97-623: The Georges Head Battery , also called the Georges Head Military Fortifications , is a heritage-listed former military fortification located on the Georges Head on Chowder Bay Road, Georges Heights , New South Wales , Australia. The site consists of the original battery and barracks , designed by Colonial Architect James Barnet , located at the end of Suakin Drive, Georges Heights, two later batteries located adjacent to
194-610: A NSW Parliamentary Select Committee on the question of Australian federation. The committee reported in favour of a federal assembly being established, but the government changed in the meantime, and the question was shelved. Also in 1857, in England , William Wentworth founded the "General Association for the Australian Colonies", whose object was to obtain a federal assembly for the whole of Australia. While in London, Wentworth produced
291-522: A biography of Andrew Inglis Clark by F.M. Neasey and L.J. Neasey published by the University of Tasmania Law Press in 2001. The traditional view attached almost sole responsibility for the 1891 draft to Griffith. Quick and Garran, for instance, state curtly that Griffith "had the chief hand in the actual drafting of the Bill". Given that the authors of this highly respected work were themselves active members of
388-541: A crowd of several thousand watched as a terrible accident killed four miners and injured another eight. In 1942, during World War II the Sydney Harbour anti-submarine boom net was installed. The boom net spanned the entire width of Sydney Harbour from Green (Laings) Point, Watsons Bay to Georges Heights in Mosman. The command post remained until the 1930s. The area then became home to various defence bases until 2002 when
485-489: A draft Bill proposing a confederation of the Australian colonies, with each colony given equal representation in an intercolonial assembly, a proposal subsequently endorsed by his association. He further proposed a "permissive Act" be passed by Parliament allowing the colonies of Australia or any subset of them which was not a penal settlement to federate at will. Wentworth, hoping to garner as broad support as possible, proposed
582-413: A federal government with more power to legislate on issues such as wages and prices. They also regarded the proposed senate as much too powerful, with the capacity to block attempts at social and political reform, much as the colonial upper houses were quite openly doing at that time. Religious factors played a small but not trivial part in disputes over whether federation was desirable or even possible. As
679-451: A general rule, pro-federation leaders were Protestants, while Catholics' enthusiasm for federation was much weaker, not least because Parkes had been militantly anti-Catholic for decades (and because the labour movement was disproportionately Catholic in its membership). For all that, many Irish could feel an attractive affinity between the cause of Home Rule in Ireland – effectively federalizing
776-482: A gun battery was installed on Georges Head. Built between 1801 and 1803 the then so called "Georges Head" battery was hewn by hand out of solid rock using a work gang of 44 convicts on what is now known as Obelisk Point near Middle Head. The Georges Head Battery is in fact 1 km to the south west. This is the oldest remaining colonial fortification in Australia and was built to defend the entrance to Sydney Harbour during
873-696: A historic house requires consulting the urban planning administration bureau, and the real estate administration bureau. As of 31 June 2011, there are 287 declared historic houses in Hangzhou, proclaimed as 5 batches. In the near future, it is going to issue the sixth batch which includes 51 historic houses. [REDACTED] Colombia : National monuments of Colombia ; (in Spanish) Monumentos Nacionales de Colombia [REDACTED] Comoros : National Committee of Intangible Cultural Heritage (Comoros) [REDACTED] Republic of
970-592: A long-time admirer of American federal institutions, introduced the US Constitution as an example of the protection of States' rights. He presented it as an alternative to the Canadian model, arguing that Canada was "an instance of amalgamation rather than Federation." A model closer to that of the United States was endorsed, with states able to act completely independently apart from those limited powers transferred to
1067-542: A loose association of the colonies, which was criticised by Robert Lowe . The secretary of state subsequently opted not to introduce the Bill stating it would probably lead to "dissension and discontent", distributing it nonetheless to the colonies for their responses. While there was in-principle support for a union of the colonies, the matter was ultimately deferred while NSW Premier Charles Cowper and Henry Parkes preferred to focus on liberalising Wentworth's squatter-friendly constitution. A serious movement for Federation of
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#17328512350911164-637: A majority. This period has lent its name to an architectural style prevalent in Australia at that time, known as Federation architecture , or Federation style. As early as 1842, an anonymous article in the South Australian Magazine called for a "Union of the Australasian Colonies into a Governor-Generalship." In September 1846, the NSW Colonial Secretary Sir Edward Deas Thomson suggested federation in
1261-561: A number of issues including federation, communication, Chinese immigration, vine diseases and uniform tariff rates. The Federation had the potential to ensure that throughout the continent, trade and interstate commerce would be unaffected by protectionism and measurement and transport would be standardised. The final (and successful) push for a Federal Council came at an Intercolonial Convention in Sydney in November and December 1883. The trigger
1358-578: A private working document, and was never published. The Parliament proposed at the Convention of 1891 was to adopt the nomenclature of the United States Congress ; a House of Representatives and a Senate. The House of Representatives was to be elected by districts drawn up on the basis of their population, while in the Senate there was to be equal representation for each "province". This American model
1455-573: A prominent headland. The site is valued by the local community and Defence personnel for its role as a vantage point and as a gateway to the harbour. It is also a rare remnant of fragile natural environment, and is also valued for its historical uses. Georges Head Military Fortifications was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999, and in 2004 the Chowder Bay Barracks Group, including
1552-458: A select committee formed by Wentworth to draft a new constitution for New South Wales proposed a General Assembly of the Australian Colonies. This assembly was proposed to legislate on intercolonial matters, including tariffs, railways, lighthouses, penal settlements, gold and the mail. This was the first outline of the future Australian Commonwealth to be presented in an official colonial legislative report. On 19 August 1857, Deas Thomson moved for
1649-471: A total of 128) of the final Australian Constitution are recognisable in Clark's draft, and that "only eight of Inglis Clark's ninety-six clauses failed to find their way into the final Australian Constitution"; but these are potentially misleading statistics. As Professor John Williams has pointed out: It is easy to point to the document and dismiss it as a mere "cut and paste" from known provisions. While there
1746-460: Is culturally significant for the important role it played in the strategic defence of Sydney. This commenced with the initial fortification phase in 1871(−1884) and extended through the submarine mine defence phase (1884–1922), the federation of Australian States and thus it became part of the wider coastal network of defences. The site is part of the network of fortifications that were established to protect Sydney Harbour from attack. Alterations to
1843-416: Is not as crisp or clean as Kingston's 1891 draft Constitution. This is not so much a reflection on Inglis Clark, but an acknowledgement of the talents of Charles Kingston and Sir Samuel Griffith as drafters. They were direct and economical with words. The same cannot always be said of Inglis Clark. The apparent enthusiasm of 1891 rapidly ebbed in the face of opposition from Henry Parkes' rival, George Reid, and
1940-540: Is now the Northern Territory ), and Western Australia agreed to unite and form the Commonwealth of Australia, establishing a system of federalism in Australia . The colonies of Fiji and New Zealand were originally part of this process, but they decided not to join the federation. Following federation, the six colonies that united to form the Commonwealth of Australia as states kept the systems of government (and
2037-472: Is some validity in such observations it does tend to overlook the fact that there are very few variations to be added once the basic structure is agreed. So for instance, there was always going to be parts dealing with the executive, the parliament and the judiciary in any Australian constitution. The fact that Inglis Clark modelled his on the American Constitution is no surprise once that basic decision
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#17328512350912134-539: Is the Constitution of 1900, not its father or grandfather." In the twenty-first century, however, a lively debate has sprung up as to whether the principal credit for this draft belongs to Queensland's Sir Samuel Griffith or Tasmania's Andrew Inglis Clark . The debate began with the publication of Peter Botsman's The Great Constitutional Swindle: A Citizen's Guide to the Australian Constitution in 2000, and
2231-536: The Australian Army left after 130 years at Georges Head. The area in which the fortifications are situated is now open to the public and the Sydney Harbour Federation Trust has restored the historic fortifications, creating a new type of lookout. The hospital was carved out of solid rock during the construction of the tunnel system in 1872, and was originally designed to provide a storage room for
2328-1131: The Bundesdenkmalamt [REDACTED] Azerbaijan : State Register of Intangible Cultural Heritage Samples of Azerbaijan [REDACTED] Bahamas : Bahamas National Trust [REDACTED] Bahrain : Bahrain Authority for Culture and Antiquities [REDACTED] Bangladesh : Cultural Heritage of Bangladesh and National Heritage Foundation of Bangladesh [REDACTED] Barbados : Barbados National Trust [REDACTED] Belarus : Cultural Properties of Belarus [REDACTED] Belgium : National Heritage Site (Belgium) ; (in Dutch) Lijsten van cultureel erfgoed [REDACTED] Benin : (in French) Liste du patrimoine mondial au Bénin [REDACTED] Bolivia : Bolivian cultural heritage [REDACTED] Bosnia : List of National Monuments of Bosnia and Herzegovina , as maintained by
2425-678: The Imperial Parliament to enact the Federal Council of Australasia Act 1885 . As a result, a Federal Council of Australasia was formed, to represent the affairs of the colonies in their relations with the South Pacific islands. New South Wales and New Zealand did not join. The self-governing colonies of Queensland, Tasmania and Victoria, as well as the Crown Colonies of Western Australia and Fiji , became involved. South Australia
2522-751: The KONS of Bosnia and Herzegovina; State level Local level (entities, district Brčko, cantonal, and regional) [REDACTED] Botswana : Sites and monuments in Botswana [REDACTED] Brazil : List of National Historic Heritage of Brazil , as maintained by the National Institute of Historic and Artistic Heritage ; (in Portuguese) Listas de patrimônio do Brasil [REDACTED] Bulgaria : National Institute of Immovable Cultural Heritage [REDACTED] Cambodia : Law on
2619-604: The New South Wales Legislative Council . The Governor of New South Wales , Sir Charles Fitzroy , then wrote to the United Kingdom's Colonial Office suggesting a "superior functionary" with power to review the legislation of all the colonies. In 1853, FitzRoy was appointed as Governor of Van Diemen's Land , South Australia and Victoria – a pre-federation governor-general of Australia , with wide-ranging powers to intervene in inter-colonial disputes. This title
2716-529: The New South Wales State Heritage Register published by the State of New South Wales (Department of Planning and Environment) 2018 under CC-BY 4.0 licence , accessed on 2 June 2018. Heritage register This list is of heritage registers , inventories of cultural properties , natural and human-made, tangible and intangible , movable and immovable, that are deemed to be of sufficient heritage value to be separately identified and recorded. In many instances
2813-742: The 1890s for the coordination of all of Sydney's harbour defences . It was decommissioned in 2002 and part of the land is managed by the Sydney Harbour Federation Trust , with other parts managed by the NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service as part of the Sydney Harbour National Park . The property is owned by Office of Environment & Heritage . The site was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999. Australian Defence activity began in this area of Sydney Harbour as early as 1803 when
2910-699: The A84 Battery show the continual evolution and development of defensive systems and the application of the most modern technology and building techniques. The buildings in the precinct illustrate the evolution of defence accommodation from the 1871 Barracks (later the Officer's Mess) to 1892 Married Quarters (now Gunshot Alley) to the 1954 separate individual rooms (Officers' Mess Accommodation). The buildings have been associated with key people in NSW history particularly; The site has remained in government and military ownership from
3007-526: The Australasian colonies was held in 1890. This led to the first National Australasian Convention , meeting in Sydney in 1891. New Zealand was represented at both the conference and the Convention, although its delegates indicated that it would be unlikely to join the Federation at its foundation, but it would probably be interested in doing so at a later date. The Australasian Federal Conference of 1890 met at
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3104-749: The Australian Commonwealth in 1901, which is widely regarded as one of the most authoritative works on the Australian Constitution. ) In March 1897 took place the Australasian Federal Convention Elections , and several weeks later the delegates gathered for the Convention's first session in Adelaide , later meeting in Sydney, and finally in Melbourne in March 1898. After the Adelaide meeting,
3201-516: The British Government. The Constitution also provided for the establishment of a High Court , and divided the powers of government between the states and the new Commonwealth government. The states retained their own parliaments, along with the majority of existing powers, but the federal government would be responsible of issues defence, immigration, quarantine, customs, banking and coinage, among other powers. Australian federation entailed
3298-764: The Congo : National Inventory of the Cultural Heritage of the Democratic Republic of the Congo [REDACTED] Denmark : National Register of Sites and Monuments, as maintained by the Danish Agency for Culture [REDACTED] Djibouti : List of monuments of Djibouti Federation of Australia The Federation of Australia was the process by which the six separate British self-governing colonies of Queensland , New South Wales , Victoria , Tasmania , South Australia (which also governed what
3395-881: The Congo : Protection of Cultural Heritage in the Republic of the Congo [REDACTED] Costa Rica (in Spanish) Monumento Nacional de Costa Rica [REDACTED] Croatia : Register of Protected Natural Values of the Republic of Croatia [REDACTED] Cuba : Consejo Nacional de Patrimonio Cultural [REDACTED] Cyprus : Heritage Gazetteer of Cyprus [REDACTED] Czech : (in Czech) Seznam národních kulturních památek České republiky , (in German) Liste der Nationalen Kulturdenkmale Tschechiens , as featuring on MonumNet [REDACTED] Democratic Republic of
3492-797: The Consejo de Monumentos Nacionales [REDACTED] China : Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level (全国重点文物保护单位), designated by State Administration of Cultural Heritage Sites Protected at the City Level of Hangzhou are districts, artifacts or buildings legally declared to be "protected". According to the "Regularations of historic districts and historic buildings in Hangzhou" effectivated from 1 January 2005, historic buildings are those artifacts or districts that have lasted more than 50 years, and of significant values for history, science, and art study. In Hangzhou, declaring
3589-450: The Council did not have a permanent secretariat, executive powers, or any revenue of its own. Furthermore, the absence of the powerful colony of New South Wales weakened its representative value. Nevertheless, it was the first major form of inter-colonial co-operation. It provided an opportunity for Federalists from around the country to meet and exchange ideas. The means by which the Council
3686-696: The Easter weekend in 1891, Griffith edited Clark's draft aboard the Queensland Government's steam yacht Lucinda . (Clark was not present, as he was ill with influenza in Sydney). Griffith's draft Constitution was submitted to colonial parliaments but it lapsed in New South Wales , after which the other colonies were unwilling to proceed. The importance of the draft Constitution of 1891 was recognised by John La Nauze when he flatly declared that "The draft of 1891
3783-535: The Federal Parliament. The main division of opinion centred on the contention of Alfred Deakin , that the lower house must be supreme, as opposed to the views of Barton, John Cockburn and others, that a strong Senate with co-ordinate powers was essential. Griffith himself recommended that the doctrine of responsible government should be left open, or substantially modified to accord with the Federal structure. Over
3880-706: The Georges Head Battery, was inscribed on the Australian Heritage Database . George's Head was part of the Middle Head and George's Heights defence site listed on the (now defunct) Register of the National Estate , and contains three separate independent listings, the A84 Battery, Battery C9A and the 1873 Officers' Mess building. [REDACTED] This Misplaced Pages article contains material from Georges Head Military Fortifications , entry number 00987 in
3977-678: The Napoleonic wars. The fort was isolated from Sydney town and was abandoned a few years after construction. In July 2010 the NSW Governor , Marie Bashir , officially reopened the site and the historic fort was recognised. On 10 March 1801 Governor Philip Gidley King informed the Secretary of State for Colonies that a battery was "in forwardness opposite the entrance to the Harbour, which will completely prevent attack from without". Despite that confidence,
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4074-605: The Opposition); Tasmania, Andrew Inglis Clark (Attorney-General) and Stafford Bird (Treasurer); Western Australia, Sir James George Lee Steere (Speaker); New Zealand, Captain William Russell (Colonial Secretary) and Sir John Hall . When the conference met at the Victorian Parliament in Melbourne on 6 February, the delegates were confronted with a scorching summer maximum temperature of 39.7 °C (103.5 °F) in
4171-1009: The Preservation of Afghan Cultural Heritage [REDACTED] Albania : List of Religious Cultural Monuments of Albania [REDACTED] Algeria : List of cultural assets of Algeria [REDACTED] Andorra : Bé d'interès cultural , as maintained by Patrimoni Cultural = Cultural Heritage of Andorra ; (in Catalan) Llista de monuments d'Andorra [REDACTED] Angola : Património Histórico-Cultural Nacional [REDACTED] Argentina : National Historic Monuments of Argentina ; (in French) Monument historique national (Argentine) [REDACTED] Armenia : State Heritage of National Register (Armenia) [REDACTED] Australia : Heritage registers in Australia [REDACTED] Austria : Denkmalgeschütztes Objekt , as maintained by
4268-520: The Protection of Cultural Heritage [REDACTED] Cameroon (in French) : Liste de monuments du Cameroun [REDACTED] Canada : The Canadian Register of Historic Places , while it confers no historic designation or protection itself, endeavours to list all federal, provincial, territorial and local sites. [REDACTED] Chile : National Monuments of Chile , as maintained by
4365-401: The United Kingdom – and the federation of the Australian colonies. Federationists such as Edmund Barton, with the full support of his righthand man Richard O'Connor, were careful to maintain good relations with Irish opinion. In the early 1890s, two meetings established the need for federation and set the framework for this to occur. An informal meeting attended by official representatives from
4462-421: The average tariff increased relative to the average of the individual colonies' average tariffs prior to federation, according to estimates produced by Melbourne economist Peter Lloyd. Nevertheless, the welfare-enhancing effect of the elimination of tariffs on interstate trade dominated the welfare-reducing effect of higher tariffs on overseas imports, such that the net static welfare gain from Australian federation
4559-435: The bay inwardly, those on the left command the entrance of the harbour between the heads and those in the centre point across the channel." With the French threat in the east removed with the capture of Mauritius in 1810 the battery was abandoned and never used again for military purposes. In 1815 Governor Macquarie established a farm for Aborigines and placed Bungaree in charge. The experiment did not succeed. Following
4656-411: The bicameral legislatures) that they had developed as separate colonies, but they also agreed to have a federal government that was responsible for matters concerning the whole nation. When the Constitution of Australia came into force, on 1 January 1901, the colonies collectively became states of the Commonwealth of Australia. The efforts to bring about federation in the mid-19th century were dogged by
4753-436: The black powder charge used when firing the 68-pounder and 80-pounder guns of the battery. The floor was originally covered in a bituminous substance, the walls were tiled with ceramic tiles not unlike those seen on the wall pictured, and the tunnel ceiling leading to the room was lined with cork. The purpose of these measures was to reduce the possibility of sparks and the potential for a powder explosion. The zigzag tunnel at
4850-408: The bush. Also in the gun pit was built a magazine for powder and shot, with stone walls three feet thick. The Sydney Gazette reported on 23 October 1803 that "The new battery is compleated and the artificers and labourers recalled ... the battery mounts six guns, two long twelves [12 pounders] on the right, two of the same size on the left and two short sixes in the centre. The first of these command
4947-419: The cause of Federation. Gillies's response was predictably cool, given the reluctance of Parkes to bring New South Wales into the Federal Council. In October Parkes travelled north to Brisbane and met with Griffith and Sir Thomas McIlwraith . On the return journey, he stopped just south of the colonial border, and delivered the historic Tenterfield Oration on 24 October 1889, stating that the time had come for
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#17328512350915044-449: The cautious conversion of George Reid to the federal cause. At the close of the Corowa Conference John Quick had advanced a scheme of a popularly elected convention, tasked to prepare a constitution, which would then be put to a referendum in each colony. Winning the support of George Reid, premier of NSW from 1894, the Quick scheme was approved by all premiers in 1895. (Quick and Robert Garran later published The Annotated Constitution of
5141-421: The cliff to a firing post. From there, miners watched for ships entering the harbour. The miners' job was to explode the mine closest to an approaching enemy ship. Minefields were laid across the main shipping channels of Port Jackson from 1876 to 1922 and a base was built at Chowder Bay for the submarine miners. The work of the submarine miner was secretive, technical and dangerous. During a demonstration in 1891,
5238-451: The colonial parliaments took the opportunity to debate the emerging bill and to suggest changes. The basic principles of the 1891 draft constitution were adopted, modified by a consensus for more democracy in the constitutional structure. It was agreed that the Senate should be chosen, directly, by popular vote, rather than appointed by state governments. On other matters there was considerable disagreement. State interests inevitably fractured
5335-457: The colonies arose in the late 1880s, a time when there was increasing nationalism amongst Australians, the great majority of whom were native-born. The idea of being Australian began to be celebrated in songs and poems. This was fostered by improvements in transport and communications, such as the establishment of a telegraph system between the colonies in 1872. The Australian colonies were also influenced by other federations that had emerged around
5432-536: The colonies to consider Australian federation. Through the latter part of 1889, the premiers and governors corresponded and agreed for an informal meeting to be called. The membership was: New South Wales, Parkes (Premier) and William McMillan (Colonial Treasurer); Victoria, Duncan Gillies (Premier) and Alfred Deakin (Chief Secretary); Queensland, Sir Samuel Griffith (Leader of the Opposition) and John Murtagh Macrossan (Colonial Secretary); South Australia, Dr. John Cockburn (Premier) and Thomas Playford (Leader of
5529-403: The corner of Middle Head Road and Best Avenue, Georges Heights, and the Beehive (or Lower) Casemate adjacent to the Armoured (or Upper) Casemate in Chowder Bay Road. The Georges Head Battery is one of three forts in the area that were built for the purpose of defending the outer harbour. The other two forts are located at Middle Head and Bradleys Head , Mosman . The fort became a command post in
5626-434: The creation of both a customs and a fiscal union. With respect to the customs union, tariffs were abolished on interstate trade (although this process occurred on a phased basis in Western Australia), while all of the colonies adopted the Commonwealth's common external tariff schedule in October 1901. The first federal (Commonwealth) was widely regarded as protectionist; indeed, with respect to imports from outside of Australia,
5723-409: The debates he assisted (Sir) Samuel Griffith, (Sir) Edmund Barton and Charles Cameron Kingston in revising Griffith's original draft of the adopted constitution on the Queensland government's steam yacht, Lucinda; though he was too ill to be present when the main work was done, his own draft had been the basis for most of Griffith's text. Clark's supporters are quick to point out that 86 Sections (out of
5820-462: The earliest British settlement and thus provides strong research potential in its structures and surface cultural deposits to demonstrate past ways of military life. The construction of fortifications on the site followed the departure of British Imperial forces in 1870 and is evidence of the British Government 's resolve that colonies with responsible government should bear the cost of their own defence. George's Head has outstanding aesthetic values as
5917-445: The executive and the legislature. Clark's draft also differed from the adopted constitution in his proposal for "a separate federal judiciary", with the new Supreme Court replacing the Privy Council as the highest court of appeal on all questions of law, which would be "a wholesome innovation upon the American system". He became a member of the Constitutional Committee and chairman of the Judiciary Committee. Although he took little part in
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#17328512350916014-411: The far end of the room was designed to act as a blast wall to contain any blast within the immediate area. The room has been modified since 1872 and was used as a casualty clearing station in 1932/33 when the battery was re-gunned with the 6 inch breech loaded MK7 guns . Designed for emergencies only, it fortunately saw no casualties of war. Georges Heights and in particular the Officer's mess precinct
6111-404: The federal government and where each state would be represented equally in a strong second chamber—the Senate. Andrew Inglis Clark had given considerable thought towards a suitable constitution for Australia. In May 1890, he travelled to London to conduct an appeal on behalf of the Government of Tasmania before the Privy Council . During this trip, he began writing a draft constitution, taking
6208-438: The federal movement, it may be presumed that this view represents—if not the complete truth—then, at least, the consensus opinion among Australia's "founding fathers". In his 1969 entry on "Clark, Andrew Inglis (1848–1907)" for the Australian Dictionary of Biography , Henry Reynolds offers a more nuanced view: Before the National Australasian Convention in Sydney in 1891 [Clark] circulated his own draft constitution bill. This
6305-432: The form of government that a federation would take. Experience of other federations was less than inspiring. In particular, the United States had experienced its traumatic civil war . The nascent Australian labour movement was less than wholly committed in its support for federation. On the one hand, nationalist sentiment was strong within the labour movement and there was much support for the idea of White Australia . On
6402-427: The great model of plural governance would always be the British Empire, which was not a federation. The Australasian Federal Convention dissolved on 17 March 1898 having adopted a bill "To Constitute the Commonwealth of Australia." Referendums on the proposed constitution were held in four of the colonies in June 1898. There were majority votes in all four, however, the enabling legislation in New South Wales required
6499-404: The harbour. In 1877 large mounds of earth were placed between the pits to make sure the guns could not fire upon each other and to help protect the gun crew from enemy fire. When construction of the fort was complete, there were a total of 41 gun emplacements positioned around the harbour. Defence tactics were planned using telescopes and plotters mounted in the middle of the second gun pit. From
6596-426: The inner harbour. The fort held a prominent position and was located high above sea level with strategic views to the entrance of Port Jackson . Other batteries were located on Middle Head , South Head, Shark Point and Bradleys Head , but none were ever used for combative purposes. Georges Head was armed with four 80-pounder rifled muzzle loading guns and two 68-pounder guns . The rifled guns were conversions of
6693-460: The instigation of Parkes. Accounts of its origin commonly commence with Lord Carrington , the Governor of New South Wales , goading the ageing Parkes at a luncheon on 15 June 1889. Parkes reportedly boasted that he "could confederate these colonies in twelve months". Carrington retorted, "Then why don't you do it? It would be a glorious finish to your life." Parkes the next day wrote to the Premier of Victoria , Duncan Gillies , offering to advance
6790-478: The job took another two years to finish. With only picks, crowbars, wedges and sledgehammers, a gun pit was cut out of solid sandstone, leaving a curved parapet 24-metre (80 ft) long on the cliff edge about 15 metres (50 ft) above sea level. There were two embrasures or gun openings, but guns could also be fired over the parapet. The guns – four twelve-pounders and two six-pounders – were landed at Obelisk Beach (then known as Georges Beach) and hauled up through
6887-503: The lack of popular support for the movement. A number of conventions were held during the 1890s to develop a constitution for the Commonwealth. Sir Henry Parkes , Premier of the Colony of New South Wales, was instrumental in this process. Sir Edmund Barton , second only to Parkes in the length of his commitment to the federation cause, was the caretaker Prime Minister of Australia at the inaugural national election in March 1901. The election returned Barton as prime minister, though without
6984-457: The long-obsolete 68-pounder smooth bore guns, and a common weapon in British colonies. It took three months and 250 soldiers to roll the gun barrels all the way from North Sydney to the batteries. They came along a rough track which later became Military Road. The guns had been positioned so poorly that this created the risk of one gun firing upon another. Also, the guns and soldiers were visible from
7081-590: The main provisions of the British North America Act, 1867 and its supplements up through 1890, the US Constitution, the Federal Council of Australasia Act , and various Australian colonial constitutions. Clark returned from London by way of Boston , Massachusetts, where he held discussions about his draft with Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. , and Moncure Conway among others. Clark's draft introduced
7178-486: The new federal capital would be located in New South Wales, but at least a hundred miles (160 km) distant from Sydney; and, in the circumstances of a double dissolution, reducing from six tenths to one half the requisite majority to legislate of a subsequent joint meeting of Senate and House. In June 1899, referendums on the revised constitution were held again in all the colonies except for Western Australia , where
7275-561: The nomenclature and form which was subsequently adopted: Upon his return to Hobart in early November 1890, with the technical aid of W. O. Wise , the Tasmanian Parliamentary Draftsman, Clark completed the final form of the Draft Constitution and had a number of copies printed. In February 1891, Clark circulated copies of his draft to Parkes, Barton and probably Playford as well. This draft was always intended to be
7372-460: The only concerns of those resistant to federation. Smaller colonies also worried about the abolition of tariffs , which would deprive them of a large proportion of their revenue, and leave their commerce at the mercy of the larger states. New South Wales, traditionally free-trade in its outlook, wanted to be satisfied that the federation's tariff policy would not be protectionist. Victorian Premier James Service described fiscal union as "the lion in
7469-417: The other hand, labour representatives feared that federation would distract attention from the need for social and industrial reform, and further entrench the power of the conservative forces. The federal conventions included no representatives of organised labour. In fact, the proposed federal constitution was criticised by labour representatives as being too conservative. These representatives wanted to see
7566-546: The pages linked below have as their primary focus the registered assets rather than the registers themselves. Where a particular article or set of articles on a foreign-language Misplaced Pages provides fuller coverage, a link is provided. [REDACTED] United Nations [REDACTED] Europe [REDACTED] Antarctica [REDACTED] Organization of Turkic States [REDACTED] Arab League [REDACTED] Caribbean Community [REDACTED] Afghanistan : Society for
7663-515: The removal of the British forces from Australia in 1870, construction began in 1871 on the battery at Georges Head and was completed in 1873. The departure of British forces put the onus on colonies like New South Wales and Victoria to assist in, and organize its own defences, prior to the Federation of Australia . Georges Head Battery was an outer line harbour defence fortification designed especially to attack and prevent enemy ships from infiltrating
7760-552: The shade. The Conference debated whether or not the time was ripe to proceed with federation. While some of the delegates agreed it was, the smaller states were not as enthusiastic. Thomas Playford from South Australia indicated the tariff question and lack of popular support as hurdles. Similarly, Sir James Lee Steere from Western Australia and the New Zealand delegates suggested there was little support for federation in their respective colonies. A basic question at this early assembly
7857-412: The smaller colonies, disliked the very idea of delegating power to a national government; they feared that any such government would inevitably be dominated by the more populous New South Wales and Victoria. Queensland, for its part, worried that the advent of race-based national legislation would restrict the importing of kanaka labourers, thereby jeopardising its sugar cane industry. These were not
7954-657: The sudden advent of the Labor Party in NSW, which commonly dismissed federation as a "fad". The subsequent revival of the federal movement owed much to the growth of federal leagues outside of capital cities, and, in Victoria, the Australian Natives' Association . The Border Federation League of Corowa held a conference in 1893 which was to prove of considerable significance, and a "People's Convention" in Bathurst in 1896 underlined
8051-425: The support of at least 80,000 voters for passage, equivalent to about half of enrolled voters, and this number was not reached. A meeting of the colonial premiers in early 1899 agreed to a number of amendments to make the constitution more acceptable to New South Wales. These included the limiting Braddon Clause , which guaranteed the states 75 percent of customs revenue, to just ten years of operation; requiring that
8148-501: The telephone exchange, the Port Jackson District Commandant could communicate with all military installations on the harbour. Telephone cables ran through the tunnels, down the cliff and under the harbour to batteries on the other side. In 1888 Georges Head was chosen as the best place to observe and fire underwater mines, the latest in harbour defences. Each underwater mine was attached to an electric cable that ran up
8245-523: The unity of delegates in matters involving rivers and railways, producing legalistic compromises. And they had few guides, at a conceptual level, to what they were doing. Deakin greatly praised James Bryce 's appreciation of American federalism, The American Commonwealth . And Barton cited the analysis of federation of Bryce's Oxford colleagues, E.A. Freeman and A.V. Dicey. But neither of these two writers could be said to be actual advocates of Federation. For delegates less given to reading (or citing) authors,
8342-452: The vote was not held until the following year. The majority vote was yes in all the colonies. The bill as accepted by the colonies (except Western Australia, which voted after the act was passed by the British parliament) was sent to Britain to be enacted as an act passed by British Parliament. The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 (Imp) was passed on 5 July 1900 and given royal assent by Queen Victoria on 9 July 1900. It
8439-399: The way" of federation. A further fundamental issue was how to distribute the excess customs duties from the central government to the states. For the larger colonies, there was the possibility (which never became an actuality) that they could be required to subsidise the struggling economies of Tasmania, South Australia and Western Australia. Even without the concerns, there was debate about
8536-611: The world, particularly the United States and Canada. Sir Henry Parkes , then colonial secretary of New South Wales, first proposed a Federal Council body in 1867. After it was rejected by the British Secretary of State for the Colonies, the Duke of Buckingham , Parkes brought up the issue again in 1880, this time as the premier of New South Wales . At the conference, representatives from Victoria, New South Wales and South Australia considered
8633-557: Was also extended to his immediate successor, William Denison . In 1847 the Secretary of State for the Colonies Earl Grey drew up a plan for a "General Assembly" of the colonies. The idea was quietly dropped. However, it prompted the statesman William Wentworth to propose in the following year the establishment of "a Congress from the various Colonial Legislatures" to legislate on "inter-colonial questions". On 28 July 1853,
8730-456: Was briefly a member between 1888 and 1890. The Federal Council had powers to legislate directly upon certain matters, and did so to effect the mutual recognition of naturalisations by colonies, to regulate labour standards in the employment of Pacific Island labour in fisheries, and to enable a legal suit to be served outside the colony in which it was issued, "a power valuable in matters ranging from absconding debtors to divorce proceedings". But
8827-555: Was established endorsed the continuing role that the Imperial Parliament would have in the development of Australia's constitutional structure. In terms of the Federal Council of Australia Act , the Australian drafters established a number of powers dealing with their common interests which would later be replicated in the Australian Constitution, especially section 51 . The individual colonies, Victoria excepted, were somewhat wary of Federation. Politicians, particularly those from
8924-475: Was how to combine federalism and responsible government. Parkes suggested the Canadian model, which federated with the British North America Act, 1867 , to be similarly adopted in Australia. However, delegates from the smaller states were not enthusiastic, with John Alexander Cockburn of South Australia seeing the Canadian model as a "coercive" and "homogeneous National Union". Andrew Inglis Clark ,
9021-457: Was made. Issues of the respective legislative powers, the role of the states, the power of amendment and financial questions were the detail of the debate that the framers were about to address in 1891. As to who was responsible for the actual detailed drafting, as distinct from the broad structure and framework of the 1891 draft, John Williams (for one) is in no doubt: In terms of style there can be little argument that Inglis Clark's Constitution
9118-641: Was mixed with the Westminster system by which the Prime Minister and other ministers would be appointed by the representative of the British Crown from among the members of the political party holding a majority in the lower House. Griffith identified with great clarity at the Sydney Convention perhaps the greatest problem of all: how to structure the relationship between the lower and upper houses within
9215-690: Was practically a transcript of relevant provisions from the British North American Act, the United States Constitution and the Federal Council Act, arranged systematically, but it was to be of great use to the drafting committee at the convention. Parkes received it with reservations, suggesting that "the structure should be evolved bit by bit". George Higinbotham admitted the "acknowledged defects & disadvantages" of responsible government, but criticized Clark's plan to separate
9312-521: Was proclaimed on 1 January 1901 in Centennial Park , Sydney. Sir Edmund Barton was sworn in as the interim Prime Minister , leading an interim Federal ministry of nine members. The new constitution established a bicameral Parliament, containing a Senate and a House of Representatives . The office of governor-general was established as the Queen's representative; initially, as a representative of
9409-649: Was the British rejection of Queensland's unilateral annexation of New Guinea and the British Government wish to see a federalised Australasia. The convention was called to debate the strategies needed to counter the activities of the German and French in New Guinea and in New Hebrides . Sir Samuel Griffith , the premier of Queensland , drafted a bill to constitute the Federal Council. The conference successfully petitioned
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