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66-643: Originally known as the German Reformed Church, the RCUS was organized in 1725 thanks largely to the efforts of John Philip Boehm , who immigrated in 1720. He organized the first congregation of German Reformed believers in 1725 near Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , some of them descendants and German immigrants from the turn of the century. Some had immigrated from the Palatine area. He was later joined by other ministers such as George Weiss and Michael Schlatter . Boehm

132-650: A citizen at Lambsheim , where he became an innkeeper of the Stag Inn (Hirschwirt), which was owned by his parents-in-law, Anna Maria and Hartman Stähler. He moved to Worms (present-day Germany) in 1708, where he was the Reformed school teacher. He then secured a teaching position in Lambsheim , where he taught from 1715 to 1720. In 1720, Boehm immigrated to "Penn's Woods" (Pennsylvania) and settled near Philadelphia in Whitpain and

198-725: A colony of Germans to Philadelphia, where he was a pastor for the first German Reformed church there. His arrival started a controversy, as Weiss argued that Boehm's ministry was in violation of Reformed polity, and was therefore invalid. Boehm was ordained by the Low Dutch congregation of the Amsterdam Classis on November 23, 1729, which placed the churches under the Reformed Church of Holland . Boehm came to Pennsylvania anticipating religious freedom. William Penn offered that "all persons living in this province who confess and acknowledge

264-526: A conciliar method of church government (that is, leadership by the group or council). Thus, the ministers and "elders" govern together as a group, and at all times the office is for the service of the congregation, to pray for them and to encourage them in the faith. The elders together exercise oversight (episcopacy) over the local congregation, with superior groups of elders gathered on a regional basis exercising wider oversight. Presbyterians typically have viewed this method of government as approximating that of

330-522: A congregation) and from the bottom up (e.g., the moderator and officers are not appointed from above but are rather elected by and from among the members of the assembly). This theory of governance developed in Geneva under John Calvin and was introduced to Scotland by John Knox after his period of exile in Geneva. It is strongly associated with French , Dutch , Swiss and Scottish Reformation movements, and

396-439: A council of elders; but the difference is that every local congregation is independent, and its elders are accountable to its members, and congregationalism's wider assemblies are not ordinarily empowered to enforce discipline. Thus, these are ruled by elders only at the level of the congregations, which are united with one another by covenants of trust. There are two types of elder; the teaching elder (see Minister below) and

462-400: A higher assembly of elders known as the presbytery or classis ; presbyteries can be grouped into a synod , and presbyteries and synods nationwide often join together in a general assembly . Responsibility for conduct of church services is reserved to an ordained minister or pastor known as a teaching elder , or a minister of the word and sacrament. Presbyterian polity was developed as

528-410: A presbytery exists perpetually. The officers of a presbytery are a moderator and a stated or principal clerk . The moderator acts as chair of presbytery meetings. As with the moderators of synods and assemblies, the moderatorship is a primus inter pares position appointed by the presbytery itself. The moderator is addressed as "moderator" during meetings, but their position has no bearing outside of

594-482: A rejection of governance by hierarchies of single bishops ( episcopal polity ), but also differs from the congregationalist polity in which each congregation is independent. In contrast to the other two forms, authority in the presbyterian polity flows both from the top down (as higher assemblies exercise limited but important authority over individual congregations, e.g., only the presbytery can ordain ministers, install pastors, and start up, close, and approve relocating

660-632: A simple life, though, and earned money working his farm. At some point, his son Anthony William farmed the land and made enough to support his father. In 1742, Count Nicolaus von Zinzendorf , the bishop of the Moravian Church arrived in Pennsylvania, attempting to unite the German denominations into the Moravian Church. Boehm actively resisted and the churches remained Reformed congregations throughout

726-456: Is not as clear under the Presbyterian system as in others). The terms 'lay' and 'clergy' are not properly used in presbyterian polity. Ministers may be considered equal in status with the other elders, but they have a distinct ordination and distinct function. They are the primary preachers and teachers, celebrants of sacraments. There are sometimes further distinctions between the minister and

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792-493: Is often appointed for an indefinite term. Presbytery Clerks are the ecclesiastical administrators and generally regarded as substantially influential due to their greater experience of the governance of the church and their ordering of the business of the presbytery. They are thus very much more than secretaries and often in fact are the lynch pin of the organisation. Presbyteries meet at a regularity between monthly and quarterly, some half-yearly. In denominations too large for all

858-631: Is the presiding officer of the church council or consistory . The RCUS has around 43 congregations, with about 2,500 communicant members throughout the United States. The congregations are grouped together in four classes : Western Classis, Northern Plains Classis, South Central Classis, Covenant Eastern Classis. A classis is equivalent to a presbytery in Scots-Anglo-Irish Presbyterian denominations. A general, or national, synod convenes annually in mid-spring. The old RCUS, as well as

924-521: Is to speak about issues or topics that commissioners would usually not worry about or care to speak about during a General Assembly meeting. Advisory Delegates may not present motions or vote in meetings of the General Assembly. The powers of the general assembly are usually wide-ranging. However, they may be limited by some form of external review. For example, the rules of the Church of Scotland include

990-652: Is usually considered a demarcation issue, distinguishing "liberal" from "conservative" Presbyterian denominations. In North America, the Reformed Church in America , Christian Reformed Church in North America (both of Dutch Reformed heritage), Cumberland Presbyterian Church , ECO: A Covenant Order of Evangelical Presbyterians , Evangelical Presbyterian Church , Presbyterian Church in Canada , and Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) are denominations with presbyterian polity which allow for

1056-615: The Barrier Act , which requires that certain major changes to the polity of the church be referred to the presbyteries, before being enacted by the general assembly. There may be issues arising between annual General Assemblies which require urgent attention. In these cases some presbyterian churches have a 'commission of assembly' who will deal with the issue and refer it to the next General Assembly for homologation. The word Presbyterianism , when capitalized, often refers specifically to churches founded on principles of presbyterian polity in

1122-696: The Blue Ridge Mountains and between the Susquehanna and Delaware Rivers . For eighteen years, he traveled 100 miles a month on horseback on dangerous trails, through swamps, and along steep precipices. He traveled through the wilderness where he could encounter hostile Native Americans. Boehm helped form and lead the congregations, preached services, conducted catechetical training, and administered sacraments and rites. In 1727, two years after Boehm began his ministry, an ordained German Reformed minister named George Weiss arrived in Pennsylvania. He came with

1188-555: The British Isles and their derivatives in other countries. In France , presbyterianism was represented by the Église réformée de France . There are also Lutherans and Evangelicals. The logo is a Huguenot Cross ( Croix huguenote ) with the burning bush. The origins of the Waldensian Evangelical Church lie in the medieval Waldensian movement for religious reform. The Waldensians adopted Calvinist theology during

1254-627: The Eureka Classis of the RCUS, in order to continue classical Reformed worship and polity. In 1934, the RCUS merged with the Evangelical Synod of North America (ESNA) to form the Evangelical and Reformed Church . ESNA featured a mix of both Lutheran and Reformed theology, reflecting the Prussian Union of Churches . The Eureka Classis, however, abjured that merger and decided to identify as

1320-527: The German Reformed Church of the United States. On October 15, 1725, Boehm served his first communion in Falkner Swamp, and between the three congregations, there were over 100 communicant members. Since he was not ordained, he would not perform baptisms. Some congregants went to Philadelphia's Presbyterian Church for baptisms. Boehm drew up a constitution that became the governing document for

1386-542: The International Conference of Reformed Churches . John Phillip Boehm John Phillip Boehm (1683–1749) was a school teacher and an early leader in the German Reformed Church (now the Reformed Church in the United States ), first as a lay reader and later as an ordained minister. He is considered the founder of the German Reformed Church. John Philip Boehm was born on November 24, 1683, in Hochstadt , in

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1452-579: The Kirk session , church session, or (in Continental Reformed usage) consistory . In some Continental Reformed churches, deacons are members of the consistory; others, such as the Christian Reformed Church in North America , distinguish between the consistory, comprising the pastor and elders, and the council, which comprises the pastor(s), the elders, and the deacons. In most denominations

1518-455: The Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel , in modern-day Germany. His parents were Maria and Philip Ludwig Böhm, who was as a schoolmaster who became a Reformed minister. During his childhood, his father was married a second time. Philip Ludwig's "slippery tongue" got him into trouble with his second wife and his church, which resulted in the family moving often. On April 14, 1706, he was received as

1584-506: The New Testament and earliest churches. Presbyterianism is also distinct from congregationalism , in that individual congregations are not independent, but are answerable to the wider church, through its governing bodies (presbyteries, synods and assemblies). Moreover, the ordained ministry possesses a distinct responsibility for preaching and sacraments. Congregational churches are sometimes called "Presbyterian" if they are governed by

1650-482: The Reformed and Presbyterian churches . Among the early church fathers, it was noted that the offices of elder and bishop were identical, and were not differentiated until later, and that plurality of elders was the norm for church government. St. Jerome (347–420) "In Epistle Titus", vol. iv, said, "Elder is identical with bishop; and before the urging of the devil gave rise to factionalism in religion, so much that it

1716-524: The United Church of Christ . It has been known for its strongly liberal doctrine and moral stances. In 1986, the Eureka Classis transitioned to become a synod, currently composed of four classes. The present-day RCUS will celebrate its Tricentennial in 2025 at Mount Rushmore, South Dakota. The polity of the RCUS is presbyterian ; local congregations elect elders and deacons for guidance. The pastor

1782-418: The ruling elder . An excerpt from Miller (1831) expands this. In every Church completely organized, that is, furnished with all the officers which Christ has instituted and which are necessary for carrying into full effect the laws of his kingdom, there ought to be three classes of officers, viz: at least one Teaching Elder, Bishop, or Pastor — a bench of Ruling Elders — and Deacons. The first to "minister in

1848-530: The " continuing " Reformed Church in the United States. The classis objected to the ESNA's admixture of Lutheran teachings with Reformed practices; most of its churches and members had descended from late 19th-century immigration either from parts of Germany where Reformed confessionalism had taken hold, or from the Volga River region of Russia , where ethnic Germans had been isolated from liberalizing influences in

1914-452: The 19th century. In the second half of the century, the congregations formed their first General Synod, held in 1863. In the 1870s and 1880s, there were attempts, albeit unsuccessful, to unite with the related Dutch Reformed Church. During the twentieth century, the RCUS increasingly shifted toward ecumenism and higher criticism of the Bible . More conservative clergy and members united to form

1980-575: The Dutch Reformed sent Michael Schlatter to Pennsylvania, to assist Boehm. Schlatter was also sent to organize congregations and ministers into an ecclesiastical body. In 1747, Boem and Schlatter organized the first convention, called Coetus, of the German Reformed Church in the United States. Boehm's constitution was revised during the Coetus of 1748. His letters and pamphlets are documented in Life and Letters of

2046-609: The Holy Spirit. In presbyterianism, congregations are united in accountability to a regional body called the presbytery, or, in Continental Reformed terminology, the classis , which comes from the Latin word for "fleet". Presbyteries are made up of all the teaching and ruling elders in a particular geographic region. In some Dutch Reformed bodies, a classis serves as a delegated body, which ceases to exist in between meetings, whereas

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2112-449: The RCUS maintains a strong affiliation with Calvinism and the 16th-century Reformation. The RCUS believes in Biblical inerrancy , including a teaching that Genesis 1:1—2:4 must be understood as a literal 24-hour, six-day creation account. The RCUS also does not allow women to hold special office (elders, deacons, pastor), a stance held by many conservative Reformed or Presbyterian bodies in

2178-629: The Rev. John Philip Boehm: Founder of the German Reformed Church in Pennsylvania in 1916 by William J. Hinke. The constitution is published in Daniel Miller's Early History of the Reformed Church in Pennsylvania , which was published in 1906. Boehm, in 1706, married Anna Maria Stehler, daughter of Anna Maria and Hartman Stähler. After her father died, her mother married a second time in 1696 to Johann Philipp Scherer, who also immigrated to Pennsylvania and

2244-482: The United States. In addition, the RCUS rejects some standard positions associated with American fundamentalism such as premillennialism and total abstinence from alcoholic beverages, holding instead a focus on a European Calvinist orthodoxy rather than American-style revivalism . The Reformed Church in the United States is a member of the North American Presbyterian and Reformed Council as well as

2310-617: The Word and Doctrine", and to dispense the sacraments; — the second to assist in the inspection and government of the Church; — and the third to "serve tables"; that is, to take care of the Church's funds destined for the support of the poor, and sometimes to manage whatever relates to the temporal support of the gospel and its ministers. Depending upon the specific denomination, teaching elders may also be referred to with terms such as "Minister of Word and Sacrament". The elders are persons chosen from among

2376-513: The agenda. General assemblies meet less regularly than their subordinate courts, often annually, or in the case of the Presbyterian Church (USA), every other year. The General Assembly also has members serve as Advisory Delegates. There are four different types of advisory delegates, each with a focus on a different area in the Presbyterian Church like young adult, theological student, missionary and ecumenical. The role of an advisory delegate

2442-404: The assembly meeting and affords him/her no special place in other courts. He or she presides over meetings of the assembly, and may be called on in a representative function for the remainder of the year. The stated clerk and deputy clerk of the general assembly administer the minutes, correspondence, and business of the assembly. In some cases a separate business convenor is appointed to deal with

2508-461: The congregation and "installed" to a permanent pastorate by the presbytery, have votes as members of the session on any and all matters; however, often they refrain from voting except in tie situations. The Pastor is not a voting member of the congregation. With the Session there is one person, usually an elder but not always, who will be given the title, "Clerk of Session". This person is more or less

2574-462: The congregation and ordained for this service. Beyond that, practices vary: sometimes elders are elected by the congregation, sometimes appointed by the session, in some denominations elders serve for life, others have fixed terms, and some churches appoint elders on a rotation from among willing members in good standing in the church. However, in many churches, ruling elders retain their ordination for life, even though they serve fixed terms. Even after

2640-479: The constituent presbyteries are members of the synod. Like the commissioners to presbyteries, the commissioners to synods do not act on instruction from their congregations or presbyteries, but exercise their own judgement. A synod also has a moderator and clerk, and generally meet less often than the presbytery. Some presbyterian churches, like the Church of Scotland , Orthodox Presbyterian Church and Presbyterian Church in America have no intermediate court between

2706-748: The continuing RCUS, originally held only to the Heidelberg Catechism as its statement of faith. In 1995, the Synod officially adopted the Belgic Confession of Faith and the Canons of Dort , which along with Heidelberg are known as the Three Forms of Unity which are commonly used together by Reformed churches (especially those coming out of the Dutch branch of Reformed churches). By holding strictly to these standards,

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2772-401: The elders. In some cases deacons administer the welfare matters of the congregation, while a separate board of management or trustees administers the other material business ( temporalities ) of the congregation, such as its endowments, salaries and buildings. A session is a corporate body of teaching and ruling elders elected by a particular church. sessio from sedere "to sit"), sometimes

2838-452: The end of their terms, they may be active in presbyteries or other bodies, and may serve communion. In addition to sitting on the session and other church courts, ruling elders have duties as individuals. Again, Miller (1831) explains, It is their duty to have an eye of inspection and care over all the members of the congregation; and, for this purpose, to cultivate a universal and intimate acquaintance, as far as may be, with every family in

2904-555: The episcopal polity in the 4th century. Presbyterianism was first described in detail by Martin Bucer of Strasbourg , who believed that the early Christian church implemented presbyterian polity. The first modern implementation was by the Geneva church under the leadership of John Calvin in 1541. In the early days of the Scottish Reformation there were Superintendents. There were also Tulchan Bishops and Archbishops. Much of

2970-457: The first Reformed churches. Adopted by the congregants, it provided for government by a consistory , and adoption of the Heidelberg Catechism and Palatinate Church Order provided more clarity about the beliefs of the German Reformed Church. As more communities sought his services, he led congregations throughout what are now ten counties of Pennsylvania. He served at least 13 congregations in southeastern Pennsylvania between Philadelphia and

3036-437: The flock of which they are made "overseers". In some denominations they are called Ministers of Word and Sacrament , and in others they are called Teaching Elders . Ministers called to a particular congregation are called pastors , and serve a function analogous to clergy in other denominations. (Because ruling elders are often ordained in a fashion nearly identical to teaching elders, the distinction between lay and clergy

3102-549: The funds received by the church, making it was difficult to pay the pastor or fund congregations. It also made it difficult to find ministers. In 1730, the churches in the Philadelphia area were left under the sole care of Boehm after Weiss traveled to Europe to raise money for their cause in America. Weiss would return the following year, and eventually settled in Rhinebeck, New York . In 1741, Boehm and John Bartholomew Rieger were

3168-614: The history of the Church of Scotland and the nation itself is bound up with the relation between Episcopalianism , which the Protestant monarchs favoured, and the Presbyterianism of the reformers. In the Hungarian Reformed Church there remain bishops who have a superintending role. Presbyterian polity is constructed on specific assumptions about the form of the government intended by the Bible : Presbyterianism uses

3234-688: The hopes of uniting the German Lutherans and Reformed with the Moravians, which Boehm staunchly resisted. During the 19th century the German Reformed Church debated issues such as revivalism and especially the Mercersburg Theology of John Nevin and Philip Schaff . In 1866 Samuel Miller, a member of the German Reformed Church, published a work entitled A Treatise on Mercersburg Theology: Mercersburg and Modern Theology Compared . Other controversies, such as debates over liturgy , also occurred in

3300-499: The motherland. By contrast, most RCUS churches, classes, and synods located in the eastern United States had significantly assimilated into generalized or what became known as mainline American Protestantism, and become more ecumenical. The Evangelical and Reformed Church in 1957 merged with the Congregational Christian Churches (which had formed from earlier Congregational and Restorationist churches) to become

3366-425: The one Almighty and Eternal God… shall in no ways be molested or prejudiced for their religious persuasion." The government did not prescribe how Pennsylvanians should worship, but they did not protect people from prejudice by members of other denominations. In Germany, pastors reported harassment by sectarians and they were subject to fines or imprisonment. They might also be banished from the area or executed. There

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3432-525: The only ordained German Reformed ministers in the state. Spread thin by the number of congregations he served, Boehm could not be a regular presence among the worshippers, which was also a factor in the migration of Reformed congregants to other churches, like the Moravian Church and the Congregation of God in the Spirit . Boehm did not earn enough money as a minister to support himself and his family. He lived

3498-524: The ordination of women. The general assembly of a denomination often decides on what grounds a person may be ordained, but the ordination of ministers is the right of the presbytery or classis, and the right to extend a call to a minister is the privilege of the members of the parish or congregation. The office of deacon has different meanings among different presbyterian churches. In some churches, deacons exercise responsibility for practical matters of finance and fabric, either separately or together with

3564-425: The other elders. Some Presbyterian denominations enroll ministers as members of their respective congregations, while others enroll the minister as a member of the regional presbytery. The presbyteries are responsible for the ordination of the ministers. Until the 20th century, only men had been eligible for ordination as elders or ministers of the word and sacrament. This is widely not the case any longer, although it

3630-460: The pastor serves as Moderator and presides over the session ( primus inter pares ), in which all elders have an equal vote. In some denominations, the pastor is not given a vote; however, in a sitting body of an even number or with a quorum of the session counted they can break a tie by a casting vote. In the Polity of the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), the pastor and associate pastor(s), if elected by

3696-446: The presbytery and the general assembly. The general assembly (or general synod ) is the highest court of presbyterian polity. Each presbytery selects a number of its members to be commissioners to the general assembly. The general assembly is chaired by its own moderator , who is usually elected to a single term. He or she is addressed as moderator during meetings, but like the other moderators, their position has no bearing outside of

3762-416: The presbytery meeting and affords him/her no special place in other courts, although typically the moderator (especially if a member of the clergy) will conduct worship and oversee ordinations and installations of ministers as a "liturgical" bishop, and other ordinances which are seen as acts of the presbytery. The stated or principal clerk takes minutes and deals with the correspondence of the presbytery, and

3828-503: The secretary for Session. They take notes on each meeting and are responsible for records of the congregation. In addition they find a wide area of responsibility, including responsibility for conduct of worship should a minister suddenly not be available. Although it is the responsibility of the Moderator (minister), Session Clerks often have the ability to assist in keeping meetings on track due to skills which are received from experience and

3894-405: The unification. On August 23, 1742, he published his True Letter of Warning, August 23, 1742, warning Reformed congregants of Zinzendorf's efforts. Officers of six congregations Falkner Swamp, Oley, Philadelphia, Skippach, Tulpehocken, and White Marsh signed the document. Boehm successfully defended the German Reformed Church. In 1746, in response to requests from Boehm for additional ministers,

3960-490: The work of the denomination to be done by a single presbytery, the parishes may be divided into several presbyteries under synods and general assemblies , the synod being the lower court of the two. In the United Church of Canada , this is referred to as "conferences" and "General Council". However, the United Church of Canada does not bear the formal ecclesiastical structure of classic Presbyterianism. Often all members of

4026-638: Was a deacon of the Reformed Church in Whitemarsh . The Boehm's children were 1) Anna Maria, who married Adam Moser; 2) Sabina, who married Ludwig Bitting, 3) Elisabeth, 4) Maria Philippine, 5) Johann Philipp, and 6) Anton Wilhelm. Along with serving as a minister, Boehm had a 200-acre farm, which he purchased in 1736. Four years later, Boehm became a citizen of Pennsylvania. He died on April 25, 1749, aged sixty-five, at Hellertown . He had given communion in Egypt at Peter Troxell's house and died on his return trip. He

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4092-494: Was a schoolmaster. When he settled in Whitpain, he also became a Bible "reader" of Reformed congregations, due to the lack of ministers. In 1725, communities in Falkner Swamp, Skippack Township and Whitemarsh Township called him to be their pastor. Seeing the need for ministers, he accepted the position even though he was not an ordained minister. When he accepted or when he first administered sacraments, he founded what became

4158-486: Was being said among the people, 'I am of Paul, I of Apollos, I of Cephas', the churches were governed by a joint council of elders. After it was... decreed throughout the world that one chosen from among the presbyters should be placed over the others." This observation was also made by Chrysostom (349–407) in "Homilia i, in Phil. i, 1" and Theodoret (393–457) in "Interpret ad. Phil. iii", 445. Aerius of Sebaste also attacked

4224-539: Was buried under the altar of the church named for him at Whitpain Township. Classis (ecclesiastical) Presbyterian (or presbyteral ) polity is a method of church governance (" ecclesiastical polity ") typified by the rule of assemblies of presbyters , or elders. Each local church is governed by a body of elected elders usually called the session (or consistory ), though other terms, such as church board , may apply. Groups of local churches are governed by

4290-623: Was eventually ordained by the Classis of Amsterdam in 1729, which oversaw the American branch of the Dutch Reformed Church (now the Reformed Church in America ). The German Reformed remained under Dutch Reformed oversight until 1793, when the German Reformed adopted their own constitution. In the 1740s, Count Nicolaus von Zinzendorf , bishop of the Moravian Church , visited Pennsylvania, with

4356-446: Was greater diversity among German faiths upon settling in Pennsylvania. George Thomas , deputy governor of the state, said that '"Germans had imported with them all the religious whimsies of their own country" and even sub-divided further in America.' Pastors, including Boehm, were heckled and harassed, and sectarians created dissension among congregants. A number of Reformed congregants left the church for other denominations. This reduced

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