133-512: Geoje-do POW camp ( Korean : 거제도 포로수용소/巨濟島 捕虜收容所 , Chinese : 巨济岛战俘营 ) was a prisoner of war camp located on Geoje island at the southernmost part of Gyeongsangnam-do , South Korea . It is considered the largest of the UNC established camps. Geoje Camp was a United Nations Command (UN) POW camp that held North Korean and Chinese prisoners captured by UN forces during the Korean War . After
266-484: A Korean influence on Khitan. The hypothesis that Korean could be related to Japanese has had some supporters due to some overlap in vocabulary and similar grammatical features that have been elaborated upon by such researchers as Samuel E. Martin and Roy Andrew Miller . Sergei Starostin (1991) found about 25% of potential cognates in the Japanese–Korean 100-word Swadesh list . Some linguists concerned with
399-477: A core vowel. The IPA symbol ⟨ ◌͈ ⟩ ( U+0348 ◌͈ COMBINING DOUBLE VERTICAL LINE BELOW ) is used to denote the tensed consonants /p͈/, /t͈/, /k͈/, /t͡ɕ͈/, /s͈/ . Its official use in the extensions to the IPA is for "strong" articulation, but is used in the literature for faucalized voice . The Korean consonants also have elements of stiff voice , but it is not yet known how typical this
532-521: A disadvantage since they knew little or no Korean language and were reluctant to interfere. Bad blood between guards and prisoners, however, formed only one segment of the problem. Although the United States had not ratified the Geneva Convention of 1949 on prisoners of war, it had volunteered to observe its provisions. The Geneva Convention, however, was designed primarily to protect the rights of
665-409: A few minutes of Dodd's capture, they hoisted a large sign announcing: "We capture Dodd. As long as our demand will be solved, his safety is secured. If there happen brutal act such as shooting, his life is danger." The threat was soon followed by the first note from Dodd that he was all right and asking that no troops be sent in to release him until after 17:00. Apparently Dodd felt that he could persuade
798-523: A hostile compound, ardent Communists stoned the detail and its ROK guards. Without orders the guards retaliated with gunfire. Before the ROK contingent could be brought under control, 12 prisoners were killed and 26 were wounded while one ROK civilian and one US officer, who tried to stop the shooting, were injured. On 2 April the North Korean and Chinese negotiators at Panmunjom showed their interest in finding out
931-541: A later founder effect diminished the internal variety of both language families. Since the establishment of two independent governments, North–South differences have developed in standard Korean, including variations in pronunciation and vocabulary chosen. However, these minor differences can be found in any of the Korean dialects , which are still largely mutually intelligible . The Chinese language , written with Chinese characters and read with Sino-Xenic pronunciations ,
1064-529: A meeting to work out the demands that would be submitted to the UN Command. Colonel Craig attempted to use one of the senior KPA officers, Colonel Lee Hak Koo, to persuade inmates of Compound 76 to release Dodd, but Lee, as soon as he had entered the compound, remained and became the prisoners' representative. With the successful completion of the first step, the Communists began carrying out the second phase. Within
1197-571: A month. As Fitzgerald later commented, "Koje-do was a graveyard of commanders." Van Fleet's recognition of the difficulties of the problems led to the activation of the 8137th Military Police Group in October. Besides three assigned battalions, four additional escort guard companies were attached to the group. In November one battalion of the US 23rd Infantry Regiment was made available for duty on Geoje and by December over 9,000 US and ROK personnel were stationed on
1330-562: A possible relationship.) Hudson & Robbeets (2020) suggested that there are traces of a pre- Nivkh substratum in Korean. According to the hypothesis, ancestral varieties of Nivkh (also known as Amuric ) were once distributed on the Korean Peninsula before the arrival of Koreanic speakers. Korean syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), consisting of an optional onset consonant, glide /j, w, ɰ/ and final coda /p, t, k, m, n, ŋ, l/ surrounding
1463-483: A premium on the island, the space between the compounds soon had to be used to confine the prisoners too. This conserved the construction of facilities and the number of guards required to police the enclosures, but complicated the task of managing the crowded camp. Packing thousands of men into a small area with only barbed wire separating each compound from the next permitted a free exchange of thought and an opportunity to plan and execute mass demonstrations and riots. With
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#17328478056401596-407: A prisoner of war may keep and that the prisoner of war must be evacuated from the combat zone as soon as possible. Section 2 covers the internment of prisoners of war and is broken down into 8 chapters which cover: Section 3 (Articles 49–57) covers the type of labour that a prisoner of war may be compelled to do, taking such factors as rank, age, and sex into consideration, and that which because it
1729-449: A round in the chamber of their guns. In the past the Communists had successfully kidnapped several UN soldiers and although they had later released them unharmed after Communist complaints had been heard, the practice was neither new nor unknown. Since the technique had proved profitable in previous instances, the prisoners decided to capture the camp commandant. Taking advantage of his willingness to come to them, they made careful plans. On
1862-510: A target date of 10:00 on 10 May. In the early afternoon, Van Fleet flew into Geoje for a conference. He had discussed the situation with Ridgway and his appointed successor, General Mark W. Clark , who had just arrived in the Far East, and they all agreed that no press or photo coverage would be permitted. They wanted Colson to be sure to give every opportunity to non-belligerent prisoners to surrender peaceably while he engaged in battle for control of
1995-473: A thing, under no circumstances use fire to get them out. Wait them out. One thing above all, approach it calmly. If we get them excited only God knows what will happen." The fear of a concerted attempt to break out of the compounds and the resultant casualties that both the UN and prisoners would probably suffer dominated this conversation and mirrored the first reaction of Dodd's superiors to the potential explosiveness of
2128-409: Is a matter which is being discussed at Panmunjom, and over which I have no control or influence. 3. Regarding your item three pertaining to forcible investigation (screening), I can inform you that after General Dodd's release, unharmed, there will be no more forcible screening of PW's in this camp, nor will any attempt be made at nominal screening. 4. Reference your item four, we have no objection to
2261-551: Is also generated by longstanding alliances, military involvement, and diplomacy, such as between South Korea–United States and China–North Korea since the end of World War II and the Korean War . Along with other languages such as Chinese and Arabic , Korean is ranked at the top difficulty level for English speakers by the United States Department of Defense . Modern Korean descends from Middle Korean , which in turn descends from Old Korean , which descends from
2394-656: Is an agglutinative language . The Korean language is traditionally considered to have nine parts of speech . Modifiers generally precede the modified words, and in the case of verb modifiers, can be serially appended. The sentence structure or basic form of a Korean sentence is subject–object–verb (SOV), but the verb is the only required and immovable element and word order is highly flexible, as in many other agglutinative languages. Question 가게에 gage-e store- LOC 가셨어요? ga-syeo-sseo-yo go- HON . PAST - CONJ - POL 가게에 가셨어요? gage-e ga-syeo-sseo-yo store-LOC go-HON.PAST-CONJ-POL 'Did [you] go to
2527-436: Is broken down into three chapters. This part is divided into several sections: Section 1 (Articles 109–117) covers the direct repatriation and accommodation in neutral countries. Section 2 (Articles 118–119) covers the release and repatriation of prisoners of war at the close of hostilities. Section 3 (Articles 120–121) covers the death of a prisoner of war. The Information Bureau is an organisation that must be set up by
2660-511: Is closer to a near-open central vowel ( [ɐ] ), though ⟨a⟩ is still used for tradition. Grammatical morphemes may change shape depending on the preceding sounds. Examples include -eun/-neun ( -은/-는 ) and -i/-ga ( -이/-가 ). Sometimes sounds may be inserted instead. Examples include -eul/-reul ( -을/-를 ), -euro/-ro ( -으로/-로 ), -eseo/-seo ( -에서/-서 ), -ideunji/-deunji ( -이든지/-든지 ) and -iya/-ya ( -이야/-야 ). Some verbs may also change shape morphophonemically. Korean
2793-406: Is divided into several sections: Section 1 covers the beginning of captivity (Articles 17–20). It dictates what information a prisoner must give ("surname, first names and rank, date of birth, and army, regimental, personal or serial number"), and interrogation methods that the detaining power may use ("No physical or mental torture, nor any other form of coercion"). It dictates what private property
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#17328478056402926-399: Is mainly reserved for specific circumstances such as newspapers, scholarly papers and disambiguation. Today Hanja is largely unused in everyday life but is still important for historical and linguistic studies. The Korean names for the language are based on the names for Korea used in both South Korea and North Korea. The English word "Korean" is derived from Goryeo , which is thought to be
3059-399: Is of faucalized consonants. They are produced with a partially constricted glottis and additional subglottal pressure in addition to tense vocal tract walls, laryngeal lowering, or other expansion of the larynx. /s/ is aspirated [sʰ] and becomes an alveolo-palatal [ɕʰ] before [j] or [i] for most speakers (but see North–South differences in the Korean language ). This occurs with
3192-534: Is the native language for about 81 million people, mostly of Korean descent. It is the national language of both North Korea and South Korea . Beyond Korea, the language is recognized as a minority language in parts of China , namely Jilin , and specifically Yanbian Prefecture , and Changbai County . It is also spoken by Sakhalin Koreans in parts of Sakhalin , the Russian island just north of Japan, and by
3325-399: Is unhealthy or dangerous can only be done by prisoners of war who volunteer for such work. It goes into details about such things as the accommodation, medical facilities, and that even if the prisoner of war works for a private person the military authority remains responsible for them. Rates of pay for work done are covered by Article 62 in the next section. Section 4 (Articles 58–68) covers
3458-716: Is well attested in Western Old Japanese and Northern Ryukyuan languages , in Eastern Old Japanese it only occurs in compounds, and it is only present in three dialects of the Southern Ryukyuan language group . Also, the doublet wo meaning "hemp" is attested in Western Old Japanese and Southern Ryukyuan languages. It is thus plausible to assume a borrowed term. (See Classification of the Japonic languages or Comparison of Japanese and Korean for further details on
3591-511: The Koryo-saram in parts of Central Asia . The language has a few extinct relatives which—along with the Jeju language (Jejuan) of Jeju Island and Korean itself—form the compact Koreanic language family . Even so, Jejuan and Korean are not mutually intelligible . The linguistic homeland of Korean is suggested to be somewhere in contemporary Manchuria . The hierarchy of the society from which
3724-523: The yangban aristocracy, who looked down upon it too easy to learn. However, it gained widespread use among the common class and was widely used to print popular novels which were enjoyed by the common class. Since few people could understand official documents written in classical Chinese, Korean kings sometimes released public notices entirely written in Hangul as early as the 16th century for all Korean classes, including uneducated peasants and slaves. By
3857-525: The Far East Command , reported that Communist prisoners refused even to bring in their own food and supplies. The possibility of new incidents that might embarrass the UN Command, especially at Panmunjom, led Ridgway to remind Van Fleet that proper control had to be maintained regardless of whether screening was conducted or not. As it happened, Van Fleet was more concerned over the fact that Chaplin had not informed Eighth Army of his impressions first than he
3990-570: The Proto-Koreanic language , which is generally suggested to have its linguistic homeland somewhere in Manchuria . Whitman (2012) suggests that the proto-Koreans, already present in northern Korea, expanded into the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at around 300 BC and coexisted with the descendants of the Japonic Mumun cultivators (or assimilated them). Both had influence on each other and
4123-557: The Three Kingdoms of Korea (not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula), while " -eo " and " -mal " mean "language" and "speech", respectively. Korean is also simply referred to as guk-eo , literally "national language". This name is based on the same Han characters ( 國語 "nation" + "language") that are also used in Taiwan and Japan to refer to their respective national languages. In North Korea and China ,
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4256-477: The "hearing"; they were supposed to fight on the South Korean side from then on. General Yount ordered that prisoners who did not want to return home should be transferred. The civilian internee compounds were screened during January and early February except for the 6,500 inmates of Compound 62. Here the Communists had firm control and refused to permit the teams to enter. The compound leader stated flatly that all
4389-868: The 17th century, the yangban had exchanged Hangul letters with slaves, which suggests a high literacy rate of Hangul during the Joseon era. In the context of growing Korean nationalism in the 19th century, the Gabo Reform of 1894 abolished the Confucian examinations and decreed that government documents would be issued in Hangul instead of literary Chinese. Some newspapers were published entirely in Hangul, but other publications used Korean mixed script , with Hanja for Sino-Korean vocabulary and Hangul for other elements. North Korea abolished Hanja in writing in 1949, but continues to teach them in schools. Their usage in South Korea
4522-408: The 20th century. The script uses 24 basic letters ( jamo ) and 27 complex letters formed from the basic ones. When first recorded in historical texts, Korean was only a spoken language . Since the turn of the 21st century, aspects of Korean culture have spread to other countries through globalization and cultural exports . As such, interest in Korean language acquisition (as a foreign language )
4655-453: The 2d Logistical Command also reminded Van Fleet that the caliber of the guard troops left much to be desired. The September disturbances led to a visit by Van Fleet and a reinforcing and reorganization of the prison security forces. From the opening of the camp in January down to mid-September when Colonel Maurice J. Fitzgerald assumed command, there had been eight different commanders or about one
4788-468: The Communist compound leadership. Relieved of the pressure from nationalist elements, they could now be assured of wholehearted support from the inmates of their compounds as they directed their efforts against the UN command. An energetic campaign to discredit the screening program backed by all the Communist compounds was made easier by the transfer of the chief opposition to the mainland and the alteration of
4921-409: The Communist prisoners and the UN appeared to have reached a stalemate. The former had interior control, but could not get out without violence; and the latter had exterior control, but could not get in without violence. With the cancellation of forced screening, the UN Command indicated that it was willing to accept the status quo rather than initiate another wave of bloodshed in the camps. The next move
5054-511: The Communist prisoners at the end of April included 10 that had been screened and seven that had resisted all efforts to interview them. There was little doubt in Van Fleet's mind that force would have to be used and casualties expected if the recalcitrant compounds were to be screened. As he prepared plans to use force, Van Fleet warned Ridgway on 28 April that the prisoners already screened would probably demonstrate violently when UN forces moved into
5187-449: The Communists, this "orientation course" became the chief target of criticism. These lectures contrasted the "advantages of democracy" with the "fallacies of communism" and the Communists protested vehemently. By 1952 over 170,000 prisoners of war (about 85% North Korean and the rest from China) were held at the camp. U.N. forces lacked sufficient manpower and experience in controlling such large numbers of prisoners. From February 1952, at
5320-552: The Convention. This part sets out the overall parameters for GCIII: This part of the convention covers the status of prisoners of war. Article 12 states that prisoners of war are the responsibility of the state, not the persons who capture them, and that they may not be transferred to a state that is not party to the Convention. Articles 13 to 16 state that prisoners of war must be treated humanely without any adverse discrimination and that their medical needs must be met. This part
5453-714: The Detaining Power to facilitate the sharing of information by the parties to conflict and neutral powers as required by the various provisions of the Third Geneva Convention. It will correspond freely with "A Central Prisoners of War Information Agency ... created in a neutral country" to act as a conduit with the Power to which the prisoners of war owe their allegiance. The provisions of this part are contained in Articles 122 to 125. The central prisoners of war information agency
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5586-480: The English translation is awkward and some of the phrases difficult to understand, their demands were as follows: 1. Immediate ceasing the barbarous behavior, insults, torture, forcible protest with blood writing, threatening, confinement, mass murdering, gun and machine gun shooting, using poison gas, germ weapons, experiment object of A-Bomb, by your command. You should guarantee PW's human rights and individual life with
5719-536: The North Koreans. This left a power vacuum in many of the compounds that were abruptly deprived of their leaders. On Geoje, security problems were reduced, but there were serious engineering obstacles to be overcome. Since there were little or no natural water resources on the island, Colonel Hartley F. Dame, the first camp commander, had to build dams and store rainwater to service the 118,000 locals, 100,000 refugees, and 150,000 prisoners. Construction began in January on
5852-464: The US 3rd Infantry Division and started to move toward Pusan. From the US I Corps , Van Fleet sent Brigadier general Charles F. Colson, chief of staff, to take charge of the camp and remove Dodd by force. Colson had no knowledge of conditions on Geoje until he was chosen and only a sketchy acquaintance with the issues being discussed at Panmunjom. First official written demands were to be delivered to Compound 76 asking that Dodd be freed immediately. At
5985-400: The US 2nd Logistical Command, in charge of all POW camps, asked US Eighth Army commander General James Van Fleet for more security personnel. Referring to protracted confinement, uncertainty over the future, and prisoner resistance against the UN "information and education program" and claiming these factors had combined to produce increasing tension among the prisoners, the chief of staff of
6118-507: The afternoon drew to a close and no report of Colson's negotiations arrived in Tokyo, Ridgway became impatient. Pointing out that incalculable damage might be done to the UN cause if Colson accepted the prisoners' demands, he complained of the lack of information from Geoje. "I have still been unable to get an accurate prompt record of action taken by your camp commander in response to these latest Communist demands. I am seriously handicapped thereby in
6251-414: The agents were able to keep in touch with their headquarters and to plan, organize, and stage incidents at will. Inside the camps, messages were passed visually by signals, hurled by rocks from compound to compound, or communicated by word of mouth. The hospital compound served as a clearinghouse for information and was one of the centers of Communist resistance. Although the agents wielded the actual power in
6384-475: The antagonists on Geoje wrangled over the details, Ridgway and Van Fleet encountered increasing difficulty in finding out what was going on. When news of the four demands seeped back to UN headquarters, Ridgway had attempted to forestall Colson's reply, but had been too late. He realized the propaganda value of an admission of the prisoners' charges, but Van Fleet had assured him that Colson's answer carried no implied acknowledgment of illegal or reprehensible acts. As
6517-408: The anti-Communist prisoners to the mainland. Although the separation would mean more administrative personnel and more equipment would be required to organize and supervise the increased number of camps, Van Fleet felt that dispersal would lessen the possibility of resistance. However, the removal of anti-Communists and their replacement by pro-Communists in the compounds on Geoje eventually strengthened
6650-472: The assault, the UN troops opened fire. 55 prisoners were killed immediately and 22 more died at the hospital, with over 140 other casualties as against one US soldier killed and 38 wounded. This was a success for the Communists, for the infantry withdrew and the compound was not screened. The fear that the story might leak out to the Chinese and North Koreans led the UN Command to release an official account placing
6783-589: The balance of power on the island. In addition to the general political unrest that permeated the Communist enclosures, a quite fortuitous element of discontent complicated the scene in early April. Up until this time responsibility for the provision of the grain component of the prisoners' ration had rested with the ROK. But the South Korean Government informed the Eighth Army in March that it could no longer bear
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#17328478056406916-657: The base on the International Law. 2. Immediate stopping the so-called illegal and unreasonable volunteer repatriation of NKPA and CPVA PW's. 3. Immediate ceasing the forcible investigation (Screening) which thousands of PW's of NKPA and CPVA be rearmed and failed in slavery, permanently and illegally. 4. Immediate recognition of the P.W. Representative Group (Commission) consisted of NKPA and CPVA PW's and close cooperation to it by your command. This Representative Group will turn in Brig. Gen. Dodd, USA, on your hand after we receive
7049-455: The beginnings of words. /l/ becomes alveolar flap [ɾ] between vowels, and [l] or [ɭ] at the end of a syllable or next to another /l/ . A written syllable-final ' ㄹ ', when followed by a vowel or a glide ( i.e. , when the next character starts with ' ㅇ '), migrates to the next syllable and thus becomes [ɾ] . Traditionally, /l/ was disallowed at the beginning of a word. It disappeared before [j] , and otherwise became /n/ . However,
7182-450: The blame squarely on the shoulders of the Communist compound leaders. The Department of the Army instructed UN commander General Matthew Ridgway to make it clear that only 1,500 of the inmates took part in the outbreak and that only civilian internees, not prisoners of war, were involved. In view of the outcry that the Communist delegates at Panmunjom were certain to make over the affair, this
7315-440: The brutal and result in killing and wounding quite a number of inmates. While I can exercise such forced screening, I believe that the risk of violence and violence involved, both to U.N.C. personnel and to the inmates themselves, would not warrant this course of action. Further, the unfavorable publicity which would probably result... would provide immediate and effective Communist material... This request and Ridgway's plan to list
7448-543: The burden and Van Fleet, in turn, told the 2nd Logistical Command that it would have to secure the grain through US Army channels. The UN Civil Assistance Command could not supply grain in the prescribed ratio of one-half rice and one-half other grains without sufficient advance time to fill the order. Instead, a one-third rice, one-third barley, and one-third wheat ration was apportioned to the prisoners in April and this caused an avalanche of complaints. The 17 compounds occupied by
7581-444: The captor nation(s). Under these conditions, every effort at violence by the prisoners that was countered by force reflected badly upon the UN command. Regardless of the provocation given by the prisoners, the UN appeared to be an armed bully abusing the defenseless captives and the Communists capitalized on this situation. The outbreaks of dissension and open resistance were desultory until the negotiations at Kaesong got underway. Then
7714-452: The changes that the prisoners considered mandatory. Colson agreed. After a second version was still unacceptable to the Communists, Colson had to attempt to meet their demands as clearly as possible: 1. With reference to your item 1 of that message, I do admit that there has been instances of bloodshed where many PW have been killed and wounded by UN Forces. I can assure in the future that PW can expect humane treatment in this camp according to
7847-422: The compound into four segments. But the Communists refused to bow to the show of force. Streaming out of the barracks, they converged on the infantry with pick handles, knives, axes, flails, and tent poles. Others hurled rocks as they advanced and screamed their defiance. Between 1,000 and 1,500 internees pressed the attack and the soldiers were forced to resort to concussion grenades. When the grenades failed to stop
7980-433: The compound. Van Fleet added that he did not think that US troops should go into the compound, until firepower from the outside had forced submission and driven the prisoners into small adjacent compounds that had been constructed in the meantime. If necessary he was willing to grant the prisoners' request for an association with equipment and communication facilities, but he reminded Colson that he had full authority to use all
8113-434: The compounds and talked to the leaders. This system of personal contact kept Dodd in close touch with camp problems, but it exposed him to an element of risk. Only the guards carried weapons on Geoje and there were no locks on the compounds gates, since work details were constantly passing in and out. Security personnel were not authorized to shoot save in case of grave emergency or in self-defense, and were not permitted to keep
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#17328478056408246-512: The compounds at night and the prisoners were usually either afraid or unwilling to talk, the beatings and murders went unpunished. Even if the beaten prisoners had been willing to give evidence against their attackers, as sometimes happened, the camp commander was not in a position to prosecute. He was not permitted by his superiors in Washington D.C. to institute judicial procedures against the culprits. Deprived of this weapon of disciplinary control,
8379-589: The compounds still holding out. In anticipation of trouble Van Fleet moved the 3rd Battalion, 9th Infantry Regiment to Geoje to reinforce the 38th Infantry Regiment and ordered the 1st Battalion, 15th Infantry Regiment and the ROK 20th Regiment to Pusan. Barring accident, he intended to begin screening shortly after 1 May. Confronted with almost certain violence, Ridgway decided to ask for permission to cancel forced screening: These compounds are well organized and effective control cannot be exercised within them without use of such great degree of force as might verge on
8512-542: The compounds, they usually concealed themselves behind the nominal commanders and operated carefully to cloak their identities. Behind the agents stood their chiefs, Lieutenant general Nam Il and Major general Lee Sang Cho, the principal KPA delegates to the armistice conference. The close connection between the Armistice negotiations and the POW camps showed the North Korean efforts in using every possible measure to exert pressure upon
8645-534: The compounds, work refusals, threats against camp personnel, and some 15 murders among groups of pro- and anti-communist Korean prisoners. In July and August 1951, the guards killed eight more prisoners. In September 1951, 15 prisoners were murdered by a self-appointed people's court. Three more were killed when rioting broke out on the 19th in Compound 78. Troops had to be rushed in to restore order and remove 200 prisoners who were in fear of their lives. As unrest mounted,
8778-488: The control of the POW's at Koje-do, the recent riot in Compound 62 gives strong evidence that many of the compounds may be controlled by the violent leadership of Communists or anti-Communist groups. This subversive control is extremely dangerous and can result in further embarrassment to the U.N.C. Armistice negotiations, particularly if any mass screening or segregation is directed within a short period of time. I desire your personal handling of this planning. I wish to point out
8911-427: The course of the armistice talks. As the Communists struggled for control of the compounds, a countermovement was launched by the non-Communist elements. Former Chinese Nationalist soldiers and North Korean anti-Communists engaged in bloody clashes with their opponents, using fists and homemade weapons. Kangaroo courts tried stubborn prisoners and sentences were quick and often fatal. Since UN personnel did not enter
9044-408: The details agreed to by Gen Dodd and approved by me. The release hour was advanced to 20:00 since so much time had been consumed in translating and discussing the changes. At 21:30 Dodd walked out of Compound 76 and was immediately taken to a place where he could be kept incommunicado. Korean language Korean ( South Korean : 한국어 , Hanguk-eo ; North Korean : 조선어 , Chosŏnŏ )
9177-488: The early trouble could be traced to the fact that ROK guards were used extensively. Resentment between ROK and KPA soldiers flared into angry words, threats, and blows very easily. Part of the tension stemmed from the circumstance that at first the prisoners drew better rations than the guards, but eventually this discrepancy was adjusted. In the internecine disputes the United States Army (US) security troops operated at
9310-436: The evening of 6 May, members of a Communist work detail from Compound 76 refused to enter the enclosure until they had spoken to Lieutenant colonel Wilbur R. Raven, commanding officer of the 94th Military Police Battalion and the compound. The prisoners told Raven that guards had beaten members of the compound and searched them for contraband. When he promised to investigate the charges, they seemed satisfied, but asked to see Dodd
9443-453: The exact number of prisoners that would be returned to their control if screening was carried out. Spurred by this indication that the North Korean and Chinese might be willing to break the deadlock on voluntary repatriation, the UN Command inaugurated a new screening program on 8 April to produce a firm figure. During the days that followed, UN teams interviewed the prisoners in all but seven compounds, where 37,000 North Koreans refused to permit
9576-417: The financial resources of prisoners of war. Section 5 (Articles 69–74) covers the relations of prisoners of war with the exterior. This covers the frequency of which a prisoner of war can send and receive post, including parcels. The Detaining power has the right to censor all mail, but must do so as quickly as possible. Section 6 covers the relations between prisoners of war and the detaining authorities: it
9709-399: The first Korean dynasty known to Western nations. Korean people in the former USSR refer to themselves as Koryo-saram or Koryo-in (literally, " Koryo/Goryeo persons"), and call the language Koryo-mal' . Some older English sources also use the spelling "Corea" to refer to the nation, and its inflected form for the language, culture and people, "Korea" becoming more popular in
9842-440: The first casualty and that they would resist violently any attempt to rescue him by force. Under the circumstances they hoped for Dodd to co-operate and help them reach a bloodless settlement and Dodd complied. He agreed to act as go-between for the prisoners and relayed their demands to the outside. A telephone was installed and upon Dodd's recommendation, representatives from all of the other compounds were brought to Compound 76 for
9975-402: The first enclosure of UN Prisoner of War Camp Number 1 and by the end of the month over 50,000 POW's were moved from the mainland to Geoje. Swiftly, in two rock-strewn valleys on the north coast, four enclosures, each subdivided into eight compounds, were built. Originally intended to hold 700–1,200 men apiece, the compounds were soon jammed to five times their capacity. Since available land was at
10108-460: The force required to release Dodd and secure proper control and discipline. Regardless of the outcome of this affair, Van Fleet wanted dispersion of the compounds carried out. He left the timing of the Compound 76 operation in Colson's hands, but the negotiating period should end at 10:00 on 10 May. Dodd's trial dragged on through the afternoon as the translation process was slow and laborious. By dusk it
10241-446: The grave potential consequences of further rioting, and therefore me urgent requirement for the most effective practicable control over POW's. Although the orders from Ridgway covered both Communists and anti-Communists, the latter submitted to UN personnel and only used violence against Communist sympathizers in their midst. The hatred between the two groups led to another bloody encounter on 13 March. As an anti-Communist detail passed
10374-552: The inauguration of the screening process in the POW camps. General Yount, commanding the 2nd Logistical Command, later told the Far East commander: "Until the inception of the screening program, American personnel had full access to compounds and were able to administer them in a satisfactory manner although never to the degree desired." In November and December over 37,000 prisoners had been screened and reclassified as civilian internees. As more prisoners indicated that they did not wish to be repatriated or evinced anti-Communist sympathies,
10507-479: The inflow of western loanwords changed the trend, and now word-initial /l/ (mostly from English loanwords) are pronounced as a free variation of either [ɾ] or [l] . All obstruents (plosives, affricates, fricatives) at the end of a word are pronounced with no audible release , [p̚, t̚, k̚] . Plosive sounds /p, t, k/ become nasals [m, n, ŋ] before nasal sounds. Hangul spelling does not reflect these assimilatory pronunciation rules, but rather maintains
10640-455: The instruction in metalworking and soon began to produce weapons of all varieties instead of sanitation utensils, stoves, and garden tools and used these arms to gain interior control in the compounds whenever they could. From January 1952, the prisoners were exposed to anti-communist propaganda. Syllabi included "How War Came to Korea", "Democracy and Totalitarianism" and "Facts About the United States"., and English courses were also offered. For
10773-472: The island. This was still some 6,000 fewer than the number requested. During December the rival factions, Communist and anti-Communist, vied for control of the compounds with both sides meting out beatings and other punishment freely. A large-scale rock fight between compounds on 18 December was followed by riots and demonstrations. Fourteen deaths and 24 other casualties resulted from this flare-up. The acceleration of violence could be attributed in large part to
10906-488: The issuance of further instructions." When the noon deadline passed without incident, Dodd phoned Colson and presented the prisoners' case. He explained that there had been incidents in the past when prisoners had been killed and Colson's answer simply denied everything. The Communists demanded an unequivocal admission of guilt. The prisoner leaders sat beside Dodd and had him pass on their suggestions for preparing Colson's reply in an acceptable form and then offered to write in
11039-408: The issue between Japanese and Korean, including Alexander Vovin, have argued that the indicated similarities are not due to any genetic relationship , but rather to a sprachbund effect and heavy borrowing, especially from Ancient Korean into Western Old Japanese . A good example might be Middle Korean sàm and Japanese asá , meaning " hemp ". This word seems to be a cognate, but although it
11172-424: The items of equipment that the prisoners asked for. After the meeting concluded, the representatives wanted to return to their compounds and report to the rest of the prisoners; thus another delay ensued. Yount refused to allow them to leave until Van Fleet overruled him late in the afternoon. By the time the representatives discussed events with their compound mates and returned to Compound 76, evening had begun. While
11305-563: The language is most often called Joseon-mal , or more formally, Joseon-o . This is taken from the North Korean name for Korea (Joseon), a name retained from the Joseon dynasty until the proclamation of the Korean Empire , which in turn was annexed by the Empire of Japan . In mainland China , following the establishment of diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1992, the term Cháoxiǎnyǔ or
11438-466: The language originates deeply influences the language, leading to a system of speech levels and honorifics indicative of the formality of any given situation. Modern Korean is written in the Korean script ( 한글 ; Hangeul in South Korea, 조선글 ; Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea), a system developed during the 15th century for that purpose, although it did not become the primary script until
11571-451: The late 1800s. In South Korea the Korean language is referred to by many names including hanguk-eo ("Korean language"), hanguk-mal ("Korean speech") and uri-mal ("our language"); " hanguk " is taken from the name of the Korean Empire ( 대한제국 ; 大韓帝國 ; Daehan Jeguk ). The " han " ( 韓 ) in Hanguk and Daehan Jeguk is derived from Samhan , in reference to
11704-440: The leadership in the compounds. Since these ex-ROK soldiers professed themselves to be anti- Communist and were usually favored by the ROK guards, they were able to win positions of power and control. As the prisoner total reached 137,000 in January 1951, the UN decided to isolate captured personnel on Geoje-do , an island off the southern coast of Korea. But before the move was made, the South Korean prisoners were segregated from
11837-478: The meantime Colson intended to sabotage the prisoners; his first move in this direction was to stop the POW representatives from circulating back and forth between their compounds and Compound 76. Suspicious of Colson's provocative move and the apparent preparations for a violent offensive around the compound, the Communists instructed Dodd to ask Colson whether they could hold their meeting without fear of interruption. They again made clear that Dodd would be freed after
11970-442: The meeting if all went well. Since the UN Command was unable to move until 10 May anyway, the prisoners were told that they could meet in safety. As the prisoners convened on the 9th, the capture of Dodd assumed a new dimension. They informed the hostage that they were going to discuss allegations of brutalities committed against their members, repatriation and screening, as well as the prisoner organization. A people's court set up by
12103-411: The members of Compound 62 desired to return to North Korea and there was no sense in wasting time in screening. Since the South Korean teams were equally determined to carry out their assignment, the 3rd Battalion, 27th Infantry Regiment moved in during the early hours of 18 February and took up positions in front of the compound. With bayonets fixed, the four companies passed through the gate and divided
12236-415: The midst of the talk, a work detail turning in tents for salvage came through the sally port and the outer door was opened to let them pass out. It remained ajar and the prisoners drew closer to Dodd and Raven as if to finish their discussion. Suddenly they leapt forward and began to drag the two officers into the compound. Raven grabbed hold of a post until the guards rushed up and used their bayonets to force
12369-482: The morning of 9 May Colson sent in his first official demand for Dodd's safe deliverance and six hours later he issued a second order. When Lee Hak Koo finally responded, he countered with the statement that Dodd had already admitted that he had practiced "inhuman massacre and murderous barbarity" against the prisoners. Recognizing Colson as the new camp commander, Lee asked him to join Dodd at the compound meeting. The refusal of
12502-451: The morning. During the night of 9–10 May, 20 tanks, five equipped with flamethrowers, arrived on Geoje and were brought into position. Extra wire was laid and the 16 small compounds were ready to receive the prisoners of Compound 76. All of the guns were in place and gas masks were issued. As daylight broke, the prisoners presented their latest demands. They directed their attack against UN prisoner policy, repatriation, and screening. Although
12635-439: The next day to discuss matters of importance. Raven was noncommittal since he did not wish the prisoners to imagine that they could summon the commandant at will, but he promised to pass the message on to the general. The prisoners indicated that they would be willing to let themselves be listed and fingerprinted if Dodd would come and talk to them. Dodd had just been instructed to complete an accurate roster and identification of all
12768-406: The next day, the prisoners presented Dodd with a list of their demands. The chief preoccupation of the prisoners during this early phase concerned the formation and recognition by the UN of prisoner organization with telephone facilities between the compounds and two vehicles for intra-compound travel. Despite not having command authority to make any agreements, Dodd falsely promised to deliver most of
12901-474: The number of security personnel limited and usually of inferior caliber, proper control was difficult at the outset and later became impossible. But the elusive hope of an imminent armistice and a rapid solution of the prisoner problem delayed corrective action. Although there were frequent instances of unrest and occasional outbreaks of resistance during the first months of the Geoje POW camp's existence, much of
13034-475: The organization of a PW representative group or commission consisting of NKPA and CPVA PW, and are willing to work out the details of such an organization as soon as practicable after General Dodd's release. Colson added an ultimatum that Dodd must be freed by noon and no later. With the exception of the word "more" in Item 3, Colson's reply was noncommittal and the Communists refused to accept it or release Dodd. As
13167-476: The peace conference. 3. Regarding your item 3 pertaining to forcible investigation (screening), I can inform you that after General Dodd's release, unharmed, there will be no more forcible screening or any rearming of PW in this camp, nor will any attempt be made at nominal screening. 4. Reference your item 4, we approve the organization of a PW representative group or commission consisting of Korean People's Army and Chinese People's Volunteer Army, PW, according to
13300-507: The population was illiterate. In the 15th century King Sejong the Great personally developed an alphabetic featural writing system , known today as Hangul , to promote literacy among the common people. Introduced in the document Hunminjeongeum , it was called eonmun ('colloquial script') and quickly spread nationwide to increase literacy in Korea. The Korean alphabet was denounced by
13433-407: The principles of International Law. I will do all within my power to eliminate further violence and bloodshed. If such incidents happen in the future, I will be responsible. 2. Reference your item 2 regarding voluntary repatriation of Korean People's Army and Chinese People's Volunteer Army PW, that is a matter which is being discussed at Panmunjom. I have no control or influence over the decisions at
13566-435: The prison command was forced to operate under a distinct disadvantage. The first collective violence against camp guards occurred on 18/19 June 1951, when some North Korean officers protested having to dig latrines and garbage pits. When a ROK guard detail entered Compound 76 of the camp, the prisoners stoned the guards and the soldiers opened fire, killing three prisoners. More incidents followed including demonstrations within
13699-605: The prisoners back, but Dodd was successfully hauled inside the compound, whisked behind a row of blankets draped along the inner barbed wire fence, and hurried to a tent that was prepared for him. The prisoners told him that the kidnapping had been planned and that the other compounds would have made an attempt to seize him if the opportunity had arisen. The Communists treated Dodd well. The prisoners did all they could to provide him with small comforts and permitted medicine for his ulcers to be brought in. They applied no physical pressure whatsoever, yet they left no doubt that Dodd would be
13832-441: The prisoners drew up a list of nineteen counts of death and/or injury to compound inmates and had Dodd answer to each charge. Although they were generally disposed to accept his explanations and dismiss the accusations, the prisoner's trial of the commanding officer of the POW camp on criminal counts, making him defend his record, while still surrounded by heavily armed enemy troops, was without parallel in modern military history. As
13965-459: The prisoners in the unscreened compounds as desiring repatriation were approved. Although failure to interview all the inmates in these enclosures might well prevent some prisoners from choosing non-repatriation, Ridgway's superiors held that if the prisoners felt strongly enough about not returning to Communist control, they would somehow make their wishes known. In early May, after a tour of inspection, Colonel Robert T. Chaplin, Provost marshal of
14098-452: The prisoners nor were the guards assigned adequately trained for their mission. The quantity and quality of the security forces continued to plague the UN prison-camp commanders in the months that lay ahead. While the prisoners were housed near Pusan , there was a tendency for former Republic of Korea Army (ROK) soldiers who had been impressed into the KPA and later recaptured by the UN to take over
14231-436: The prisoners realized that their future was at stake. Many had professed strong anti-Communist sentiments and were afraid to return, while others, anticipating repatriation, swung clearly to the side of Communist groups in the compounds. From North Korea, agents were sent to the front lines and permitted themselves to be captured so that they could infiltrate the POW camps. Working through refugees, civilians, and local guerrillas,
14364-567: The prisoners to let him go by that time. In the meantime word had passed swiftly back to Yount and through him to Van Fleet, of the capture of Dodd. Van Fleet immediately instructed Yount not to use force to effect Dodd's release unless Eighth Army approved such action. Yount in turn sent his chief of staff, Colonel William H. Craig, by air to Geoje to assume command. Repeating Van Fleet's injunction not to use force, Yount told Craig: "We are to talk them out. Obviously if somebody makes mass break we most certainly will resist... But unless they attempt such
14497-431: The prisoners to meet Colson's order was a risky move, as it could have led to the presentation of an ultimatum with a time limit, but Colson was still waiting for more tanks to arrive from the mainland. Since the tanks would not arrive until late on the 9th, violent measures to subjugate the prisoners were postponed. Both Yount and Major general Orlando Mood , chief of staff of the Eighth Army, agreed to this postponement. In
14630-416: The prisoners were carrying on their conversations, Craig sent for trained machine gun crews, grenades, and gas masks. The 3rd Battalion, 9th Infantry Regiment boarded LST at Busan and set out for Geoje. Republic of Korea Navy picket boats ringed the island in case of a major escape attempt and Navy, Marine and Air Force planes remained on alert. Company B of the 64th Medium Tank Battalion was detached from
14763-456: The prisoners. It completely failed to foresee the development of organized prisoner groups such as those that grew up on Geoje in 1951–52 or to provide protection for the captor nation(s) in dealing with stubborn resistance. The drafters spelled out in detail the privileges of the prisoners and the restrictions upon the captor nation(s), but evidently could not visualize a situation in which the prisoners would organize and present an active threat to
14896-448: The remaining prisoners of war on Geoje and hoped for the chance to win a bloodless victory. Raven finished his discussions with the leaders of Compound 76 shortly after 14:00 on 7 May and Dodd drove up a few minutes later. As usual they talked with the unlocked gate of the sally port between them and the Communists gave a series of questions concerning items of food and clothing they required. Then, branching into politics, they inquired about
15029-496: The same time the prisoners would be informed that Dodd no longer was in command and could make no decisions. If they refused to surrender, Yount would set a time limit and try to intimidate the Communists, claiming that they would be "held responsible" for Dodd's safety when violence was used against them. As soon as the deadline expired, Yount would attempt to enter the compound by force, release Dodd, and take control. Yount passed Van Fleet's orders on to Colson late on 8 May. Early on
15162-464: The satisfactory declaration to resolve the above items by your command. We will wait for your warm and sincere answer. The Communists' goal was to discredit the screening process and repatriation policy backed so stubbornly by the UN delegation at Panmunjom. A disturbing report from Colson's intelligence officer indicated that the other compounds were ready to stage a mass breakout as soon as he launched his attack and, as if to substantiate this item,
15295-483: The sensitivity of the Communist prisoners to screening intensified. Another instance in which higher headquarters contributed unwittingly to the discontent of the POW camp stemmed from an information and education program instituted in 1951 to keep the prisoners occupied profitably. By far the greater portion of the education program aimed at assisting the prisoners in developing vocational and technical skills to help them after their release. The Communists readily accepted
15428-660: The short form Cháoyǔ has normally been used to refer to the standard language of North Korea and Yanbian , whereas Hánguóyǔ or the short form Hányǔ is used to refer to the standard language of South Korea. Korean is a member of the Koreanic family along with the Jeju language . Some linguists have included it in the Altaic family, but the core Altaic proposal itself has lost most of its prior support. The Khitan language has several vocabulary items similar to Korean that are not found in other Mongolian or Tungusic languages, suggesting
15561-470: The situation. A major uprising would mean violence and unfavorable publicity that would be useful to China and North Korea. Dodd's actions in Compound 76 complemented this desire to localize the incident. As the Communist representatives met on the night of 7 May, Dodd urged that no troops be employed to get him since he did not think he would be harmed. Dodd's plea coincided with the wishes of Yount and Van Fleet at this point. Craig agreed to remain passive. On
15694-574: The store?' Response 예/네. ye/ne AFF Geneva Convention of 1949 The Third Geneva Convention , relative to the treatment of prisoners of war , is one of the four treaties of the Geneva Conventions . The Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War was first adopted in 1929, but significantly revised at the 1949 conference. It defines humanitarian protections for prisoners of war. There are 196 state parties to
15827-447: The suggestion of U. Alexis Johnson (Deputy Secretary of State for East Asia), it was planned to check whether the prisoners were willing to return home, without making any specific promises to those who wanted to stay in the "free South". This screening began on 11 April 1952. By 19 April, over 106,000 prisoners had been interviewed by armed interrogation teams in 22 sections of the camp. The latter were usually handcuffed and beaten during
15960-901: The surprise Inchon landings on 15 September 1950 and the follow-up Eighth Army breakout from the Pusan Perimeter , the North Korean Korean People's Army (KPA) began to retreat north pursued by UN forces in the UN September 1950 counteroffensive . Large numbers of KPA were taken prisoner in the swift maneuver and sent to the rear. The number of prisoners rose from under 1,000 in August 1950 to over 130,000 in November. Unfortunately, little provision had been made for so many prisoners and facilities to confine, clothe and feed them were not available. In addition, there were not enough men on hand to guard
16093-440: The teams to enter. In the end, it was claimed that only about 70,000 of the 170,000 military and civilian prisoners consented to go back to North Korea or China voluntarily. The North Koreans and Chinese were indignant, having been led to expect that a much higher percentage of repatriates would be turned up by the screening. Negotiations at Panmunjom again came to a standstill and the North Korean and Chinese renewed their attack upon
16226-441: The tense fricative and all the affricates as well. At the end of a syllable, /s/ changes to /t/ (example: beoseot ( 버섯 ) 'mushroom'). /h/ may become a bilabial [ɸ] before [o] or [u] , a palatal [ç] before [j] or [i] , a velar [x] before [ɯ] , a voiced [ɦ] between voiced sounds, and a [h] elsewhere. /p, t, t͡ɕ, k/ become voiced [b, d, d͡ʑ, ɡ] between voiced sounds. /m, n/ frequently denasalize at
16359-494: The translator available to Colson was not particularly quick or accurate. Colson did not initiate violence and answered as follows: 1. With reference to your item 1 of that message, I am forced to tell you that we are not and have not committed any of the offenses which you allege. I can assure you that we will continue in that policy and the prisoners of war can expect humane treatment in this camp. 2. Reference your item two regarding voluntary repatriation of NKPA and CPVA PW, that
16492-413: The trial proceeded, Colson had the 38th Infantry Regiment reinforce the guards on all the compounds and had automatic weapons set up in pairs at strategic locations. He directed Lieutenant colonel William J. Kernan, commanding officer of the 38th, to prepare a plan for violent entry into Compound 76, using tanks, flamethrowers, armored cars, .50-caliber multiple mounts, tear gas, riot guns, and the like, with
16625-400: The truce negotiations. First, they attempted to invite Dodd and Raven to come inside and sit down so that they could carry on the discussion in a more comfortable atmosphere. Raven turned down these suggestions bluntly since he himself had previously been seized and held. More prisoners had meanwhile gathered in the sally port and Dodd permitted them to approach and listen to the conversation. In
16758-464: The underlying, partly historical morphology . Given this, it is sometimes hard to tell which actual phonemes are present in a certain word. The traditional prohibition of word-initial /ɾ/ became a morphological rule called "initial law" ( 두음법칙 ) in the pronunciation standards of South Korea, which pertains to Sino-Korean vocabulary. Such words retain their word-initial /ɾ/ in the pronunciation standards of North Korea. For example, ^NOTE ㅏ
16891-429: The villages near the compound were deserted. Colson was willing to recognize the POW association, but had no jurisdiction over the problem of repatriation. If Yount could get authority to renounce nominal screening, Colson thought he could come to an agreement with the prisoners. Mood felt that nominal screening could be dropped and gave his approval to Yount to go ahead. The Communists wanted Colson's answer in writing, but
17024-411: The whole concept of screening. In view of the close connection between the enemy truce delegates and the POW camps, it was not surprising that the agitation of the North Korean and Chinese over the unfavorable implications of the UN screening should communicate itself quickly to the loyal Communist compounds. During the interviewing period, Van Fleet had informed Ridgway that he was segregating and removing
17157-480: Was an especially important point. Civilian internees could be considered an internal affair of the South Korean Government and outside the purview of the truce conference. But North Korean protests at Panmunjom were not the only results of the battle of Compound 62. On 20 February Van Fleet appointed Brigadier-General Francis Dodd as commandant of the camp to tighten up discipline, and the following week Van Fleet received some new instructions from Tokyo: In regard to
17290-454: Was evident that the proceedings would not finish that night and Dodd phoned Colson asking for an extension until noon the next day. He was convinced that the Communists would keep their promise to let him go as soon as the meeting finished. But Eighth Army refused to alter the 10:00 deadline. The Communists clarified that they had intended to conduct meetings for ten days, but in the light of the UN stand they would attempt to complete their work in
17423-487: Was first introduced to Korea in the 1st century BC, and remained the medium of formal writing and government until the late 19th century. Korean scholars adapted Chinese characters (known in Korean as Hanja ) to write their own language, creating scripts known as idu , hyangchal , gugyeol , and gakpil. These systems were cumbersome, due to the fundamental disparities between the Korean and Chinese languages, and accessible only to those educated in classical Chinese. Most of
17556-434: Was over the prisoner-camp situation. There was no cause for "undue anxiety" about Geoje, he told Ridgway on 5 May. Actually, Eighth Army officers admitted freely that UN authorities could not enter the compounds, inspect sanitation, supervise medical support, or work the Communists prisoners as they desired. They exercised an external control only, in that UN security forces did prevent the prisoners from escaping. Thus, on 7 May
17689-409: Was up to the Communists. It did not take long for the Communist prisoners to act. As investigation later revealed, they had become familiar with the habits of General Francis Dodd , the camp commandant, during the spring and by the beginning of May they had readied a plan. Well aware that Dodd was anxious to lessen the tension in the camp, they also knew that he often went unarmed to the sally ports of
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