459: Is one of the most performed Jain prayer. Pasanaha-chairu is a hagiography of Parshvanatha composed by Shridhara in 1132 AD. Parshvanath bhavaantar is a kirtan (devotion song), compiled by Gangadas in 1690 AD, which narrates life of previous nine births. The medieval forty-four verse hymn Kalyanamandira stotra , composed by Digambar kumudachandra, is a praise to Parshvanatha is popular among both Digambar and Śvētāmbara. Parshvanatha charite
4485-581: Is particularly important as it narrates the history of Jainism before Mahavira and describes the creation of three of the most prominent castes of Jain followers. It also suggests the antiquity of the Śvetāmbara tradition and that white-clad ascetics were the original followers of Jainism and of Parshvanatha, who preceded naked ascetics of the Digambara sect. Texts of the two major Jain sects (Digambara and Śvētāmbara) have different views of Parshvanatha and Mahavira's teachings, which underlie disputes between
4600-465: Is popularly seen as a supreme propagator and reviver of Jainism. Parshvanatha is said to have attained moksha on Mount Sammeda ( Madhuban , Jharkhand ) popular as Parasnath hill in the Ganges basin, an important Jain pilgrimage site. His iconography is notable for the serpent hood over his head, and his worship often includes Dharanendra and Padmavati (Jainism's serpent Devtā and Devī). Parshvanath
4715-429: Is said to result in direct harm to one's personality. Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called anuvratas (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and mahavratas (great vows) for Jain mendicants. For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a guru (teacher, counsellor), deva (Jina, god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about
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4830-566: Is treated as absolute. The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as the Samaññaphala Sutta . The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" ( syāt ). These texts identify anekāntavāda as a key difference from the Buddha 's teachings. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it
4945-468: The Jinas . In Jainism a Jina as deva is not an avatar (incarnation), but the highest state of omniscience that an ascetic tirthankara achieved. Out of the 24 tirthankaras, Jains predominantly worship four: Mahāvīra, Parshvanatha , Neminatha and Rishabhanatha . Among the non- tirthankara saints, devotional worship is common for Bahubali among the Digambaras. The Panch Kalyanaka rituals remember
5060-499: The Kalpa Sūtra the first known text. or depth, and the brief descriptions of the tirthankaras are largely modelled on Mahavira. The Kalpa Sūtra is the most ancient known Jain text with the 24 tirthankar , but it lists 20; three, including Parshvanatha, have brief descriptions compared with Mahavira. Early archaeological finds, such as the statues and reliefs near Mathura , lack iconography such as lions and serpents. Two of
5175-611: The Ahiṃsā doctrine when faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns. According to Dundas , the Jain scholar Jinadattasuri wrote during a time of destruction of temples and persecution that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance". However, examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare. The second main principle of Jainism
5290-430: The Buddha 's uncle, was a follower of Parshvanatha. Despite the accepted historicity, some historical claims such as the link between him and Mahavira, whether Mahavira renounced in the ascetic tradition of Parshvanatha, and other biographical details have led to different scholarly conclusions. Parshvanath's biography with Jain texts says that he preceded Mahavira by 273 years and that he lived 100 years. Mahavira
5405-565: The Gwalior Fort . There are five clusters of monuments that surround the hill, as can be seen in the 1901 map. Alexander Cunningham noted a Jain temple converted into a mosque just north of the Sas-Bahu temples in the fort containing a Jain inscription of AD 1108. Also within the fort there is an abandoned Jain temple which is now within the Scindia School playground and thus no longer accessible. Several large Jain sculptures are placed within
5520-670: The Rishi-mandala including the tirthankaras . The Jain tantric traditions use mantra and rituals that are believed to accrue merit for rebirth realms. The most important annual Jain festival is called the Paryushana by Svetambaras and Dasa lakshana parva by the Digambaras. It is celebrated from the 12th day of the waning moon in the traditional lunisolar month of Bhadrapada in the Indian calendar . This typically falls in August or September of
5635-623: The Siddhachal Caves located about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) north of these monuments. Both monuments were defaced and desecrated around 1527 when the Emperor Babur ordered their destruction., Quote: "In 1527, the Urvahi Jinas were mutilated by the Mughal emperor Babar, a fact he records in his memoirs".Centuries later, the Jain community restored many of the statues by adding back stucco heads on
5750-522: The Teli ka Mandir compound. The Gwalior city and the fort is connected to other Indian cities by major highways NH 44 and 46 (Asian Highway 43 and 47), a railway station and airport ( IATA : GWL). It is located near other historic Hindu and Jain temples from the medieval era. The Gopachal rock-cut monuments are a part of nearly 100 Jain monuments found in and around the Gwalior city, but these are dated earlier than
5865-414: The ajiva (non-living). Jains distinguish a substance from a complex body, or thing, by declaring the former a simple indestructible element, while the latter is a compound made of one or more substances that can be destroyed. Tattva connotes reality or truth in Jain philosophy and is the framework for salvation. According to Digambara Jains, there are seven tattvas : the sentient ( jiva or living),
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#17328475324665980-463: The garbha-kalyana (enlivened the fetus). His mother dreamt 14 auspicious dreams, an indicator in Jain tradition that a tirthankar was about to be born. According to the Jain texts, the thrones of the Indras shook when he was born and the Indras came down to earth to celebrate his janma-kalyanaka (his auspicious birth). Parshvanatha was born with blue-black skin. A strong, handsome boy, he played with
6095-458: The nondualism of some forms of Hinduism and Buddhism. According to Jainism, a Siddha (liberated soul) has gone beyond Saṃsāra , is at the apex, is omniscient, and remains there eternally. Jain texts propound that the universe consists of many eternal lokas (realms of existence). As in Buddhism and Hinduism, both time and the universe are eternal, but the universe is transient. The universe, body, matter and time are considered separate from
6210-450: The tirthankaras guiding every time cycle of the cosmology . Central to understanding Jain philosophy is the concept of bhedvigyān , or the clear distinction in the nature of the soul and non-soul entities. This principle underscores the innate purity and potential for liberation within every soul , distinct from the physical and mental elements that bind it to the cycle of birth and rebirth . Recognizing and internalizing this separation
6325-490: The tirthankaras , monks of Parshvanatha's lineage existed during Mahavira's time period. Keśiśramanācharya , a monk of Parhsvanatha's lineage, is also said to have met Gautama Swami , the prime disciple of Mahavira. Parshvanatha's monastic lineage is said to have begun with his prime disciple Arya Śubhadatta. Later, this lineage came to be known as the Upkeśa Gaccha of the Śvetāmbara tradition. Keśī's (the 4th head of
6440-565: The Ācārāṅga Sūtra say that Mahavira's parents were followers of Parshvanatha, linking Mahavira to a preexisting theology as a reformer of Jain mendicant tradition. According to the Śvētāmbara tradition, Parshvanatha and the ascetic community he founded exercised a fourfold restraint; Mahavira stipulated five great vows for his ascetic initiation. This difference and its reason have often been discussed in Śvētāmbara texts. The Uttardhyayana Sutra (a Śvētāmbara text) describes Keśin Dālbhya as
6555-523: The 2011 census. Outside India, some of the largest Jain communities can be found in Canada , Europe , and the United States . Japan is also home to a fast-growing community of converts. Major festivals include Paryushana and Das Lakshana , Ashtanika , Mahavir Janma Kalyanak , Akshaya Tritiya , and Dipawali . Jainism is transtheistic and forecasts that the universe evolves without violating
6670-499: The 23rd of 24 tirthankaras in Jain tradition. He was born on the tenth day of the dark half of the Hindu month of Pausha to King Ashwasena and Queen Vamadevi of Varanasi . Parshvanatha belonged to the Ikshvaku dynasty . Before his birth, Jain texts state that he ruled as the god Indra in the 13th heaven of Jain cosmology. While Parshvanatha was in his mother's womb, gods performed
6785-431: The 9th-century Silanka, suggests that the practices of "not using another's property without their explicit permission" and celibacy were interpreted as part of non-possession. The Kalpa Sūtra contains biographies of the tirthankaras Parshvanatha and Mahavira. Uvasagharam Stotra is an ode to Parshvanatha which was written by Bhadrabahu . Jinasena 's Mahapurāṇa includes " Ādi purāṇa " and Uttarapurana . It
6900-517: The Gregorian calendar. It lasts eight days for Svetambaras, and ten days among the Digambaras. It is a time when lay people fast and pray. The five vows are emphasized during this time. Svetambaras recite the Kalpasūtras , while Digambaras read their own texts. The festival is an occasion where Jains make active effort to stop cruelty towards other life forms, freeing animals in captivity and preventing
7015-478: The Jain text Tattvartha sūtra , the first two are indirect knowledge and the remaining three are direct knowledge. According to Jainism, the existence of "a bound and ever changing soul" is a self-evident truth, an axiom which does not need to be proven. It maintains that there are numerous souls, but every one of them has three qualities ( Guṇa ): consciousness ( chaitanya , the most important), bliss ( sukha ) and vibrational energy ( virya ). It further claims
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#17328475324667130-463: The Mahāvīra (Vardhamana) set an example by performing severe austerities for twelve years. Monastic organization, sangh , has a four-fold order consisting of sadhu (male ascetics, muni ), sadhvi (female ascetics, aryika ), śrāvaka (laymen), and śrāvikā (laywomen). The latter two support the ascetics and their monastic organizations called gacch or samuday , in autonomous regional Jain congregations. Jain monastic rules have encouraged
7245-780: The Mughals kept control until Muhammad Shah . Scindias , took control in 1731. Shortly before that, Jain temples were constructed again in Gwalior city in 1704, including the Jain Golden Temple, Gwalior. The Gopachal rock-cut monuments depict the Tirthankaras in seated or standing meditating positions. They are not as colossal as some of those found in the Siddhachal Caves, but they are big. The Gopachal monuments include standing and seated Shri Rishabhanatha (Adinatha), Neminatha , Parshvanatha and Shri Mahavirasvami . The mulnayak of
7360-509: The age of 100 on Shravana Shukla Saptami according to Lunar Calendar. His moksha (liberation from the cycle of birth and death) in Jain tradition is celebrated as Moksha Saptami. This day is celebrated on large scale at Parasnath tonk of the mountain, in northern Jharkhand , part of the Parasnath Range by offering Nirvana Laddu (Sugar balls) and reciting of Nirvana Kanda . Parshvanatha has been called purisādāṇīya (beloved of
7475-456: The body of a heavenly celestial do so because of their positive karma. It is further stated that they possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms. However, once their past karmic merit is exhausted, it is explained that their souls are reborn again as humans, animals or other beings. The perfect enlightened souls with a body are called Arihants (victors) and perfect souls without
7590-432: The center surrounded by a bunches of lotus. Parshvanatha is depicted in dhyāna mudrā with ankle crossed in lotus position seated on a pedestal with a seven-hooded sesha hood above his head and shrivatsa on the chest. The Kahaum pillar , erected in 460 CE during the reign of Skandagupta , Gupta Empire , bears an inscription that is adoration to Arihant and features a carving of Parshvanatha. Parshvanatha
7705-524: The complex is a 47 feet (14 m) idol of Parshvanatha, the largest idol of Parshvanatha in lotus position. According to Jains, Tirthankara Parshvanath delivered his discourse ( deshna ) on this hill. The nearest airport is Gwalior. Jain Jainism ( / ˈ dʒ eɪ n ɪ z əm / JAY -niz-əm ), also known as Jain Dharma , is an Indian religion . Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through
7820-514: The council, the Śvētāmbara adopted the texts they had preserved as canonical scriptures, which Digambara has ever since rejected. This council is believed to have solidified the historic schism between these two major traditions of Jainism. The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit Suttapahuda of Kundakunda . Parshvanatha Parshvanatha ( Sanskrit : पार्श्वनाथः ), or Pārśva and Pārasanātha ,
7935-406: The daughter of Prasenajit (king of Kusasthala). Heinrich Zimmer translated a Jain text that sixteen-year-old Parshvanatha refused to marry when his father told him to do so; he began meditating instead because the "soul is its only friend". At age 30, on the 11th day of the moon's waxing in the month of Pausha (December–January), Parshvanatha renounced the world to become a monk after seeing
8050-515: The early bronze images of Parshvanatha can be found on Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya and Patna Museum dating back to the second century BCE to the first century CE. A first century BCE Ayagapata is in State Museum Lucknow containing the image of Parshvanatha. A seventh century CE statue was found in the Asthal Bohar village of Rohtak , Haryana . Parshvanatha was
8165-406: The ego. According to the Jain texts, lions and fawns played around him during his asceticism. Ahichchhatra is believed to be the place where Parshvanatha attained Kevala Jnana (omniscience). According to Vividha Tirtha Kalpa , Kamath in an attempt to obstruct Parshvanatha from achieving Kevala Jnana caused continuous rain. Parshvanatha was immersed in water up to his neck and to protect him
8280-413: The faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, insincerity of desire for Jain teachings, non-recognition of fellow Jains, and insufficient admiration of fellow Jains' spiritual endeavors. Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism: Jainism prescribes seven supplementary vows, including three guņa vratas (merit vows) and four śikşā vratas . The Sallekhana (or Santhara ) vow
8395-415: The fifth monastic vow (celibacy). Parshvanatha did not require celibacy and allowed monks to wear simple outer garments. Śvētāmbara texts, such as section 2.15 of the Ācārāṅga Sūtra , say that Mahavira's parents were followers of Parshvanatha (linking Mahavira to a preexisting theology as a reformer of Jain mendicant tradition). Parshvanatha is the earliest Jain tirthankara who is generally acknowledged as
8510-452: The first eon the universe generates, and in the next it degenerates. Thus, it divides the worldly cycle of time into two half-cycles, utsarpiṇī (ascending, progressive prosperity and happiness) and avasarpiṇī (descending, increasing sorrow and immorality). It states that the world is currently in the fifth ara of avasarpiṇī , full of sorrow and religious decline, where the height of living beings shrinks. According to Jainism, after
8625-529: The five life events of the tirthankaras , including the Panch Kalyanaka Pratishtha Mahotsava , Panch Kalyanaka Puja and Snatrapuja . The basic ritual is darsana (seeing) of deva , which includes Jina, or other yaksas , gods and goddesses such as Brahmadeva, 52 Viras, Padmavati , Ambika and 16 Vidyadevis (including Sarasvati and Lakshmi ). Terapanthi Digambaras limit their ritual worship to tirthankaras. The worship ritual
8740-595: The five vows of later Jain texts. This has led scholars such as Hermann Jacobi to say that when Mahavira and the Buddha met, the Buddhists knew only about the four restraints of the Parshvanatha tradition. Further scholarship suggests a more complex situation, because some of the earliest Jain literature (such as section 1.8.1 of the Ācārāṅga Sūtra) connects Mahavira with three restraints: non-violence, non-lying, and non-possession. The "less than five vows" view of Śvētāmbara texts
8855-445: The flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation). Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting mendicants , studying, meditation, and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body. Lists of internal and external austerities vary with the text and tradition. Asceticism is viewed as a means to control desires, and to purify the jiva (soul). The tirthankaras such as
8970-672: The fortifications at the Urvahi gate. The Tomars acquired control in 1394 and held it until 1517. Mughal Emperor Babur conquered Gwalior in AD 1527. Babar ordered the destruction of the Jain statues, as he mentions in his memoirs. The heads of the statues at Urvahi gate and the Ek Patthat ki Bawadi were damaged. The Urvahi gate sculptures were repaired at some later time by the local Jains. The South-West Group and North West group sculptures survived because they were in inconspicuous and hard to reach places and
9085-512: The gods of water, hills and trees. At the age of eight, Parshvanatha began practising the twelve basic duties of the adult Jain householder. He lived as a prince and soldier in Varanasi . The temples in Bhelupur were built to commemorate place for three kalyanaka of Parshvanatha. According to the Digambara school, Parshvanatha never married; Śvētāmbara texts say that he married Prabhavati,
9200-421: The image of Neminatha . He removed his clothes and hair and began fasting strictly. Parshvanatha meditated for 84 days before he attained omniscience under a dhaataki tree near Benares. His meditation period included asceticism and strict vows. Parshvanatha's practices included careful movement, measured speech, guarded desires, mental restraint and physical activity, essential in Jain tradition to renounce
9315-403: The images. Some Jain sects employ a pujari (also called upadhye ), who may be a Hindu, to perform priestly duties at the temple. More elaborate worship includes offerings such as rice, fresh and dry fruits, flowers, coconut, sweets, and money. Some may light up a lamp with camphor and make auspicious marks with sandalwood paste. Devotees also recite Jain texts, particularly the life stories of
9430-454: The insentient ( ajiva or non-living), the karmic influx to the soul ( Āsrava , which is a mix of living and non-living), the bondage of karmic particles to the soul ( Bandha ), the stoppage of karmic particles ( Saṃvara ), the wiping away of past karmic particles ( Nirjarā ), and the liberation ( Moksha ). Śvētāmbaras add two further tattvas , namely good karma ( Punya ) and bad karma ( Paapa ). The true insight in Jain philosophy
9545-553: The law of substance dualism , and the actual realization of this principle plays out through the phenomena of both parallelism and interactionism . Dravya means substances or entity in Sanskrit . Jains believe the universe is made up of six eternal substances: sentient beings or souls ( jīva ), non-sentient substance or matter ( pudgala ), the principle of motion ( dharma ), the principle of rest ( adharma ), space ( ākāśa ), and time ( kāla ). The last five are united as
9660-500: The lunisolar month of Chaitra in the traditional Indian calendar. This typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar. The festivities include visiting Jain temples, pilgrimages to shrines, reading Jain texts and processions of Mahāvīra by the community. At his legendary birthplace of Kundagrama in Bihar , north of Patna, special events are held by Jains. The next day of Dipawali
9775-609: The monastic order in Parshvanatha's monastic lineage) disciple Swayamprabhasuri went on to create the Porwal and Srimali castes by preaching Jainism and strongly opposing animal sacrifice in Bhinmal and Padmavati region of present-day Rajasthan . Later, Swayamprabhasuri's disciple Ratnaprabhasuri preached Jainism in Osian and created the Oswal caste. The monastic lineage of Upkeśa Gaccha
9890-512: The oldest Jain texts, which present Mahavira with sporadic mentions of ancient ascetics and teachers without specific names (such as sections 1.4.1 and 1.6.3 of the Acaranga Sutra ). The earliest layer of Jain literature on cosmology and universal history pivots around two jinas : the Adinatha ( Rishabhanatha ) and Mahavira. Stories of Parshvanatha and Neminatha appear in later Jain texts, with
10005-515: The other hand, wear seamless white clothes. During Chandragupta Maurya's reign, Jain tradition states that Acharya Bhadrabahu predicted a twelve-year-long famine and moved to Karnataka with his disciples. Sthulabhadra , a pupil of Acharya Bhadrabahu, is believed to have stayed in Magadha. Later, as stated in tradition, when followers of Acharya Bhadrabahu returned, they found those who had remained at Magadha had started wearing white clothes, which
10120-410: The people) by Jains. Jain mythology contains legends about Parshvanatha's human and animal rebirths and the maturing of his soul towards inner harmony like legends found in other Indian religions. His rebirths include: King Aravinda, after the death of his minister's son, renounced his throne and led an ascetic life. When an angry Vajraghosha approached Aravinda, the ascetic saw that the elephant
10235-463: The sects. Digambaras maintain that no difference exists between the teachings of Parshvanatha and Mahavira. According to the Śvētāmbaras, Mahavira expanded the scope of Parshvanatha's first four restraints with his ideas on ahimsa (non-violence) and added the fifth monastic vow (celibacy) to the practice of asceticism. Parshvanatha did not require celibacy, and allowed monks to wear simple outer garments. Śvētāmbara texts such as section 2.15 of
10350-575: The serpent god Dharanendra held a canopy of thousand hoods over his head and the goddess Padmavati coiled herself around his body. Ahichchhatra Jain temples are built to commemorate Parshvanatha attaining Kēvalajñāna kalyāṇaka . On the 14th day of the moon's waning cycle in the month of Chaitra (March–April), Parshvanatha attained omniscience. Heavenly beings built him a samavasarana (preaching hall), so he could share his knowledge with his followers. After preaching for 70 years, Parshvanath attained moksha at Shikharji on Parasnath hill at
10465-570: The sixth ara , the universe will be reawakened in a new cycle. Jainism is a transtheistic religion, holding that the universe was not created , and will exist forever. It is independent, having no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer. In this, it is unlike the Abrahamic religions and the theistic strands of Hinduism , but similar to Buddhism. However, Jainism believes in the world of heavenly and hellish beings who are born, die and are reborn like earthly beings. The souls who live happily in
10580-500: The slaughter of animals. Forgiveness I forgive all living beings, may all living beings forgive me. All in this world are my friends, I have no enemies. — Jain festival prayer on the last day The last day involves a focused prayer and meditation session known as Samvatsari . Jains consider this a day of atonement, granting forgiveness to others, seeking forgiveness from all living beings, physically or mentally asking for forgiveness and resolving to treat everyone in
10695-461: The soul ( jiva ). Their interaction explains life, living, death and rebirth in Jain philosophy. The Jain cosmic universe has three parts, the upper, middle, and lower worlds ( urdhva loka , madhya loka , and adho loka ). Jainism states that Kāla (time) is without beginning and eternal; the cosmic wheel of time, kālachakra , rotates ceaselessly. In this part of the universe, it explains, there are six periods of time within two eons ( ara ), and in
10810-454: The soul, travel with the soul in bound form between rebirths, and affect the suffering and happiness experienced by the jiva in the lokas . Karma is believed to obscure and obstruct the innate nature and striving of the soul, as well as its spiritual potential in the next rebirth. The conceptual framework of the Saṃsāra doctrine differs between Jainism and other Indian religions. Soul ( jiva )
10925-411: The succession of twenty-four tirthankara s (supreme preachers of Dharma ), with the first in the current time cycle being Rishabhadeva , whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third tirthankara Parshvanatha , whom historians date to the 9th century BCE , and the twenty-fourth tirthankara Mahavira , around 600 BCE. Jainism is considered an eternal dharma with
11040-447: The texts considered canonical. Both sub-traditions have mendicants supported by laypersons ( śrāvakas and śrāvikas ). The Śvētāmbara tradition in turn has two sub-traditions: Deravasi, also known as Mandirmargis, and Sthānakavasī. The religion has between four and five million followers, known as Jains or Jainas , who reside mostly in India , where they numbered around 4.5 million at
11155-465: The tirthankaras. Traditional Jains, like Buddhists and Hindus, believe in the efficacy of mantras and that certain sounds and words are inherently auspicious, powerful and spiritual. The most famous of the mantras, broadly accepted in various sects of Jainism, is the "five homage" ( panca namaskara ) mantra which is believed to be eternal and existent since the first tirthankara's time. Medieval worship practices included making tantric diagrams of
11270-468: The top of the damaged idols. The prolific Apabhramsha author Raidhu was responsible for consecrating many of the Jain rock carved images as attested by multiple inscriptions. These include the two colossal images of Shri Adinatha (57 feet) and Shri Chandraprabhu . Qutb ud-Din Aibak captured the fort from Pratihara in 1196 and held it until his death in 1210. Altmash captured the fort in 1232 and built
11385-538: The truth of soul ( jīva ); Samyak Gyana (Correct Knowledge), meaning undoubting knowledge of the tattvas ; and Samyak Charitra (Correct Conduct), meaning behavior consistent with the Five vows. Jain texts often add samyak tapas (Correct Asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation ( moksha ). The four jewels are called Moksha Marga (the path of liberation). The principle of ahimsa (non-violence or non-injury)
11500-459: The truth". According to it, one can experience the taste of truth, but cannot fully express that taste through language. It holds that attempts to express experience are syāt , or valid "in some respect", but remain "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete". It concludes that in the same way, spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed. It suggests that the great error is belief in ekānta (one-sidedness), where some relative truth
11615-496: The typical naked form of Jain iconography. The number of Jain rock shrines at Gwalior, with numerous monumental statues, is unmatched anywhere else. James Burgess wrote: "In the 15th century, during the reign of the Tomar kings , the Jains seem to have been seized with an uncontrollable impulse to convert the cliff that sustains the fort into a great shrine in honour of their religion, and in
11730-480: The use of mouth cover, as well as the Dandasan – a long stick with woolen threads – to gently remove ants and insects that may come in their path. The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being vegetarian . Devout Jains practice lacto-vegetarianism , meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production. Veganism
11845-406: The vibration draws karmic particles to the soul and creates bondages, but is also what adds merit or demerit to the soul. Jain texts state that souls exist as "clothed with material bodies", where it entirely fills up the body. Karma, as in other Indian religions, connotes in Jainism the universal cause and effect law. However, it is envisioned as a material substance (subtle matter) that can bind to
11960-433: The violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being. The doctrine exists in Hinduism and Buddhism, but is most highly developed in Jainism. The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to "be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor
12075-559: The word of scriptures). These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as Tattvarthasūtra , Parvacanasara , Nandi and Anuyogadvarini . Some Jain texts add analogy ( upamana ) as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar to epistemological theories found in other Indian religions. In Jainism, jnāna (knowledge) is said to be of five kinds – mati jñāna (sensory knowledge), śrutu jñāna (scriptural knowledge), avadhi jñāna ( clairvoyance ), manah prayāya Jñāna ( telepathy ) and kevala jnana ( omniscience ). According to
12190-411: The world as friends. Forgiveness is asked by saying " Micchami Dukkadam " or " Khamat khamna " to others. This means, "If I have offended you in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness." The literal meaning of Paryushana is "abiding" or "coming together". Mahavir Janma Kalyanak celebrates the birth of Mahāvīra. It is celebrated on the 13th day of
12305-495: The world. The Jain new year starts right after Diwali. Some other festivals celebrated by Jains are Akshaya Tritiya and Raksha Bandhan , similar to those in the Hindu communities. The Jain community is divided into two major denominations , Digambara and Śvētāmbara . Monks of the Digambara (sky-clad) tradition do not wear clothes. Female monastics of the Digambara sect wear unstitched plain white sarees and are referred to as Aryikas . Śvētāmbara (white-clad) monastics, on
12420-704: The Śvētāmbara believe that Śubhadatta became head of the monastic order and was succeeded by Haridatta, Āryasamudra and Keśī . According to Digambara tradition (including the Avasyaka niryukti ), Parshvanatha had 10 ganadhars and Svayambhu was their leader. Śvētāmbara texts such as the Samavayanga and Kalpa Sūtras cite Pushpakula as the chief aryika of his female followers, but the Digambara Tiloyapannati text identifies her as Suloka or Sulocana. Parshvanatha's nirgrantha (without bonds) monastic tradition
12535-545: Was born in Varanasi , India . Renouncing worldly life, he founded an ascetic community. Texts of the two major Jain sects ( Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras ) differ on the teachings of Parshvanath and Mahavir, and this is a foundation of the dispute between the two sects. The Digambaras believed that there was no difference between the teachings of Parshvanatha and Mahavira. According to the Śvētāmbaras, Mahavir expanded Parshvanatha's first four restraints with his ideas on ahimsa ( lit. ' non-violence ' ) and added
12650-482: Was completed by Jinasena's 8th-century disciple, Gunabhadra . "Ādi purāṇa" describes the lives of Rishabhanatha , Bahubali and Bharata . Parshvabhyudaya by Jinsena is a narration of the life of Parshvanatha. Bhayahara Stotra composed by Acharya Manatunga , 7th century, is an adoration of Parshvanatha. Sankhesvara Stotram is hymn to Parshvanatha compiled by Mahopadhyaya Yashovijaya . Shankheshwar Parshvanath Stavan , hymn dedicated to Shankheshwar Parshvanath,
12765-410: Was influential in ancient India, with Mahavira's parents part of it as lay householders who supported the ascetics. The time period between Parshvanatha and Mahavira was only 250 years, which is relatively short when compared to the periods between any two consecutive tirthankaras . According to ancient Śvetāmbara texts such as Uttaradhyayana Sutra , owing to this short period of time between both
12880-769: Was reborn as a god with a life of "twenty-two oceans of years", and the serpent went to the sixth hell. The soul of Marubhuti-Vajraghosa-Sasiprabha-Agnivega was reborn as Parshvanatha. He saved serpents from torture and death during that life; the serpent god Dharanendra and the goddess Padmavati protected him, and are part of Parshvanath's iconography. According to the Kalpa Sūtra (a Śvētāmbara text), Parshvanatha had 164,000 śrāvakas (male lay followers), 327,000 śrāvikās (female lay followers), 16,000 sādhus (monks) and 38,000 Sadhvis or aryikas (nuns). According to Śvētāmbara tradition, he had eight ganadharas (chief monks): Śubhadatta, Āryaghoṣa, Vasiṣṭha, Brahmacāri, Soma, Śrīdhara, Vīrabhadra and Yaśas. After his death,
12995-433: Was the 23rd of 24 Tirthankaras (Ford-Maker of Dharma ) of Jainism . Parshvanatha is one of the earliest Tirthankara who is acknowledged as a historical figure. The Jain sources place him between the 9th and 8th centuries BCE whereas historians consider that he lived in the 8th and 7th century BCE. Parshvanatha was born 273 years before Mahavira . He was the spiritual successor of the 22nd Tirthankar Neminatha . He
13110-437: Was the reborn Marubhuti. Aravinda asked the elephant to give up "sinful acts, remove his demerits from the past, realize that injuring other beings is the greatest sin, and begin practicing the vows". The elephant realized his error, became calm, and bowed at Aravinda's feet. When Vajraghosha went to a river one day to drink, the serpent Kamath bit him. He died peacefully this time, however, without distressing thoughts. Agnivega
13225-507: Was unacceptable to the others who remained naked. This is how Jains believe the Digambara and Śvētāmbara schism began, with the former being naked while the latter wore white clothes. Digambara saw this as being opposed to the Jain tenet of aparigraha which, according to them, required not even possession of clothes, i.e. complete nudity. In the fifth-century CE, the Council of Valabhi was organized by Śvētāmbara, which Digambara did not attend. At
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