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50-424: This is a list of common dog crossbreeds . These are crossbreed dogs created deliberately by crossing two purebred dogs . Some are known as designer dogs and are bred as companion dogs , often given portmanteau names derived from those of the parent breeds; others are bred to combine specific working qualities inherent in the parent breeds. Dog crossbreed Dog crossbreeds are combinations of lineages of

100-554: A phenotype as the breeding of purebreds. Often even pups in the same litter will look quite different. Another defining characteristic of designer dogs is that they are usually bred as companion dogs and pets . Working and hunting dogs deliberately crossbred for a particular working purpose are not generally given portmanteau names; they are most often referred to by a type name, such as eurohounds (racing sled dogs) or lurchers (hunting dogs). These dogs could be considered only as crossbreeds, not as designer animals, since appearance

150-479: A bird feeds a brood parasite such as a cuckoo , it is unwittingly extending its phenotype; and when genes in an orchid affect orchid bee behavior to increase pollination, or when genes in a peacock affect the copulatory decisions of peahens, again, the phenotype is being extended. Genes are, in Dawkins's view, selected by their phenotypic effects. Other biologists broadly agree that the extended phenotype concept

200-518: A gene has on its surroundings, including other organisms, as an extended phenotype, arguing that "An animal's behavior tends to maximize the survival of the genes 'for' that behavior, whether or not those genes happen to be in the body of the particular animal performing it." For instance, an organism such as a beaver modifies its environment by building a beaver dam ; this can be considered an expression of its genes , just as its incisor teeth are—which it uses to modify its environment. Similarly, when

250-520: A large part of the Human Genome Project . Phenomics has applications in agriculture. For instance, genomic variations such as drought and heat resistance can be identified through phenomics to create more durable GMOs. Phenomics may be a stepping stone towards personalized medicine , particularly drug therapy . Once the phenomic database has acquired enough data, a person's phenomic information can be used to select specific drugs tailored to

300-478: A lower morbidity these are in order of highest risk to lowest risk: Drever , Norwegian Buhund , Schillerstövare , Jämthund , Gråhund , Siberian Husky , Karelian Bear Dog , Smålandsstövare , Finnish Spitz , and Norbottenspets . Notably all the breeds are native to the Scandinavian peninsula and are most commonly used as working dogs. Some health issues not common in either parent breed may be more common in

350-537: A multidimensional search space with several neurobiological levels, spanning the proteome, cellular systems (e.g., signaling pathways), neural systems and cognitive and behavioural phenotypes." Plant biologists have started to explore the phenome in the study of plant physiology. In 2009, a research team demonstrated the feasibility of identifying genotype–phenotype associations using electronic health records (EHRs) linked to DNA biobanks . They called this method phenome-wide association study (PheWAS). Inspired by

400-453: A particular enzyme is expressed at high levels, the organism may produce more of that enzyme and exhibit a particular trait as a result. On the other hand, if the gene is expressed at low levels, the organism may produce less of the enzyme and exhibit a different trait. Gene expression is regulated at various levels and thus each level can affect certain phenotypes, including transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation. Changes in

450-651: A powerful and hardy freighting dog in the 19th century, and the Alaskan husky , bred specifically for sled dog racing . In the 1980s, a rise in Nordic-style sled racing in Scandinavia, characterized by shorter distances than typically seen in North American sled racing, led to the development of the eurohound and greyster , crosses utilizing German shorthair pointers with Alaskan huskies and greyhounds, respectively. While

500-459: Is found growing in two different habitats in Sweden. One habitat is rocky, sea-side cliffs , where the plants are bushy with broad leaves and expanded inflorescences ; the other is among sand dunes where the plants grow prostrate with narrow leaves and compact inflorescences. These habitats alternate along the coast of Sweden and the habitat that the seeds of Hieracium umbellatum land in, determine

550-463: Is not the main reason for them to be bred. An exception to this is the Labradoodle , which although having a portmanteau name, is often used as a Guide or Assistance dog as well as being a popular family dog. Although designer dogs are often selected by owners for their novelty, reputable breeders sometimes use crossbreeding in an attempt to reduce the incidence of certain hereditary problems found in

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600-417: Is problematic. A proposed definition for both terms as the "physical totality of all traits of an organism or of one of its subsystems" was put forth by Mahner and Kary in 1997, who argue that although scientists tend to intuitively use these and related terms in a manner that does not impede research, the terms are not well defined and usage of the terms is not consistent. Some usages of the term suggest that

650-478: Is relevant, but consider that its role is largely explanatory, rather than assisting in the design of experimental tests. Phenotypes are determined by an interaction of genes and the environment, but the mechanism for each gene and phenotype is different. For instance, an albino phenotype may be caused by a mutation in the gene encoding tyrosinase which is a key enzyme in melanin formation. However, exposure to UV radiation can increase melanin production, hence

700-412: Is the hypothesized pre-cellular stage in the evolutionary history of life on earth, in which self-replicating RNA molecules proliferated prior to the evolution of DNA and proteins. The folded three-dimensional physical structure of the first RNA molecule that possessed ribozyme activity promoting replication while avoiding destruction would have been the first phenotype, and the nucleotide sequence of

750-585: The American Kennel Club , the United Kennel Club and the Canadian Kennel Club do not recognize designer crosses as dog breeds. If crossbred dogs are bred together for some period of time, and their breeding is well documented, they may eventually be considered a new breed of dog by major kennel clubs (an example of a recent crossbreed becoming a breed recognised by all major kennel clubs is

800-550: The Cesky Terrier ). New breeds of dogs must have a breed club that will document the ancestry of any individual member of that breed from the original founding dogs of the breed; when the kennel club that the breed club wishes to join is satisfied that the dogs are pedigreed, they will accept and register the dogs of that breed. Each kennel club has individual rules about how to document a new breed. Some minor registries and internet registry businesses will register dogs as any breed

850-507: The Puggle (Pug and Beagle cross). There are even complex crosses (with multiple breeds in recent ancestry) being labeled in this manner, such as the German Chusky (German Shepherd Dog, Siberian Husky and Chow Chow cross). Like children in a family, a percentage of designer dogs with the same breed ancestry will look similar to each other, even though crossbreeding does not result in as uniform

900-405: The domestic dog ; they are distinguished from canid hybrids , which are interspecific crosses between Canis species (wolves, coyotes, jackals, etc.). Several types of working dog crossbreeds date from the 14th century or earlier, such as the lurcher or the longdog . Historically, crosses between dogs of different types were more well accepted at a time when modern purebred breeds (based on

950-445: The eugenics principles) did not yet exist. These types of crosses were performed to aggregate qualities of two different types in the same dog or to perfect an already fixed type of dog, always for working purposes. An example to be cited is the famous case of Lord Orford 's Greyhounds , which were improved by adding courage through the crossing with Old English Bulldogs , achieving the desired result after six generations. With

1000-542: The genotype–phenotype distinction in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's hereditary material and what that hereditary material produces. The distinction resembles that proposed by August Weismann (1834–1914), who distinguished between germ plasm (heredity) and somatic cells (the body). More recently, in The Selfish Gene (1976), Dawkins distinguished these concepts as replicators and vehicles. Despite its seemingly straightforward definition,

1050-435: The phenotype of the offspring, is one strategy breeders can use to decrease the incidences of genetic defects. Knowing the disease incidence in the breed, and the genetic history of the individual, is important. Some crossbred dogs, created by breeding two purebred dogs of different breeds, may have the advantage of heterosis , or crossbreed vigor. This advantage can be progressively diluted when two crossbreeds are bred in

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1100-548: The Mackenzie River husky has been largely replaced by mechanized travel, Alaskan huskies continue to be the most commonly used type of dog for competitive sled dog racing today. Other historical examples are the bull and terrier ( Old English Bulldog and terrier cross) and crosses between foxhounds and Old Spanish Pointers that later resulted in the English Pointer . The Encyclopædia Britannica traces what

1150-665: The US shows the difference in life expectancy between mixed breed dogs and pedigree dogs to be minimal. A review of cemetery data in Japan found that the Shiba Inu had a life expectancy greater than crossbreeds; however crossbreeds still had a higher life expectancy than the average pedigree dog in this study. A Swedish study reviewing over 200,000 dogs registered for a veterinary insurance company in 1995 and 1996 found morbidity to be higher in most pedigrees than mongrels; however several pedigree breeds had

1200-504: The attempt to create a breed, narrowing the gene pool. The best way to continue taking advantage of crossbreed vigor is from the breeding of dogs of purebred ancestry, as this vigor is typically seen only in the first generation cross of two purebred animals of separate breeds, thus taking advantage of genetic diversity . Health of crossbred dogs depends on their being descended from healthy parents. Breeders who select their breeding stock for cost-effectiveness and who skip health testing for

1250-450: The concept of the phenotype has hidden subtleties. It may seem that anything dependent on the genotype is a phenotype, including molecules such as RNA and proteins . Most molecules and structures coded by the genetic material are not visible in the appearance of an organism, yet they are observable (for example by Western blotting ) and are thus part of the phenotype; human blood groups are an example. It may seem that this goes beyond

1300-517: The context of phenotype prediction. Although a phenotype is the ensemble of observable characteristics displayed by an organism, the word phenome is sometimes used to refer to a collection of traits, while the simultaneous study of such a collection is referred to as phenomics . Phenomics is an important field of study because it can be used to figure out which genomic variants affect phenotypes which then can be used to explain things like health, disease, and evolutionary fitness. Phenomics forms

1350-480: The corresponding amino acid sequence of a gene may change the frequency of guanine - cytosine base pairs ( GC content ). These base pairs have a higher thermal stability ( melting point ) than adenine - thymine , a property that might convey, among organisms living in high-temperature environments, a selective advantage on variants enriched in GC content. Richard Dawkins described a phenotype that included all effects that

1400-468: The crossbreed than both of the parent breeds. Prolapsed nictitating membrane gland is a condition more common in the Puggle and Jug than both of the parent breeds, which shows the complexity of genetics and provides evidence against the theory of hybrid vigour . Overall designer dog breeds had lower rates of PNMG. Crossbreed dogs are not recognized by traditional breed registries, even if both parents are registered purebreds. Breed associations such as

1450-684: The desired trait being bred for (such as a hypoallergenic coat) needs to be known; "Heritability is the proportion of the measurable difference observed between animals for a given trait that is due to genetics (and can be passed to the next generation)." In addition, the goals of dog crossbreeding may be harder to define than the goals of livestock crossbreeding; good temperament may be harder to define and measure than high calf weight. Designer dog breeders are often criticized for being more interested in profitable puppy production than in dog health and welfare. Wally Conron, writing in Reader's Digest , comments on

1500-415: The environment plays a role in this phenotype as well. For most complex phenotypes the precise genetic mechanism remains unknown. For instance, it is largely unclear how genes determine the shape of bones or the human ear. Gene expression plays a crucial role in determining the phenotypes of organisms. The level of gene expression can affect the phenotype of an organism. For example, if a gene that codes for

1550-439: The evolution from genotype to genome to pan-genome , a concept of exploring the relationship ultimately among pan-phenome, pan-genome , and pan- envirome was proposed in 2023. Phenotypic variation (due to underlying heritable genetic variation ) is a fundamental prerequisite for evolution by natural selection . It is the living organism as a whole that contributes (or not) to the next generation, so natural selection affects

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1600-440: The false statement that a "mutation has no phenotype". Behaviors and their consequences are also phenotypes, since behaviors are observable characteristics. Behavioral phenotypes include cognitive, personality, and behavioral patterns. Some behavioral phenotypes may characterize psychiatric disorders or syndromes. A phenome is the set of all traits expressed by a cell , tissue , organ , organism , or species . The term

1650-541: The genetic structure of a population indirectly via the contribution of phenotypes. Without phenotypic variation, there would be no evolution by natural selection. The interaction between genotype and phenotype has often been conceptualized by the following relationship: A more nuanced version of the relationship is: Genotypes often have much flexibility in the modification and expression of phenotypes; in many organisms these phenotypes are very different under varying environmental conditions. The plant Hieracium umbellatum

1700-721: The individual. Large-scale genetic screens can identify the genes or mutations that affect the phenotype of an organism. Analyzing the phenotypes of mutant genes can also aid in determining gene function. Most genetic screens have used microorganisms, in which genes can be easily deleted. For instance, nearly all genes have been deleted in E. coli and many other bacteria , but also in several eukaryotic model organisms such as baker's yeast and fission yeast . Among other discoveries, such studies have revealed lists of essential genes . More recently, large-scale phenotypic screens have also been used in animals, e.g. to study lesser understood phenotypes such as behavior . In one screen,

1750-626: The levels of gene expression can be influenced by a variety of factors, such as environmental conditions, genetic variations, and epigenetic modifications. These modifications can be influenced by environmental factors such as diet, stress, and exposure to toxins, and can have a significant impact on an individual's phenotype. Some phenotypes may be the result of changes in gene expression due to these factors, rather than changes in genotype. An experiment involving machine learning methods utilizing gene expressions measured from RNA sequencing found that they can contain enough signal to separate individuals in

1800-619: The number of putative mutants (see table for details). Putative mutants are then tested for heritability in order to help determine the inheritance pattern as well as map out the mutations. Once they have been mapped out, cloned, and identified, it can be determined whether a mutation represents a new gene or not. These experiments showed that mutations in the rhodopsin gene affected vision and can even cause retinal degeneration in mice. The same amino acid change causes human familial blindness , showing how phenotyping in animals can inform medical diagnostics and possibly therapy. The RNA world

1850-460: The organism's morphology (physical form and structure), its developmental processes, its biochemical and physiological properties, its behavior , and the products of behavior. An organism's phenotype results from two basic factors: the expression of an organism's genetic code (its genotype ) and the influence of environmental factors. Both factors may interact, further affecting the phenotype. When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in

1900-411: The original intentions of the concept with its focus on the (living) organism in itself. Either way, the term phenotype includes inherent traits or characteristics that are observable or traits that can be made visible by some technical procedure. The term "phenotype" has sometimes been incorrectly used as a shorthand for the phenotypic difference between a mutant and its wild type , which would lead to

1950-418: The owner chooses with minimal or no documentation; some even allow the breeder or owner to make up a designer "breed name" for their pet. Phenotype In genetics , the phenotype (from Ancient Greek φαίνω ( phaínō )  'to appear, show' and τύπος ( túpos )  'mark, type') is the set of observable characteristics or traits of an organism . The term covers

2000-438: The phenome of a given organism is best understood as a kind of matrix of data representing physical manifestation of phenotype. For example, discussions led by A. Varki among those who had used the term up to 2003 suggested the following definition: "The body of information describing an organism's phenotypes, under the influences of genetic and environmental factors". Another team of researchers characterize "the human phenome [as]

2050-525: The phenotype that grows. An example of random variation in Drosophila flies is the number of ommatidia , which may vary (randomly) between left and right eyes in a single individual as much as they do between different genotypes overall, or between clones raised in different environments. The concept of phenotype can be extended to variations below the level of the gene that affect an organism's fitness. For example, silent mutations that do not change

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2100-514: The popularity of crosses after his introduction of the Labradoodle: "Were breeders bothering to check their sires and bitches for heredity faults, or were they simply caught up in delivering to hungry customers the next status symbol?" 'Designer dog' puppies sometimes bring higher prices than the purebreds from which they are bred. Fanciers of designer dogs say that all modern dog breeds were created from earlier breeds and types of dogs through

2150-513: The purebred dogs, while retaining their more appealing traits. Jon Mooallem, writing in The New York Times , commented, "Given the roughly 350 inherited disorders littering the dog genome, crossing two purebreds and expanding their gene pools can be 'a phenomenally good idea,' according to one canine geneticist—if it is done conscientiously." Crossbreeding has not been well studied in dogs, although it has been for livestock. The heritability of

2200-428: The role of mutations in mice were studied in areas such as learning and memory , circadian rhythmicity , vision, responses to stress and response to psychostimulants . This experiment involved the progeny of mice treated with ENU , or N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea, which is a potent mutagen that causes point mutations . The mice were phenotypically screened for alterations in the different behavioral domains in order to find

2250-402: The same kind of selective breeding that is used to create designer dogs. Most of the modern breeds have ancestries that include various older dog types and breeds; see individual breed articles for details of the origin of each breed. Crossbreeding that takes advantage of the increased chance that a recessive detrimental allele will only be inherited from one parent and therefore not expressed in

2300-520: The same population of a species, the species is called polymorphic . A well-documented example of polymorphism is Labrador Retriever coloring ; while the coat color depends on many genes, it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow, black, and brown. Richard Dawkins in 1978 and then again in his 1982 book The Extended Phenotype suggested that one can regard bird nests and other built structures such as caddisfly larva cases and beaver dams as "extended phenotypes". Wilhelm Johannsen proposed

2350-559: The same reason will not produce puppies that are as reliably healthy as those bred by more conscientious breeders. However, studies of longevity in dogs have found some advantage for crossbreeds compared to purebred dogs. In general it is believed that crossbred dogs "have a far lower chance of exhibiting the disorders that are common with the parental breeds. Their genetic health will be substantially higher." Despite commonly believed to be substantially healthier than pedigree dogs data from clinical records of over 1,000 veterinary hospitals in

2400-462: The success of Lord Orford's dogs, the practice was adopted by other Greyhound breeders and became more common. Crossbreeding has played a key characteristic in the development of sled dogs with various crossbreeds developing to meet the specific needs of the era and geographical region, including the Mackenzie River husky , in which European breeds were crossed with Native American dogs to produce

2450-405: Was first used by Davis in 1949, "We here propose the name phenome for the sum total of extragenic, non-autoreproductive portions of the cell, whether cytoplasmic or nuclear. The phenome would be the material basis of the phenotype, just as the genome is the material basis of the genotype ." Although phenome has been in use for many years, the distinction between the use of phenome and phenotype

2500-677: Was the "designer dog" fad to the late 20th century when breeders began to cross purebred Poodles with other purebred breeds to obtain a dog with the Poodle's hypoallergenic coat , along with various desirable characteristics from other breeds. The resulting puppies are called by a portmanteau word made up of syllables (or sounds) from the breed names of the two purebred parents, such as Schnoodle ( Schnauzer and Poodle cross), or Shepsky ( German Shepherd Dog / Siberian Husky cross). Other purebred breeds are being crossed to provide designer dogs described with an endless range of created labels, such as

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