47-421: The Ācārāṅga Sūtra ( First book c. 5th–4th century BCE; Second book c. Late 4th–2nd century BCE) is the first of the twelve Angas , part of the agamas (religious texts) which were compiled based on the teachings of 24th Tirthankara Mahavira . The existing text of the Ācārāṅga Sūtra which is used by the Śvetāmbara sect of Jainism was recompiled and edited by Acharya Devardhigani Kshamashraman , who headed
94-548: A formal code of ethics and monastic practice as it is meant for Sthavirkalpi (more lenient than Jinakalpi monks) monks only. Following are the commentaries on the Sutra: Jain Agamas (%C5%9Av%C4%93t%C4%81mbara)#Contents Jain literature ( Sanskrit : जैन साहित्य) refers to the literature of the Jain religion . It is a vast and ancient literary tradition, which was initially transmitted orally. The oldest surviving material
141-462: A long famine caused a crisis in the community, who found it difficult to keep the entire Jain canon committed to memory. Bhadrabahu decided to travel south to Karnataka with his adherents and Sthulabhadra , another Jain leader remained behind. The famine decimated the Jain community, leading to the loss of many canonical texts. According to Śvētāmbara ("white-clad") tradition, the agamas were collected on
188-443: A small portion have been published and studied by scholars. Agamas are the main scriptures followed by Jains as preached by Tirthankars. Both Shwetambar and Digambar sects believe in 12 Agamas. Both also believe that the 12th Agama Drishtivaad ( Dṛṣṭivāda ) was lost over a period of time and realised the need to turn the oral tradition to written. While Digambaras believed that all the 12 Agamas were lost, Shwetambars believed that
235-448: Is eternal(अनादि अनंत) , and the teachings of the first Tirthankara Rishabhanatha existed millions of years ago. It states that the tirthankaras taught in divine preaching halls called samavasarana , which were heard by gods, ascetics and laypersons. These divine discourses were called Śhrut Jnāna (or heard knowledge) and always comprises eleven angas and fourteen purvas . The discourses are remembered and transmitted by
282-708: Is considered by F. Kielhorn as the best grammar work of the Indian middle age. Hemacandra's book Kumarapalacaritra is also noteworthy. Jaina narrative literature mainly contains stories about sixty-three prominent figures known as Salakapurusa , and people who were related to them. Some of the important works are Harivamshapurana of Jinasena ( c. 8th century CE ), Vikramarjuna-Vijaya (also known as Pampa-Bharata) of Kannada poet named Adi Pampa ( c. 10th century CE ), Pandavapurana of Shubhachandra ( c. 16th century CE ). Jain literature covered multiple topics of mathematics around 150 AD including
329-971: Is contained in the canonical Jain Agamas, which are written in Ardhamagadhi , a Prakrit ( Middle-Indo Aryan ) language. Various commentaries were written on these canonical texts by later Jain monks . Later works were also written in other languages, like Sanskrit and Maharashtri Prakrit . Jain literature is primarily divided between the canons of the Digambara and Śvētāmbara orders. These two main sects of Jainism do not always agree on which texts should be considered authoritative. More recent Jain literature has also been written in other languages, like Marathi , Tamil , Rajasthani , Dhundari , Marwari , Hindi , Gujarati , Kannada , Malayalam and more recently in English . The Jain tradition believes that their religion
376-664: Is generally accepted now that the Jain nun Kanti inserted a 445-verse poem into Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi in the 12th century. The Tamil Jain literature, according to Dundas, has been "lovingly studied and commented upon for centuries by Hindus as well as Jains". The themes of two of the Tamil epics, including the Silapadikkaram , have an embedded influence of Jainism. Jain scholars also contributed to Kannada literature . The Digambara Jain texts in Karnataka are unusual in having been written under
423-452: Is the older part, to which other treatises were later added. It describes the conduct and behavior of ascetic life: the mode of asking for food, bowl, clothes, conduct while walking and speaking and regulation of possessions by ascetics. It also describes the penance of Mahavira , the Great Hero. The second book is divided into four sections called Kulas. There were originally five Kûlâs, but
470-583: Is to all which breath, exist, live or have any essence of life. To you and all, it is undesirable, and painful, and repugnant. That which you consider worth destroying is (like) yourself. That which you consider worth disciplining is (like) yourself. That which you consider worth subjugating is (like) yourself. That which you consider worth killing is (like) yourself. The result of actions by you has to be borne by you, so do not destroy anything. The Ācārāṅga Sūtra describes lack of clothes as being in full conformity with Jain doctrine (AS 1.6.2.3). Another passage in
517-513: Is to say, they were written after the closure of the Jain canons, though the different canons were closed at different historical eras, and so this category is ambiguous. Thus, Umaswati 's (c. between 2nd-century and 5th-century CE) Tattvarthasūtra ("On the Nature of Reality") is included in the Digambara canon, but not in the Śvētāmbara canons (though they do consider the work authoritative). Indeed,
SECTION 10
#1732851292977564-592: The Ganadharas (chief disciples), and is composed of twelve angas (parts, limbs). It is symbolically represented by a tree with twelve branches. The spoken scriptural language is believed to be Ardhamagadhi by the Śvētāmbara Jains, and a form of divine sound or sonic resonance by the Digambara Jains. According to the Jain tradition, the divine Śhrut Jnāna of a tirthankara is then converted into sutta (scripture) by his disciples, and from such suttas emerge
611-912: The Tattvarthasūtra is considered the authoritative Jain philosophy text by all traditions of Jainism. It has the same importance in Jainism as Vedanta Sūtras and Yogasūtras have in Hinduism . Other non-canonical works include various texts attributed to Bhadrabahu ( c. 300 BCE ) which are called the Niryuktis and Samhitas . According to Winternitz, after the 8th century or so, Svetambara Jain writers, who had previously worked in Prakrit, began to use Sanskrit. The Digambaras also adopted Sanskrit somewhat earlier. The earliest Jain works in Sanskrit include
658-655: The Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama (Six Part Scripture), which is held to be one of the oldest Digambara texts. They are dated to between the 2nd to 3rd century CE. Around the same time, Āchārya Gunadhar wrote Kaşāyapāhuda (Treatise on the Passions). These two texts are the two main Digambara Agamas. The Digambara canon of scriptures includes these two main texts, three commentaries on the main texts, and four (later) Anuyogas (expositions), consisting of more than 20 texts. The great commentator Virasena wrote two commentary texts on
705-690: The Apabhramsha language are Jain works. The oldest Jain literature is in Shauraseni and the Jain Prakrit (the Jain Agamas , Agama-Tulya, the Siddhanta texts, etc.). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tattvartha Sutra, Puranas , Kosh, Sravakacara, mathematics, Nighantus etc.). "Abhidhana Rajendra Kosha" written by Acharya Rajendrasuri , is only one available Jain encyclopedia or Jain dictionary to understand
752-546: The Ramayana and Mahabharata are found in Sanskrit, the Prakrits, Apabhraṃśa and Kannada. Jain Prakrit is a term loosely used for the language of the Jain Agamas (canonical texts). The books of Jainism were written in the popular vernacular dialects (as opposed to Sanskrit ), and therefore encompass a number of related dialects. Chief among these is Ardha Magadhi , which due to its extensive use has also come to be identified as
799-579: The Ācārāṅga Sūtra , the Sūtrakṛtāṅga Sūtra , and the Uttarādhyayana Sūtra are among the oldest texts in the canon. This does not guarantee that they actually date from the time of Mahāvīra, nor even from the centuries immediately following his death, nor does it guarantee that all parts of these texts were composed simultaneously. Elsewhere, Bronkhorst states that the Sūtrakṛtāṅga "dates from
846-819: The Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama , the Dhaval‑tika on the first five volumes and Maha‑dhaval‑tika on the sixth volume of the Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama , around 780 CE. Virasena and his disciple, Jinasena , also wrote a commentary on the Kaşāyapāhuda , known as Jaya‑dhavala‑tika . There is no agreement on the canonical Anuyogas ("Expositions"). The Anuyogas were written between the 2nd and the 11th centuries CE , either in Jaina Śaurasenī Prakrit or in Sanskrit . The expositions ( Anuyogas ) are divided into four literary categories: There are various later Jain works that are considered post-canonical, that
893-460: The 2nd century BCE at the very earliest," based on how it references the Buddhist theory of momentariness, which is a later scholastic development. During the reign of Chandragupta Maurya ( c. 324 or 321 – c. 297 BCE), Āchārya Bhadrabahu ( c. 367 – c. 298 BCE ), said to have been the last knower of the complete Jain agamas , was the head of Jain community . At this time,
940-583: The Agamas and recorded them as written manuscripts under the leadership of Acharya Shraman Devardhigani along with other 500 Jain scholars. The existing Śvētāmbara canons are based on the Vallabhi council texts. From the 15th century onwards, various Śvetāmbara subsects began to disagree on the composition of the canon. Mūrtipūjaks ("idol-worshippers") accept 45 texts, while the Sthānakavāsins and Terāpanthins only accept 32. The canons ( Siddhāntha ) of
987-461: The Digambara collections in Karnataka temples, have a large number of well-preserved manuscripts. These include Jain literature and Hindu and Buddhist texts. Almost all have been dated to about, or after, the 11th century CE. The largest and most valuable libraries are found in the Thar Desert , hidden in the underground vaults of Jain temples. These collections have witnessed insect damage, and only
SECTION 20
#17328512929771034-508: The Jain Prakrit, Ardha-Magadhi and other languages, words, their use and references within oldest Jain literature. Jain literature was written in Apabhraṃśa (Kahas, rasas, and grammars), Standard Hindi (Chhahadhala, Moksh Marg Prakashak , and others), Tamil ( Nālaṭiyār , Civaka Cintamani , Valayapathi , and others), and Kannada ( Vaddaradhane and various other texts). Jain versions of
1081-515: The basis of the collective memory of the ascetics in the first council of Pataliputra under the stewardship of Sthulibhadra in around to 463–367 BCE. During the council, eleven scriptures called Angas were compiled and the remnant of fourteen purvas were written down in a 12th Anga. Another council was later organised in 2nd-century BCE in Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves , Kalinga (now in Odisha ) during
1128-462: The composition of the Jain Agamas starting from the 6th century BCE, some western scholars, such as Ian Whicher and David Carpenter, argue that the earliest portions of Jain canonical works were composed around the 4th or 3rd century BCE. According to Johannes Bronkhorst it is extremely difficult to determine the age of the Jain Agamas, however: Mainly on linguistic grounds, it has been argued that
1175-540: The council held at Valabhi c. 454 CE. The Digambaras do not recognize the available text, and regard the original text as having been lost in its original form. The Digambara text, Mulachara is said to be derived from the original Ācārāṅga Sūtra and discusses the conduct of a Digambara monk . The Ācārāṅga Sūtra is the oldest agama, from a linguistic point of view, written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit . The Sutra contains two books, or Srutaskandhas. The first book
1222-651: The definitive form of Prakrit . Other dialects include versions of Maharashtri and Sauraseni . Parts of the Sangam literature in Tamil are attributed to Jains. The authenticity and interpolations are controversial because it presents Hindu ideas. Some scholars state that the Jain portions were added about or after the 8th century CE, and are not ancient. Tamil Jain texts such as the Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi and Nālaṭiyār are credited to Digambara Jain authors. These texts have seen interpolations and revisions. For example, it
1269-450: The doctrine that had survived in their community. As such, Digambaras have a different set of canonical scriptures. According to von Glasenapp, the Digambara texts partially agree with the enumerations and works of older Śvētāmbara texts, but in many cases there are also major differences between the texts of the two major Jain traditions. In 453 or 466 CE, the Śvētāmbara order held another council at Vallabhi . The Śvētāmbaras recompiled
1316-884: The fifth, the Nisîhiyagghana, is now reckoned as a separate work. The first and second parts lay down rules for conduct of ascetics. The Ācārāṅga has been described in details in Samavāyāṅga and the Nandῑ. According to them, the main studies of the Ācārāṅga are 'Ācāra gocara' i.e. code of conduct, vinaya (humility), vaināyika (fruition of humility), sthāna (difference postures), gamana (travelling), cankramaṇa (movements), bhojana-mātra (quantity of food intake), svādhyāya (spiritual studies), bhāṣā samiti (principles of speech), gupti (restraint or of mind, speech and body), sayyā (place of stay), upādhῑ (belongings) etc. The Ācārāṅga recommends purity of all these aspects. Acharya Umāsvati has briefly dealt with
1363-735: The first 11 Agamas were not lost. They compiled them in written format in the 6th century CE in Vallabhi, Gujarat. The list is as follows. There are 45 Agamas (11 Angā Agamas and 34 Angā Bahya Agamas). The 34 Anga Bahya Agamas consist of 12 Upānga Agamas, 6 Cheda sūtras, 6 Mūla sūtras, and 10 Paiṇṇaya sutras. Upānga Agamas Cheda sūtras (texts relating to the conduct and behaviour of monks and nuns) Mūla sūtras ('Fundamental texts' which are foundational works studied by new monastics) Paiṇṇaya sutras (Sanskrit: Prakīrnaka sūtras, "Miscellaneous") Major scriptures by Acharya Umaswati (1st–2nd Century AD) Jambuswami Jambuswami (543-449 BCE)
1410-449: The following: According to the Digambara tradition, the original scriptures had been lost by about the 2nd century CE. Āchārya Bhutabali is considered the last ascetic who had some partial knowledge of the original canon. Digambara tradition holds that Āchārya Dharasena (1st century CE), guided Āchārya Pushpadanta and Āchārya Bhutabali to write what remained of the lost teachings down into palm-leaf scriptures. These two Āchāryas wrote
1457-550: The formal canons. The suttas are grouped into duvala samgagani pidaga (twelve limbed baskets), which are transmitted orally by the disciples. In every universal cycle of Jain cosmology, twenty-four tirthankaras appear and so do the Jain scriptures for that cycle. Initially, the canonical scriptures were transmitted through an oral tradition and consisted of teachings of historical Jain leaders like Mahavira codified into various collections. Gautama and other Gandhars (the chief disciples of Mahavira) are said to have compiled
Ācārāṅga Sūtra - Misplaced Pages Continue
1504-501: The oldest known books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by Jain scholars. The first autobiography in the ancestor of Hindi, Braj Bhasha , is called Ardhakathānaka and was written by a Jain, Banarasidasa , an ardent follower of Acarya Kundakunda who lived in Agra . Many Tamil classics are written by Jains or with Jain beliefs and values as the core subject. Practically all the known texts in
1551-600: The original sacred scriptures which were divided into twelve Angas or parts. They are referred to as the eleven Angas and the fourteen Pūrvas , since the twelfth Anga comprises fourteen Pūrvas . These scriptures are said to have contained the most comprehensive and accurate description of every branch of Jain learning. The Jain Agamas and their commentaries were composed mainly in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit as well as in Maharashtri Prakrit . While some authors date
1598-435: The other monks of the Śvetāmbara tradition are considered to be Sthavirkalpi as they drape white clothes. Jinkalpi monks are said to have differed from present-day Digambara monks. They did not live within the society and meditated in seclusion in forests and caves and practiced much more austerity than monks today can. Little to no information is found on how householders must conduct themselves. The text does not delineate
1645-452: The patronage of kings and regional aristocrats. They describe warrior violence and martial valor as equivalent to a "fully committed Jain ascetic", setting aside Jainism's absolute non-violence. Jain manuscript libraries called bhandaras inside Jain temples are the oldest surviving in India. Jain libraries, including the Śvētāmbara collections at Patan, Gujarat and Jaiselmer, Rajasthan , and
1692-540: The reign of Kharavela . The Śvētāmbara order considers these Jain Agamas as canonical works and sees them as being based on an authentic oral tradition. They consider their collection to represent a continuous tradition, though they accept that their collection is also incomplete because of a lost Anga text and four lost Purva texts. However, these texts were rejected by the Digambara (lit. "sky-clad", i.e. naked) order, which hold that Āchārya Bhutabali (1st Century CE)
1739-640: The same kind of authority as the other works in the canon. Most of these works are in Jaina Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit, unlike the other Śvetāmbara scriptures which tend to be in Ardhamāgadhī. They are therefore most likely later works than the Aṅgas and Upāṅgas. Mūrtipūjak Jain canons will generally accept 10 Paiṇṇayas as canonical, but there is widespread disagreement on which 10 scriptures are given canonical status. The most widely accepted list of ten scriptures are
1786-492: The scriptures gradually dwindled and monks did not possess the necessary qualifications to become Jinkalpi. A monk needs to know 10 or more purvas to be jinkalpi . All other monks with lesser knowledge were Sthavirkalpi and were allowed to drape clothes. Bhadrabahu and Sthulabhadra are both considered to have been sthavirkalpi monks by Śvetāmbaras and that Śvetāmbaras believe they were white-clad. Jinkalpi monks went extinct soon after Jambuswami attained nirvana. All
1833-418: The self-knowing omniscients, after understanding all there is in universe, is pure, undefileable, and eternal. In support of this Truth, I ask you a question – "Is sorrow or pain desirable to you ?" If you say "yes it is", it would be a lie. If you say, "No, It is not" you will be expressing the truth. What I want to add to the truth expressed by you is that, as sorrow or pain is not desirable to you, so it
1880-413: The subject matter of the nine chapters of the Ācārāṅga. They are: Ācārāṅga Sūtra quotes: I so pronounce that all the omniscients of all times, state, speak, propagate, and elaborate that nothing which breathes, which exists, which lives, or which has essence or potential of life, should be destroyed or ruled over, or subjugated, or harmed, or denied of its essence or potential. This truth, propagated by
1927-571: The theory of numbers, arithmetical operations, geometry, operations with fractions, simple equations, cubic equations, bi-quadric equations, permutations, combinations and logarithms. Jains literature exists mainly in Jain Prakrit , Sanskrit , Marathi , Tamil , Rajasthani , Dhundari , Marwari , Hindi , Gujarati , Kannada , Malayalam , Telugu and more recently in English . Jains have contributed to India's classical and popular literature . For example, almost all early Kannada literature and many Tamil works were written by Jains. Some of
Ācārāṅga Sūtra - Misplaced Pages Continue
1974-637: The writings of Siddhasēna Divākara ( c. 650 CE ), who wrote the Sanmatitarka ('The Logic of the True Doctrine') is the first major Jain work on logic written in Sanskrit . Other later works and writers include: Jainendra-vyakarana of Acharya Pujyapada and Sakatayana-vyakarana of Sakatayana are both works on grammar written in c. 9th century CE . Siddha-Hem-Shabdanushasana" by Acharya Hemachandra ( c. 12th century CE )
2021-419: The Ācārāṅga Sūtra refers to the difficulties experienced by naked monk and also to the fact that he does not need to beg for and repair clothes (AS 1.6.3.1–2). The Ācārāṅga Sūtra describes two types of monks - Jinkalpi (who remained naked) and Sthavirkalpi (who may or may not drape garments around them). The Ācārāṅga Sūtra states the following three types of monks: Śvetāmbara texts state that knowledge of
2068-564: The Śvētāmbaras are generally composed of the following texts: To reach the number 45, Mūrtipūjak Śvētāmbara canons contain a "Miscellaneous" collection of supplementary texts, called the Paiṇṇaya suttas (Sanskrit: Prakīrnaka sūtras , "Miscellaneous"). This section varies in number depending on the individual sub-sect (from 10 texts to over 20). They also often included extra works (often of disputed authorship) named "supernumerary Prakīrṇakas". The Paiṇṇaya texts are generally not considered to have
2115-403: Was succeeded by Prabhava (443-338 BCE), who was converted from a bandit by him. Prabhava was succeeded by Shayyambhava (377-315 BCE). Shayyambhava composed Dasavaikalika sutra after studying the fourteen purvas (pre-canonical texts). He was initiated as a Jain monk . He initiated his son as a monk at the age of eight and taught him sacred knowledge in 10 lectures in six months after which
2162-500: Was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original canon. According to Digambaras, the Purvas and the original Agamas of Gautama were lost during the Mauryan period crisis and famine. This Digambara stance on the loss of the Agamas is one of the disagreements that led to the main schism in Jainism. Digambara masters proceeded to create new scriptures which contained the knowledge of
2209-468: Was the spiritual successor of Sudharmaswami in Jain religious order reorganised by Mahavira . He remained the head for 39 or 44 years, after which he is believed to have gained Kevala Jnana (omniscience). He is believed to be the third and last kevali (omniscient being) after Mahavira in Jain tradition. He is believed to have attained moksha (liberation) at the age of 84 in Mathura . Jambu
#976023